HIWD 370
Annotated Bibliography Assignment
Topic: The Impact of War/Conflict on Children in Africa
Sarah Paris
August 03, 2022
1. Angucia, Margaret. “Children and War in Africa: The Crisis Continues In Northern Uganda” in
International Journal on World Peace, Vol. 26, No.3 Vadnais Heights: Paragon House .
(September 2009). 77-95 https://www.jstor.org/stable/20752896
The author of this article discusses how the phenomenon of the use of child soldiers has
increased in Africa, particularly in northern Uganda, as the type of conflict they experience has
changed in recent years. The author then argues that the issues and repercussions these
children face as a result of being directly involved in such conflicts do not go away once the
conflict is over but have lingering effects as the children grow into adults.
To support this thesis, the author looks to the history of children’s involvement in warfare; a
history that is extensive. Margaret Angucia references academic research done following
conflicts in Liberia and South Africa, as well as humanitarian efforts spearheaded by UNICEF.
Angucia also supports her research through personal experience and knowledge she gained by
spending time in Uganda evaluating “war-affected children”.
This article fits into topics discussed during week four of this course in that it discusses the
effects of war on a particular demographic, i.e., children. It is especially connected to the video
entitled “South Sudan: Devastating Impact of War on Children’s Mental Health” but takes the
issue further into exploring what happens when children go from being civilians to active
participants in their country’s conflict, whether their parents have fled the country or not.
2. Bower, Carol. “The Plight of Women and Children: Advancing South Africa’s Least Privileged” in
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 652. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications Inc, (March 2014). 106-126 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24541719
The author of this article argues that the progress towards equal rights for women and children
in South Africa has been far too slow since 1994, when Nelson Mandela was president, and
the first democratic election took place. Gender-based violence and abuse still take place in
South Africa at nearly the same level as prior to the election. Additionally, this author
discusses how the HIV/AIDS crisis in South Africa disproportionately affects women and
children, and how the country has failed to provide suitable jobs to allow women to be self-
sufficient. Children are often involved in the gender-based violence brought against their
mothers and are thus raised in a culture of conflict that takes a toll on their physical and mental
health.
The author uses South African census information to explain the disparity in leadership and
job opportunities. The author also explores the prevailing culture of South Africa, looking into
its deeply patriarchal roots and how the current president conducts business both in the public
HIWD 370
sector and privately. Carol Bower uses information provided by Community Information,
Empowerment and Transparency (CIET) Africa, the Medical Research Council (MRC), the
Triangle Project (LGBTI), South African Police Services (SAPS), the World Health
Organization (WHO), the Department of Justice, and People Opposing Woman Abuse
(POWA), as well as other organizations who have worked and studied the situation in South
Africa, to back up her thesis.
One of the statistics Bower uses is that nearly 67% of children are living in poverty in South
Africa, leaving them highly vulnerable to exploitation and unsafe situations. This vulnerability
is exacerbated when their mother is being abused or has contracted the HIV/AIDS virus.
Because South Africa is a highly patriarchal society, the children are raised almost exclusively
by the mother, so when the mother is vulnerable, the children are vulnerable. This fits into the
class topic on war and peace because the current situation puts women and children in harm’s
way during conflict, both interstate and intrastate, and are in greatest need of outside
intervention to protect their physical and mental safety. However, when growing up
witnessing the type of violence that is being committed against their mothers, children’s minds
are molded to be in constant survival mode, as if they were facing war every day of their lives.
3. Kaminer, Debra and Eagle, Gillian. “Trauma and Children” in Traumatic Stress in South Africa.
Johannesburg: Wits University Press, (2010). 122-145
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.18772/22010105096.9
The authors of this chapter argue that children are more susceptible to trauma because their
minds, bodies, brains, and emotions are not fully developed, and this is particularly true in
areas such as South Africa where abuse, conflict, and other traumatizing events are rampant.
They discuss how such trauma taking place in childhood carries negative repercussions into
adolescence and adulthood, making it increasingly likely that the cycle of abuse and conflict
will continue. They also look at how direct trauma affects a child as opposed to indirect
trauma, and to what extent these levels increase during times of war, genocide, or
displacement.
The authors support their thesis through examination of normal developmental patterns in
non-traumatized children and then comparing those patterns to child who have been through
traumatic events or display trauma responses for one reason or another. They made use of
surveys done in South Africa as to the exact percentages of children witnessing traumatic
events such as violent attacks using weapons, threats, or death. One of the sources they use to
back up their thesis is a work done by Lenore Terr, a trauma theorist, entitled “Childhood
Traumas: An Outline and Overview”
Trauma responses and PTSD are major components of war-ravaged countries, particularly
when mass displacement occurs. These countries have very little hope for a recovered future if
trauma suffered by children is not addressed and dealt with correctly. When the needs of these
children are not handled, more conflict and more traumas are all but inevitable. This ties to the
subject material in week four by examining the ramifications war has on civilians. In this
HIWD 370
situation, civilians, namely children, are directly harmed by a war or conflict that they had
nothing to do with.
4. Klasen, Fiona; Daniels, Judith; Oettingen, Gabriele; Post, Manuela; Hoyer, Catrin; and Adam,
Hubertus. “Posttraumatic Resilience in Former Ugandan Child Soldiers” in Child
Development, Vol. 81, No. 4. Hoboken: Wiley Publishing Company (July/August 2010) 1096-
1113. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801462
The thesis that the authors of this article discuss is that a child is less likely to develop PTSD
following a traumatic event if that child has not been subject to domestic violence or abuse
prior to the traumatic event. Particularly in the case of child soldiers, who have been asked to
perform atrocities beyond what most adults are able to handle, post-traumatic stress is often
accompanied by further mental and emotional disorders.
The authors of this article interviewed 330 former child soldiers from Uganda to gain insight
into the particulars of their subject. They combined information obtained from these
interviews with research performed by UNICEF. They look at solutions for the problems
discussed proposed by the Complex Trauma Task Force of the National Child Traumatic
Stress Network.
In the effort to prevent war, as discussed in week four in the video “Is War Over? -A Paradox
Explained”, it is important to understand how to recover from wars that have already
happened. A large part of this is understanding the impact war has on the mental, physical, and
emotional health of those involved, especially the children that are impacted either directly, as
in the case of child soldiers, or indirectly as in the case of children who witness the destruction
of their way of life or are displaced because of the conflict. The authors of this article seek to
understand what and why trauma has happened, and then look for ways to prevent it from
happening in the future.
5. Ntarangwi, Mwenda. “Children’s Lives and Children’s Voices: An Exploration of Popular Music’s
Representation of Children in East Africa” in Engaging Children and Youth in Africa.
Bamenda: Langaa RPCIG, (2015). 137-168. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh9vvb6.7
The author of this article, Mwenda Ntarangwi, chooses to look at childhood in Africa
differently than does the majority of authors and aid workers while simultaneously
considering the vulnerability that African children are subjected to and the dangers they face
on a daily basis, especially when poverty and conflict are involved. The author seeks to
explore how changing society’s view of African children as “objects” to be pitied and “saved”
to one where the children have more say and more control over “their own representation”
HIWD 370
may give them more power and autonomy over their own lives, even going so far as to
decrease their vulnerability.
Ntarangwi explores the work of different anthropologists, such as Allison James, Ruth
Benedict, and Margaret Mead, in discovering how the popular view of children in Africa
changes the way they conduct themselves when around adults. Adhering to the popular beliefs
that music is an effective tool for expression and mental health services, Ntarangwi explores
how by promoting children’s involvement in music, they may gain confidence and greater
autonomy. The author explores data collected by the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child, the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa
(CODESRIA), and the Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and southern
Africa (OSSREA).
By granting children more responsibility over their own identities and representation, they
may be handed greater and stronger tools of survival during the times that poverty, abuse, or
war may threaten to overwhelm them. Music has effectively been used in helping children and
adults alike through mental health crises and may prove just as effective for children in Africa
who have been traumatized by either witnessing war or being directly involved in it. These
concepts tie into the subject matter of the class because it is one step closer to finding useful
preventative measures against war. Children make up a large percentage of the African
population and in numerous cases even lead the household. Therefore, it makes sense to take
into consideration their needs and mindsets when discussing how to alleviate poverty and
conflict on the continent of Africa.
6. Osofsky, Joy D. “The Impact of Violence on Children” in The Future of Children, Vol. 9, No. 3.
Princeton: Princeton University (1999). 33-49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1602780
Joy D. Osofsky uses this article to discuss the impact different kinds of violence may have on
children, and how exposure to domestic violence in particular may change their reactions to
other types of violence. Furthermore, she seeks to explain how a parent may be incapable of
protecting their children from witnessing and being affected by violence if they themselves
have been exposed to violence in their life and have not adequately recovered from it.
The author explores data provided by the National Summary of Injury Mortality Data, the
Ameri an Psychiatric Association, police statistics, and interviews with parents and children
who have been exposed to various forms of violence at differing ages to discover how the
impact changes depending on age. She also explores how community involvement may
impact aid in the recovery of children and adults suffering from mental conditions such as
PTSD after witnessing a violent event, or a string of violent events.
While the author does look at statistics pertaining to the United States and other Western
nations, she discusses how the statistics are compounded in developing countries and active
war zones, such as those found in Africa and the Middle East. Children are children and the
HIWD 370
impact of violence is the same regardless of what country they grow up in. This fits into this
class’s study by bringing into perspective the overwhelming trauma that children who grow up
where active conflict is taking place face, such as in Africa. War undoubtedly has a negative
impact on the mental health of children and as conflicts and civil wars continue, the problem
continues to get worse. It is therefore imperative to study the information that has been
provided, discovering what has been effective and what has not.
7. Shah, Abhinav A. and Beinecke, Richard H. “Global Mental Health Needs, Services, Barriers, and
Challenges” in International Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 38, No. 1, Milton Park: Taylor &
Francis, Ltd (2009). 14-29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41345271
The authors of this article in the International Journal of Mental Health argue that mental
health problems carry huge problems for society, leading to various disabilities, and may be
compounded by other issues such as war, stigmas, and other human rights violations. They
also look at the disparity between the care provided in wealthier countries as opposed to
developing countries, and how this disparity may correlate to the presence of triggering
events, such as civil conflict or migration.
The authors of this article are professionals in their fields and have done large amounts of
research on this subject both in the United States and around the world. They provide charts
and graphs displaying the current mental health statistics and what other disorders or diseases
directly correlate to the presence of mental health problems. They also explore information
provided by other leaders in the field.
This article pinpoints the differences between third-world countries and those who have
greater resources, giving a look into why countries in Africa have such a difficult time
overcoming conflict and finding peace. The authors show the vicious cycle of mental illness
and poverty that are directly related to violence and war. This is related to the study material
provided in this course by looking at the underlying reasons that war is present in developing
nations and why even small civil conflicts can have devastating impacts on the country and its
people, the children in particular.
8. Skinner, Elliott P. “Child Soldiers in Africa: A Disaster For Future Families” in International
Journal on World Peace, Vol. 16, No. 2. St. Paul: Paragon House (June 1999). 7-22.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20753202
Elliott P. Skinner discusses the difficulty child soldiers have in reintegrating into society and
the inability of radicalized children to later grow up and raise healthy families or engage in
society in a way that leads to a healthy future. This also leads to an inability to recognize
healthy governments from militarized regimes.
Skinner takes information gathered from Human Rights Watch, UNICEF, individual
international advocates for children’s rights, and eyewitness accounts to back up his thesis. He
HIWD 370
explores what is known to have happened at the hands of rebel groups from various countries
such as the RUF of Sierra Leone, the Lord’s Resistance Army of Uganda, and the Sudan
People’s Liberation Army.
This article continues the discussion on warfare and the various tactics that may be used,
which fits with Module Four’s discussion of war and peace. Different countries and cultures
have different ways they conduct war, and this article discusses the rebel movements that are
widely used throughout Africa. Unfortunately, with these movements comes the prevalent use
of child soldiers, which creates a mental health crisis in the countries in which this practice is
used, making peace very difficult to achieve.
9. Thompson, Carol B. “Beyond Civil Society: Child Soldiers as Citizens in Mozambique” in Review
of African Political Economy, Vol. 26, No. 80. Milton Park: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. (June
1999) 191-206. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006559
This article seeks to discuss the specifics of why children are used as soldiers, exploring the
practical, social, political, and economic reasons behind their militarization. Carol B.
Thompson points out that the current reasonings behind such events are unsatisfactory, as they
clearly have done little to nothing to stop the practice of child soldiers. She states that the use
of child soldiers has devastating ripple effects on the community, families, and government,
not to mention the individual children who make it out of the conflict alive. There has been
relative success in these areas in the country of Mozambique, and Thompson seeks to explain
what is being done differently.
Carol B. Thompson uses statements by the UN Deputy High Commissioner for Refugees,
Sergio Viera de Mello, documentation from Mozambique’s rebel army, Renamo, statistics and
study from UNICEF and Human Rights Watch. A professional on the subject herself,
Thompson looks into statements from individuals involved in the reintegration of child
soldiers in Mozambique and studies the political, social, and economic history of the country
compared to the advances that have been made in current years.
One of the statistics used in this article is that 90% of casualties of war in Mozambique are
civilians, many of which are children. This obviously violates the ethical code of war as
discussed in Module Four of this course. This article discusses the specifics of civil conflict in
Mozambique and the specific ways the country strives for peace, taking steps to make war and
civil conflict a thing of the past.
10. Zack-Williams, A.B. “Child Soldiers in the Civil War in Sierra Leone” in Review of African
Political Economy, Vol. 28, No. 87. Milton Park: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. (March 2001). 73-82
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006694
HIWD 370
Zack-Williams discusses in this article how children come to be involved in conflict and social
movements geared specifically to dismantling an authoritarian government. The author looks
into how groups like the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone are able to entice
children into recruitment, the role the family has in a child’s development and how the abuse
of children has led to the current state, and why children have voluntarily (whether they
understand the implications or not) chosen to join combatant forces.
Zack-Williams focuses specifically on the civil conflict in Sierra Leone between the
government and the RUF rebel forces, examining statements by RUF members and children
who have been directly involved in the conflict, as well as how the rise in “street children” has
negatively impacted the family dynamic and mindset of the youth of Sierra Leone. By
discussing statistics and information provided by UNICEF, P. Richards’ book “Fighting for the
rain Forest: War Youth & Resources in Sierra Leone”, and other academic studies focused on
Sierra Leone and children’s involvement in conflict.
In the video “Rules of War (In a Nutshell)”, basic guidelines for how war should be ethically
conducted are discussed. One of the main guidelines is that civilians should not be targeted,
but in a civil conflict spurred by rebel forces such as the RUF in Sierra Leone, civilians are the
ones who pay the highest price. Perhaps because the RUF is not bound by international laws
of war, they are able to use tactics to recruit soldiers that they would not be able to use under
other circumstances. Unfortunately, these tactics lead to traumatized children who are unable
to navigate adulthood in a way that prevents these types of conflicts from being repeated.
