Overview of Theories on Exercise Behavior
Many theories have been applied to understand human behavior in relation to exercise
or physical activity. Biddle (2008) categorized theories related to physical activity
behavior into five key frameworks as per Figure 1. The most frequently used theories in
the exercise domain are belief-attitude theories, control-based theories, competence-
based theories and decision-making or stage-based theories (Downs, 2005). There is
no clear-cut division of the theories above but the framework shown in Figure 1 may
assist researchers to conduct studies on behaviour related to physical activity (Biddle &
Mutrie, 2008) Among the theories, belief-attitude approaches have been the most
influential in understanding physical activity behaviour (Hagger, 2000a). These
approaches gained popularity in social psychology due to the premise that intention
could predict behaviour (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). Some examples of belief-attitude
based theories are Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and
(TPB; Ajzen, 1991).
The social cognitive perspective was favoured for studying individual motivation in
exercising (Biddle, 2000a). The most widely studied theory under the competency-
based framework was Self-Efficacy Theory (Biddle, 2000b). The research literature
includes numerous references to the fact that changes in physical activity behaviour
are thought to be associated with personal control of our lifestyles (Biddle, 2000a).
Many countries are now suffering from lifestyle-related diseases and it is implicitly
indicated that each individual is responsible for their health and well-being (Biddle,
2000a).
Studies into physical activity using control-based theories considered that people are
interested in achievements, such as goals and competence (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008). It
is suggested that people who do not exercise lack motivation, for example they are not
sufficiently interested or have other competing demands (Teixeira, et. al., 2012). An
example of commonly used control-based approaches is Self-Determination Theory
(Deci & Ryan, 1985).
The most well-known stage-based model is the Transtheoretical Model by Prochaska
and DiClemente (1984). The Transtheoretical Model was developed to explain and help
smoking addiction and drug abuse (Biddle, 2000). However, recently it was also used
to understand readiness to begin physical activity (Biddle, 2000a). Recent research has
combined stage-based models, such as the Transtheoretical Model, and continuous
models, such as TPB. The Health-Action-Process-Approach (HAPA) is a model that
explicitly integrates a continuous and a stage-based model and thereby produced a
hybrid model.
The three most frequently used and cited theories in the exercise domain are TPB,
Self-Efficacy Theory and the Transtheoretical Model (Biddle & Nigg, 2000).
Furthermore, among the theories applied to understanding the multidimensional
determinants of physical activity, TPB is one of the most comprehensive and validated
theories in the exercise domain (Downs & Hausenblas, 2005b).
It is appreciated that a complex behaviour, such as physical activity, is a multifaceted
phenomenon with multiple levels of influences (Buchan, Ollis, Thomas, & Baker, 2012).
TPB is identified as an efficacious social cognitive theoretical framework that explains
people’s physical activity behaviour (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, & Biddle, 2002; Rhodes,
Jones, & Courneya, 2002) and it has been used extensively to understand adoption,
motivation and adherence to physical activity (Buchan et al., 2012). Meta-analyses and
systematic reviews have consistently supported the predictive power and applicability of
TPB in various health behaviours, particularly physical activity (Armitage & Conner,
2001; Downs & Hausenblas, 2005b; Godin, 1993; Godin & Kok, 1996; Hausenblas,
Carron, & Mack, 1997; McEachan, Conner, Taylor, & Lawton, 2011). In addition, the
TPB has been used in numerous populations and not only in Western countries (Mark
Conner & Sparks, 2005; Plotnikoff, Lubans, Costigan, & McCargar, 2013).
In the exercise domain, there are many examples of studies using TPB conducted with
mainly student or graduate populations (Blanchard et al., 2007; Bozionelos & Bennett,
1999; Brickell, 2006; Chatzisarantis, Frederick, Biddle, Hagger, & Smith, 2007; Hagger,
Chatzisarantis, & Harris, 2006; McEachan et al., 2011; Rhodes & Courneya, 2005;
Scott, Rhodes, & Downs, 2009), among adolescents or teenagers (Hagger et al., 2007;
Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Biddle, Hagger, et al., 2001; Plotnikoff et al., 2013), or in adults
with certain medical conditions, such as diabetes or obesity (Eng & Martin Ginis, 2007;
Hardeman, Kinmonth, Michie, & Sutton, 2009; Hefferon, Murphy, McLeod, Mutrie, &
Campbell, 2013; Plotnikoff et al., 2013). As for studies on community populations using
longitudinal methods, only one study was identified; this examined the ability of TPB to
explain the physical activity behaviour of a cohort of 1,427 Canadian adults between
1988 and 2003 (Plotnikoff, Lubans, Trinh, & Craig, 2012). The study found that both in
1988 and 2003, TPB measures accounted for 29% and 21% of the variance of intention
as well as 9% and 22% of the variance of physical activity behaviour.
Focussing on Malaysia, literature review by the researcher showed only two published
TPB studies on physical activity using the community as their population (Othman,
Yap, & Wee, 2011; Yap & Sabaruddin, 2008). As such, little is known about the
postulated socio-cognitive determinants of physical activity among the community
who have received an intervention from the health authority.
The Ministry of Health Malaysia has carried out various physical activity programmes
including Healthy Lifestyle campaign, Sweat Wednesday, 10,000 Steps, aerobics and
fitballrobic. However, many in Malaysia still do not take up physical activity as shown
in a study where only a third reported they had ever exercised and only 14% of the
population had adequate exercise (Poh et al., 2010). A study using TPB on the
population who had received support from a health authority would contribute to the
improvement of future health promotion programmes.
