Discuss the Role overload/role conflict and Women in other athletic roles
Athletic trainers in the traditional collegiate setting have a demanding role, complicated
by travel obligations, multiple team coverage responsibilities, teaching, student supervision, and
administrative duties (Mazerolle, Pitney, & Eason, 2015c). The average number of hours spent
at work by an athletic trainer (male or female) during in-season sports coverage is 70 hours per
week. This has also been the experience of the researcher. The work demand was 12 to 14-hour
workdays for 25 days straight during fall football camp in August. The staff would get one day
off just before classes started and then go back to 12-hour workdays six days a week and a
minimum of four hours on the seventh day.
Inadequate staffing comes into play significantly with the start of classes. Every athletic
trainer on staff has multiple team responsibilities. In October, winter season sports began, for this
researcher meant having to cover multiple practices and competitions on the same day. This
pushed daily working hours back to over 14-hour days. This expectation of 12 to 14-hour days,
six to seven days a week, lasted from August to May. The months of June and July were the only
months allowed to take vacation time. “In college athletics, as with other corporate settings, the
concepts of work and career trajectories have become institutionalized. For instance, working
excessive hours has commonly translated into a sign of commitment, productivity, and
motivation for advancement” (Bruening & Dixon, 2008). Mazerolle & Eason (2016c) noted that
hours worked and travel for athletic trainers had the most significant adverse effect on work-life
balance (p. 569). Expectations of coaches did not often match the expectations of the athletic
trainer's role (Eason, Mazerolle, & Goodman, 2017). “These conflicting expectations seemed to
stem from a lack of understanding of how the sports medicine department worked” (Eason et al.,
2017).
The pressure to win and the financial incentive attached to success has translated into
increased pressure to work excessive hours and log an obscene number of miles traveled.
For dual-career mothers in athletic training, trying to compete in the pressure of this
male-dominated culture is nearly impossible. This pressure to maintain the high
expectations of work in collegiate athletics results in an absence from the family role and
often has negative consequences for their marriage (Eason et al., 2017).
As stated previously, some of the primary reasons for attrition for mothers in athletic
training are the number of expected hours of work, travel obligations, lack of work-schedule
flexibility, demands & expectations of coaches and administrators, and lack of opportunity for
advancement. The organizational structure of athletic training within the athletics model is the
underlying cause of work-life conflict for athletic trainers (Mazerolle et al., 2015c). Participants
in the Mazerolle et al. (2015c) reported working far more than 40 hours per week, working six to
seven days per week, and limited or non-existent time off. These working conditions are
expected of athletic training staff members; it is part of the culture of athletics and the
institutional organization. The increase in work-life conflict is increasing the rate of burnout
among athletic trainers. Burnout first appeared in the literature in 1970. It was characterized by
three factors: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and decreased personal accomplishment
(Naugle et al., 2013). Athletic trainers experience burnout at an exceptionally high rate due to
prolonged stressors within their job settings, the number of years worked, hours per week
worked, and physical activity levels (Naugle et al., 2013).
Goodman et al. (2010) defined role conflict for mothers in athletic training as
incompatible or inconsistent expectations brought on by NCAA bureaucracy and pressure to
win. In a study of retention and attrition factors for female ATs, conducted by Goodman et al.
(2010), participants often spoke of complex working relationships, unrealistic expectations, and
overall lack of respect from coaches as a contributing factor to role conflict. Burnout for many
athletic trainers, especially mothers in athletic training, is linked to these aspects of role conflict.
A decline in ATs, both male and female, was typically noticed around 30 years of age, indicating
a correlation between role conflict and desire to continue in the profession (Kahanov &
Eberman, 2011). Burnout rates are highest among women and “has been linked to a lack of
personal or family time, lack of control over work schedule, and a large number of work hours”
(Kahanov & Eberman, 2011).
Eason et al. (2017) also defined three additional themes contributing to role conflict for
the certified athletic trainer. These themes are intersender conflict, interrole conflict, and role
ambiguity (Eason et al., 2017). Intersender conflict is the incompatibility of one person's
demands in the role set with another person's demands in that same role (Eason et al., 2017).
Intersender conflict exists because coaches and athletic department personnel lack the general
knowledge of the athletic trainer's role and the profession (Eason et al., 2017). Interrole conflict
happens when an individual position involves multiple roles that deviate and are accompanied by
different expectations (Eason et al., 2017). Interrole conflict occurs when the certified athletic
trainer attempts to balance multiple roles such as academic, clinical, and administrative (Eason et
al., 2017). Finally, role ambiguity is the lack of clear information regarding role expectations, the
method for fulfilling the role expectations, and the consequences of role performance (Eason et
al., 2017).
Goodman et al. (2017) studied the benefits and barriers of the athletic training department
being housed within the athletics department (athletic model of organization). Goodman et al.
(2017) specifically looked at role strain. Role strain is formed from two components, role
conflict and role incongruity (Goodman et al., 2017). Role incongruity was defined as the degree
to which performance expectations for a role are misaligned with the individual’s disposition,
attitudes, self-perception, and values (Goodman et al., 2017). Participants in Goodman et al.
(2017) believed there was a significant misalignment of their role as certified athletic trainers and
the athletic department's overarching goals. Many of the study participants indicated they carried
heavy administrative duties on top of academic and clinical duties. They expressed difficulty in
adequately fulfilling all their responsibilities. Participants also struggled with a lack of staffing
and conflicts with coaches and administrators within the athletics model. “When you look at a
medical model…they understand how many patients a doctor sees…well, maybe if we had help
through the medical model and people who understand seeing patients…we would have better
staffing” (Goodman et al., 2017). Besides, the increased summer workload with NCAA allowed
practices, the work-life balance has been decreased even further, without any additional support
in staffing. This leads to role overload.
Role overload also has a significant impact on the mother in athletic training. “Role
overload is concerned with role expectations exceeding available time and resources” (Goodman
et al., 2010, p. 293). Job demands and limited staff at levels outside of the NCAA DI level
summarize role overload (Mazerolle et al., 2015c). Furthermore, the authors found that role
overload is consistent with high levels of stress and burnout due to long work hours, limited days
off, and understaffing. The evolution of collegiate athletics has become more of a business than
an extracurricular activity (Mazerolle et al., 2015c). Rules have changed drastically over the past
twenty years. Many of these rules pertain to when teams can begin in-season practice, what they
are allowed to do out of season, the number of contact days a coach can have with their athletes,
and rules to ensure that they stay safe. In the opinion of my fellow athletic training colleagues,
these rules have almost negated a true off-season for student-athletes.
To ensure the student-athletes safety, the NCAA made rules requiring medical coverage
for activities in the off-season, which nullifies any downtime that athletic trainers have. “The
NCAA’s rules and policies on student-athlete participation and preparation have evolved over
the years to include longer in-seasons, longer nontraditional seasons, voluntary workouts (e.g.,
captain’s practices), and an emphasis on year-round conditioning” (Goodman et al., 2010). This
has led to increased role overload for athletic trainers. The erosion of the off-season and
mandated athletic training coverage requirement set forth by the NCAA has placed stress on
athletic training staff and increased the work-family conflict for mothers in athletic training.
An often-overlooked factor affecting attrition rates of female athletic trainers comes
because of changes within the educational requirements of the strategic alliance between the
NATA, Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education (CAATE), Board of
Certification (BOC), and the National Athletic Trainers Association Research Foundation
(NATARF). Educational processes and certification standards have evolved dramatically over
the past two decades. Many of the decisions of CAATE were driven by adverse outcomes of
athletic healthcare and the legal action that ensued. Students can no longer practice their athletic
training skills without the presence of a certified athletic trainer. This includes travel, practice,
and event coverage. CAATE has also placed a limit on the number of hours students can work a
week and now require all athletic training students to obtain a Master of Athletic Training
before they can sit for their certification exam. These processes have resulted in a “disconnect
between perceived job responsibilities and actual professional expectations” (Kahanov &
Eberman, 2011). “To maximize their educational opportunities with patients, students might not
be socialized into the reality of the everyday work experience, such as downtime, insurance
processing, paperwork, inventory, administrative duties, or coach and physician conferences”
(Kahanov & Eberman, 2011).
Role strain, role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, a familiar pattern is developing.
“Managing administrative or teaching roles; a demanding patient care load; and practice,
conditioning, events and games, and travel responsibilities can weigh on athletic trainers”
(Goodman et al., 2017). Work-life balance is an issue not only for certified athletic trainers.
Mazerolle et al. (2012) state that Americans work longer and experience more work-family
conflict than other industrialized countries. Work-family conflict does not discriminate amongst
economic levels; it affects all job levels, especially health professionals (Mazerolle et al., 2012).
Support networks.
Mothers in athletic training indicated strong support networks as the primary reason for
their success in maintaining work-life balance. These support networks came in the form of their
spouse/partner and their administration and certified athletic training coworkers. This section
will focus solely on the effect that administrative support has on mothers in athletic training.
The administration establishes the workplace environment. They can write and promote
policies that enable a family-friendly atmosphere and help employees with work-life balance.
Organizations that try to support their employees' work-life by offering programs like flexible
scheduling, on-site childcare, fitness facilities/memberships, and paid time off (PTO) have a
positive effect on work-life satisfaction and retention of employees. “A supervisor who shares
the same personal and family philosophy as his or her staff has been discussed as helpful in the
pursuit of work-life balance for ATs employed in the rehabilitation setting” (Mazerolle et al.,
2015b). The amount of supervisory support in an organization can heavily influence overall job
satisfaction, commitment, and intent to stay (Goodman et al., 2010). Conversely, a lack of
organizational support, specifically due to administrator and coach conflict, was a subtheme of
role conflict and role overload and ultimately contributed to athletic trainers' attrition (Goodman
et al., 2010).
Mazerolle et al. (2015c) explored work-life conflict for athletic trainers outside of the
NCAA DI setting. They identified the relationships between supervisors and coworkers as
facilitators to work-life balance (p. 754). Support was received from the supervisor by allowing
the athletic trainer to provide flexibility and independence over scheduling, setting of contract
lengths, and job sharing. “Supervisors are often described as the gatekeepers of helping
employees find work-life balance, as they need to support, endorse, and at times model these
practices of work and life initiatives” (Mazerolle et al., 2015c, p 757). Supervisors should
respond to the demands placed on employees with understanding and sensitivity, demonstrating
a family-values system and value their employees beyond their work roles.
In Part Three of their study on benefits and barriers in the academic and medical model,
Eason et al. (2017) described organizational infrastructure as the collection of policies and
procedures in an organization that defines the duties, roles, and responsibilities of the
employees.
An organization's culture is the direct influence of the leaders; these leaders must establish a
clear vision for their employees. In Part Two of the same study, Eason et al., 2017 discussed
trust relationships. A trust relationship involved respectful interaction and fair treatment between
members of an organization. “Trust relationship not only enabled cooperation among
organizational members and patients but also affected the intrinsic motivation of health workers”
(Eason et al., 2017).
Communication and cooperation are critical factors in supporting a healthy work-life
balance in athletic training. Many athletic trainers feel they cannot step away from their team
obligations because of the intimate knowledge they have of the athletes and their sport demands
and injuries. This contributes to a negative work-life balance. Encouraging an atmosphere of
cooperation can help alleviate some of the stress of needing to be present at all times. “The
creation of a group of staff members working toward the same goals and supporting one
another was viewed as a means to gain work-life balance in the collegiate setting” (Mazerolle et
al., 2015b, p 86). Encouragement of activities outside of the workplace has a positive effect on
preventing burnout in mothers in athletic training. “Prioritizing personal time has been cited
consistently in the literature as crucial for ATs to take care of themselves, their families, or both
if necessary” (Mazerolle et al., 2015b, p 86).
Women in other athletic roles
Women in the workforce face multiple realities that are starkly different than those faced
by men. Inglis et al. (2000) researched women's realities in collegiate athletics' coaching and
administrative ranks. Title IX has given women the ability to have equal opportunities in
athletics and education; while opportunities grow, women's opportunities to achieve paid roles in
sports diminish (Inglis et al., 2000). Female coaches choose to leave their positions for the same
reasons as female athletic trainers. They cite burnout, time/family commitments, discrimination,
and lack of administrative support as factors for attrition (Inglis et al., 2000).
Many women in both coaching and administrative areas allocations of workload appear to be
equitable with their male counterparts when the distribution allows men more time and
responsibility in administration while women must spread themselves between coaching,
teaching, and administrative roles. “Men end up taking more of the power in decision-making,
thus creating the second problem of the perception and the reality that men are more important”
(Inglis et al., 2000). Research participants also routinely experienced harassment: this harassment
originated from staff and athletes within the athletics department. Participants als were made to
feel that any gender issues were their problem and did not reflect or affect the department. It was
the responsibility of the woman to raise and find a solution for any gender- related issue. The
authors identified this as a silencing technique (Inglis et al., 2000).
“In the United States, sport is a popular cultural practice upon which dominant ideologies
are constructed, maintained, and reproduced” (Kamphoff, 2010). Former female coaches were
interviewed by Kamphoff (2010) regarding their decision to leave collegiate coaching. The
interviews revealed some disturbing themes leading to their attrition (Kamphoff, 2010). These
included the devaluation of girls and women in sport, isolation, gender-related bias, marital
status and personal support system, homophobia, and having credibility questioned because of
their gender (Kamphoff, 2010). This gender disparity created five subthemes: lack of adequate
resources, compensation and duties, lack of administrative support, negotiations and gender
hierarchy, and women as caretakers (Kamphoff, 2010). All participants in the study discussed
the privilege that men and male sports receive in collegiate athletics. Men received more
resources and funding, yet women were judged at the same standard. Overall, the perception was
that a good coach is a man (Kamphoff, 2010).
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