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HISTORICAL TOPIC ANALYSIS ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
OVERVIEW
The purpose of the Historical Topic Analysis Assignment is to evaluate historical events, topics, and trends and
their related causes and effects, especially on the field of education. The topic will also be addressed from a
Biblical worldview perspective integrating current course materials and peer-reviewed journal articles.
Candidates are encouraged to explore from a historical perspective a topic they anticipate might relate to their
future capstone or dissertation project. Candidates research and conduct the analysis, they demonstrate
knowledge of educational ideas of the past, consider the relevance of the topic, analyze the topic in light of their
own educational beliefs, and critically analyze related actions and beliefs.
INSTRUCTIONS
This paper is based on the topic, research question, and preliminary thesis statement you submitted in previous
assignments and should be in APA format (see the APA Format Quick Guide).
Length: This paper is to be at least 1,300 words in length from the introductory paragraph to the conclusion.
This does not count the title page, abstract, or reference pages.
Citations and References: Cite at least five sources throughout the paper and list them on the reference page. Of
the five sources, one of them is required to be the course textbook. You may incorporate articles from your
Annotated Bibliography Assignment and other course assignments as appropriate. Other sources may include
course videos, academic journal articles, books, and textbooks from other courses.
Structure: You have a great deal of latitude in how the paper is structured, but it should follow a logical
progression of thought and the guidelines below. See the Historical Topic Analysis Grading Rubric for
required elements.
1. Title Page
Pagination: In APA, all pages are numbered. The title page should be page 1.
Title: The title should not be the name of the assignment (i.e., Historical Topic Analysis). It should be a
phrase drawn from the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph. It should provide the reader a hint
of the topic and the main idea supported throughout the paper and may be phrased in a clever, unique
fashion. The first letter of all words should be capitalized except for articles (e.g. a, an, the), conjunctions
(e.g., and, but), and short prepositions (e.g., of, about), unless they appear as the first word, which is
always capitalized. Center and bold your title and position it near the middle of the page or slightly above
the middle.
Other Information on Title Page: Position the items below in the bottom third of the page.
o Candidate Name
o Course#
o University Name
o Date
2. Abstract: The heading of the abstract should be centered and in bold font.
Place the abstract at the top of a page by itself after the title page.
Do not indent the first line.
The abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper. It should present the main
ideas and main conclusions/implications. Including the main ideas and conclusions in the abstract is much
more important than a simple outline of the structure or headings.
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3. Introduction: Do not use the word “Introduction” as a heading for this section.
The purpose of the introductory paragraph is different from that of the abstract. Do not simply copy the
abstract.
In this section, introduce your thesis statement that will be developed throughout the paper. It is the main
idea you are presenting. Save other supporting ideas for the body of the manuscript. Do not overload the
introductory paragraph with too many concepts that distract from the key point of the thesis statement.
It is best to place the thesis statement at the end of the introductory paragraph. It is typically one or two
sentences that serve as a transition into the rest of the paper. Some writers choose to place it as the first
sentence of the introduction. Either option is acceptable as long as the introduction is well written and has
a logical progression of thought.
4. Summary and Context: Centered in bold with all major words capitalized, enter the first Level 1 heading of
your paper. (Level 2 headings are unnecessary for this short of a paper.) Use the words “Summary and
Context.”
This brief section describes and/or summarizes the topic you have chosen so the reader understands the
setting in which the topic developed. This is a succinct presentation of events or circumstances that may
have influenced the topic.
Include transitions that build a logical progression from the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph
into the topic and its historical context.
5. Critical Analysis: This Level 1 heading should be formatted the same as the previous one. Use the words
“Critical Analysis.” This section should reflect various perspectives about the topic, including a Biblical
worldview lens.
6. Conclusion: Use the same Level 1 formatting as you have done with your other headings above and enter the
word “Conclusion” in centered, bold font. Although your conclusion should include concepts from the thesis
statement in the introduction and should have some alignment with the title of the paper, you should not
simply restate the thesis statement. Wrap up the paper by emphasizing your main idea and draw a clear
conclusion. Typically, a good conclusion does not introduce new information. The conclusion is where you
are to discuss implications about what you have already shared and relate ideas to current educational issues.
7. References: Starting at the top of the next page after the end of the manuscript, center in bold font the
heading “References.”
Double space everything throughout your paper, including the reference page. Do not insert additional
extra lines/spaces.
Using a hanging indent, which means that the first line of every reference is left-justified with all other
lines of the reference indented.
Follow the format below for books. Only initials are used for the author’s first and middle names. See the
APA manual for examples of multiple authors, editors, etc.
Authorlastname, A. B. (2019). Book title in italics with only the first word and proper nouns, like Christian,
capitalized: If there is a subtitle, the first word is capitalized. Publisher.
Follow the format below for journal articles. Both the journal title and the volume number are italicized.
There is no space between the volume and issue numbers. (Sometimes, the source provides no issue
number. If that is the case, simply place a comma after the italicized volume number.) Page number are
last without “p.” or “pg.” before them.
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Authorlastname, A. B. (2019). Article title in regular font with only the first word and proper nouns, like
European, capitalized: Subtitles may or may not be used. Journal Titles Capitalize All Major Words
Except for the Articles, Conjunctions, and Short Prepositions, 15(2), 41-50.
Regarding APA format for citing the Bible, see Religious Work References on the APA website. The
Bible should be in addition to other required references.
Miscellaneous Tips
First Person Pronouns: Per the APA manual, first person pronouns are permitted. However, they should rarely
be used and are intended only for conveying an incident about your life story (e.g., “I was born into poverty”) or
explaining the actions you took as a researcher (e.g., “I conducted focus groups with participants.”) A good writer
makes strong declarative statements in third-person plural (e.g., teachers, parents, leaders, etc.) in terms of
“ought” and “should” rather than overusing redundant statements such as “I believe that,” “I think that,” “to me,”
“for me,” etc. Almost always, sentences are strengthened by simply omitting references to self.
It is considered poor writing to refer to yourself in third person (e.g., “this author”). It also may confuse the
reader because there are typically multiple authors being discussed within a manuscript.
Academic Integrity: This paper will be screened by plagiarism-checking software, which reports to the
professor the degree to which your paper is similar to other works. The following tips will help you avoid issues
with plagiarism:
Direct Quotes: No more than 10% of your paper should be made up of direct quotes. Therefore, do more
summarizing and paraphrasing than quoting. Short quotes should be in quotation marks and longer quotes
of 40-words or more should be indented. If you do not set off direct quotes in this manner and/or do not
cite them, it is plagiarism.
Ideas and Facts: If the idea or fact is not your own, you must cite its source. When not directly quoting,
summarize or analyze the idea in your own words.
Note: Your assignment will be checked for originality via an online plagiarism tool.
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HISTORICAL TOPIC ANALYSIS GRADING RUBRIC
Criteria
Levels of Achievement
Content 80%
Advanced
Proficient
Developing
Not
Present
Points
Earned
Coherence:
Introduction,
Thesis Statement,
Conclusion
20%
28-30 points
Title, abstract, introduction, thesis
statement, and conclusion are
well-constructed, are coherently
aligned, and are supported
throughout the body of the paper.
25-27 points
A thesis statement is
introduced, aligns with the title
and body of the paper, and is
affirmed in the conclusion.
1-24 points
The thesis statement is poorly
introduced and concluded, is vaguely
stated, and/or does not align with the
title and/or body of the paper.
0 points
Not
present
Body of the
Manuscript
60%
83-90 points
The topic is clearly summarized
and historically contextualized.
Various perspectives provide a
critical analysis, including a
Biblical worldview lens.
76-82 points
The topic is summarized. It is
analyzed through a single
perspective.
1-75 points
The summary fails to convey the
significance of the topic and/or does
not provide historical context.
Opposing perspectives are not
addressed.
0 points
Not
present
Structure: 20%
Advanced
Proficient
Developing
Not
Present
Points
Earned
APA, Mechanics,
& Length
20%
28-30 points
Paper is free of mechanical and
APA errors. 100% of the length
requirement is met.
25-27 points
Few mechanical and/or APA
errors exist. Length of the
paper is met by 90% to 99%.
1-24 points
Several mechanical and/or APA
errors exist. Length of the paper is
met by less than 90%.
0 points
Not
present
Total Points
/150
Instructor’s Comments:
INSERT ABBREVIATED TITLE OF 50 CHARACTERS OR LESS 1
Replace This Title: Ensure It Aligns with Your Thesis Statement
Claudia S. Sample
School of Education, Liberty University
Author Note
Claudia S. Sample
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Claudia S. Sample
Email: cssample123456789@liberty.edu
INSERT ABBREVIATED TITLE OF 50 CHARACTERS OR LESS 2
Abstract
Do not indent the abstract. Per APA, this is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of
the manuscript. It may range in length from 150 to 250 words in length.
Keywords: main words, primary, necessary, search terms
INSERT ABBREVIATED TITLE OF 50 CHARACTERS OR LESS 3
Insert the Same Title Here as Is on Your Title Page
Begin typing your introduction here. The purpose of the introductory paragraph is to
introduce your thesis statement. Typically, the thesis statement is the last sentence of this one-
paragraph introduction and serves as a transition into the rest of the paper. The thesis statement is
the main idea of the paper—the main point you are making.
Summary and Context
See assignment directions regarding what to enter here. Cite your sources. If you mention
an author’s name in the body of the paragraph, which is not required, insert the publication year
after the first time you mention the author’s name in your paragraph. If you do not incorporate an
author’s name into your paragraph, include it parenthetically prior to the publication year as in
this example: (Garcia, 2020).
Direct quotes should be rare and are not required. Generally, they should make up 10% or
less of any manuscript. Citations are not just for direct quotes but are also for ideas—to indicate
to the reader where you found the idea. Here is one way to cite a direct quote: Gutek (2018) was
correct in his observation that “Freire was a doer as well as a thinker” (p. 463). Note that there is
no period before the citation; it appears after it. Here is a second way to cite a direct quote: As at
least one historian has noted, “Freire’s liberation pedagogy heavily influenced critical theory”
(Gutek, 2018, p. 463). Page or paragraph numbers are required for all citations of direct quotes.
Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence. All topic sentences should support the
thesis statement of the paper. Paragraphs serve to support the topic sentence of the paragraph.
Ensure there is a logical progression in your writing and that you use appropriate transitions from
one idea to the next.
INSERT ABBREVIATED TITLE OF 50 CHARACTERS OR LESS 4
There should be no extra lines or spaces throughout the body of the manuscript.
Sometimes Microsoft Word automatically inserts lines after headings, paragraphs, or sections. If
you do not know how to remove these, simply do an internet search of your question: “How do I
remove extra lines in Microsoft Word?”
Critical Analysis
See assignment directions regarding what to enter in this section. Notice that the headings
are all Level 1 headings and are all centered and bolded per APA format. In such a short paper,
you should not need Level 2 headings.
APA permits the Bible to be cited, but it is never to be listed on the reference page. Here
is one way to cite the Bible: John 3:16 states, “For God so loved the world” (New International
Version, 1978/2011). Here is another way: The pastor opened the Bible and read, “For God so
loved the world” (New International Version, 1978/2011, John 3:16). The translation is required
only for the first direct quote of Scripture in the manuscript. However, if the subsequent
Scripture quotes are from a different translation, the translation must be included every time it
switches in the manuscript.
Conclusion
A good conclusion does not simply restate the thesis statement from the introductory
paragraph, but it most definitely reiterates it by reminding the reader that the points that have
already been made sufficiently support what was hinted at in the title, presented in the abstract,
and introduced in the first paragraph. New support for the thesis should not be introduced in the
conclusion. However, you may draw conclusions, identify trends, and discuss implications for
current issues.
INSERT ABBREVIATED TITLE OF 50 CHARACTERS OR LESS 5
References
Notice how the examples below have a hanging indention. Everything in APA is to be double
spaced, including the abstract, lengthy quotations, and the reference list. Nothing is single
spaced.
Authorlastname, A. B. (2019). Book title in italics with only the first word and proper nouns, like
Christian, capitalized: If there is a subtitle, the first word is capitalized. Publisher.
Authorlastname, A. B. (2019). Article title in regular font with only the first word and proper
nouns and proper adjectives, like European, capitalized: Subtitles may or may not be
used. Journal Titles and Volume Numbers Are Italicized, 15(2), 41-50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2013.07.007
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TOPIC PROPOSAL TEMPLATE
Student Name: Reginald McKelvin_________________
Enter proposed topics and research questions in the empty cells below for each of the two upcoming assignments.
Philosopher Analysis
Historical Topic Analysis
Topic
Impact of critical rationalism for practice and its
relationship to critical systems thinking
The emergence of critical rationalism and its
relationship to critical systems thinking
Research Question
What is the impact of critical rationalism as a
method of inquiry in philosophical practice?
How does critical rationalism relate to critical
systems thinking?
How did critical rationalism emerge in the early
years and its rationale?
What is the relationship between critical
rationalism and critical thinking systems that led to
its emergence?
Enter one journal article reference under each heading below. Type over the sample so that you replace it with your article. The article
title should reflect that it aligns with the topics and research questions above.
Philosopher Analysis: Journal Article Reference
Ormerod, R. J. (2016). Critical rationalism for practice and its relationship to critical systems thinking. Systems Research and
Behavioral Science, 33(1), 4-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2326
Historical Topic Analysis: Journal Article Reference
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Holtz, P., & Odağ, Ö. (2020). Popper was not a positivist: Why critical rationalism could be an epistemology for qualitative as well as
quantitative social scientific research. Qualitative research in psychology, 17(4), 541-564.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2018.1447622
Annotated Bibliography w/ Thesis Stataement
Reginald McKelvin
School of Education, Liberty University
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Author Note
Reginald McKelvin
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Reginald McKelvin
Email: rmckelvin@liberty.edu
Alfie Kohn
Annotated Journal Articles on Alfie Kohn
Kohn, A. (2010). Bad signs. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(1), 4-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2010.10516552
According to Kohn, that motivating students is difficult. In reality, he claims that motivating someone is impossible, except for
himself. Motivation, at least inherent motivation, should be encouraged and, if possible, resurrected. It's not something that
teachers can instill in students by acting on them. "In other words, you should tap their inspiration but not inspire them."
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Teachers, on the other hand, have shown that they have the potential to kill students' inspiration. Kohn recommends seven
approaches to demotivate students. They include (1) quantifying their reading assignments; (2) requiring them to write reports;
(3) isolating them; (4) focusing on skills; (5) including incentives; (6) testing preparation; and (7) restricting their options. In
his paper, cognitive scientist Daniel Willington (2009) argues that Kohn takes long-accepted educational strategies, such as
assigning homework, and turns them on their heads by not only condemning it but also declaring it "destructive" to a child.
Kohn, A. (2000). Burnt at the high stakes. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(4), 315-327.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487100051004007
Kohn claims that standardized assessments fall short of assessing the most important abilities and dispositions, and norm-
referenced and multiple-choice tests are particularly poor measures of student performance and school efficiency. High-stakes
testing, which uses incentives and penalties to raise student scores, provides an unequal and counterproductive learning
environment. Schools that increase their test scores could be doing so at the cost of meaningful teaching, dragging strong
teachers out of the field. This article examines several defenses of high-stakes tests, including arguments that such a technique
is needed to counter educational inequity. Kohn argues that a focus on higher expectations, transparency, and rigorous tests is
particularly detrimental to students from low-income and minority backgrounds.
Kohn, A. (2006). The trouble with rubrics. English Journal, 95(4), 12
Kohn shares his reservations about rubrics. He claims that rubrics have some disadvantages, including the following: (1)
Rubrics discourage teachers from changing their methods and rethinking their premises; (2) Students think less critically, stop
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taking chances, and lose interest in learning; and (3) Good teachers conclude that the right teaching practices necessitate
compromises, which are at odds with what "simple and effective" tests offer. He goes on to say that, just as standardizing tests
for teachers can degrade the quality of instruction, standardizing assessments for students can degrade the quality of learning.
Synthesis of Articles on Alfie Kohn
Alfie Kohn is a true believer in instilling responsibility and reverence in pupils. Adults that are supportive of children are not
only modeling an ability or behavior; they are also addressing the social needs of such children, thus assisting in the development of
the psychological environments necessary for children to treat others with dignity. Education aims to teach students that they can
think, read, act, and influence things. Information, according to Kohn, is a collection of learned data, perceptions, and/or facts.
Standard "content-areas" do not always have to be the focus of information.
Preliminary Thesis Statement: Alfie Kohn
Kohn, like most educational evangelicals, has an overwhelming appeal, especially among North American teachers, since he
taps into their very real feelings of isolation, powerlessness, and opposition to forced reform. He has a willing audience since he has
established a river of discontent and protest flowing across the ranks of the teaching force, which is often expressed in opposition to
top-down educational decision-making.
WORLD WAR II: IMPACT ON EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND PRACTICE
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Annotated Journal Articles on world war II: Impact on educational policy and practice
Topolovcan, T., & Dubovicki, S. (2019). The heritage of the cold war in contemporary curricula and educational reforms. CEPS
Journal, 9(2), 11-32. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.567
Using a theoretical-critical and historical perspective, this article explores the influence of the Cold War on school curriculum
and educational trends in the second half of the twentieth century, with an emphasis on the twenty-first century. The social and
political changes that affected schooling and were triggered by the wars are represented, as well as the history of the time after
WWII and the beginning of the Cold War. The impact of the Cold War in reducing socio-humanistic teaching materials while
growing adoption of natural science and mathematics has also been debated. The synthesis of the studied aspects reveals that
the Cold War military-technical race resulted in the introduction of the STEM sector, which increased the measurability of
learning outcomes, affecting psychologization, standardization, economization, and globalization of education. These changes
have made a mark on pedagogy, where the humanistic approach is at odds with other approaches. Some school systems defy
these trends, focusing on the didactic legacy of Bildung and educational philosophy rather than technical-scientific curricula.
Jaworski, T. (2014). “You're in the army now:” the impact of world war II on women's education, work, and family. The Journal of
Economic History, 74(1), 169-195. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050714000060
According to this article, the increase in high school and college graduation rates was briefly stopped by World War II. During
the early 1940s, manpower mobilization for World War II diminished educational achievement among high school-age
females, reduced jobs and wages, and changed family composition decisions, according to this report. The proof that women in
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this generation returned to school later in life is then presented, and these observations are linked to the "quiet movement" that
occurred in the second half of the twentieth century when women learned about the benefits of school and employment.
Bound, J., & Turner, S. (2002). Going to war and going to college: Did world war II and the G.I. bill increase educational attainment
for returning veterans? Journal of Labor Economics, 20(4), 784-815. https://doi.org/10.1086/342012
According to this article, the influx of veterans enrolling in college after WWII led to common claims that the G.I. Bill
democratized higher education in the United States. Few studies have been done to see how military service combined with
educational opportunities caused World War II veterans to expand their college savings. Bound and Turner’s assessment
approach focused on gaps in military service between cohorts, and they measured veterans' and nonveterans' collegiate
attainment using census results. They found that military service and G.I. compensation resulted in significant increases in
collegiate attainment by World War II veterans.
Synthesis of Articles on World war II: Impact on educational policy and practice
For students, the Second World War was a period of great upheaval. Millions of people were forced to flee their homes to
adjust to life without their family and friends. As a consequence of bombing raids, those of those who survived were injured or forced
to flee their homes. All had to respond to the threat of a nuclear attack, as well as air-raid preparations (ARP), rationing, and changes
at school and in their daily lives. Since the war, there was further disruption and shortages, and the postwar era brought improvements
that would have a long-term effect on education.
Preliminary Thesis Statement: World war II: Impact on educational policy and practice
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World War II, like the Great Depression, had a detrimental impact on education in the United States, and most of the collective
focus was devoted to war energy rather than social programming. School infrastructure was not spared, and much of the money set
aside for education was diverted to help the Allies fight the war. Teachers and students alike left the school to join the military and
dropouts became widespread, as attendance in schools plummeted even further.
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References
Willington D. (February, 2009). Alfie Kohn is bad for you and dangerous for your children. Encyclopedia Britannica Blog.
Outline
Topic: The emergence of critical rationalism and its relationship to critical systems thinking
I. Abstract
II. Introduction
III. Summary and context
A. History of Critical Rationalism (Ormerod, 2009)
B. Critical rationalism application (Ulrich, 2006; Richmond, 1997)
C. Critical Systems Thinking (Jackson , 2001)
D. Application in the Education sector (Chitpin, 2016; Fitzsimons, 2013)
IV. Critical Analysis
A. Emotionalism vs. Rationalism (Smith, 2020; Holtz & Odag, 2020)
B. Critical rationalism and critical systems thinking (Jackson, 2001)
C. Biblical Worldview (1 John 4:1, NLT, 2015)
V. Conclusion
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The Emergence of Critical Rationalism and its Relationship to Critical Systems Thinking
Reginald McKelvin
School of Education, Liberty University
Instructor's Name:
Course:
Date:
2
Abstract
The 20th century saw the development of critical rationalism by a philosopher named Karl
Popper. Popper's approach to solving problems relied on the notion of "trial and error," where
one tests a hypothesis to come up with a conclusion (solution of the problem). It involves the
principle of "falsification," where available theories and hypotheses are viewed as false; they are
then subjected to tests, eventually deducing a solution. This paper looks at the emergence of
critical rationalism and its relationship to the critical thinking system. It is based on two research
questions; 1. How did critical rationalism emerge in the early years and its rationale? And 2.
What is the relationship between critical rationalism and critical thinking systems that led to its
emergence? Popper's approach is essential in all sciences, natural or social sciences, and thus
crucial in the education sector. Critical rationalism can be broadly looked at in the mirrors of
critical thinking systems, where a systematized approach is used to engage in the process of
critical rationalism.
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The Emergence of Critical Rationalism and its Relationship to Critical Systems Thinking
The 20th century saw great strides in the education sector with the introduction of Critical
Rationalism by Karl Popper. Karl's philosophy of critical rationalism is based on the notion that
sciences, especially natural and social sciences, have evolved over a method of solving problems
through trial and error. Critical rationalism is thus essential in explaining the evolvement of
sciences in the education sector. Critical rationalism greatly influences knowledge growth and
problem-solving in the education sector. Teachers and students alike should criticize theories and
knowledge rationally by integrating critical thinking systems in the education sector.
Summary and Context
Karl Popper, an Australian-born philosopher, developed critical rationalism. He developed it
after World War I as opposed to fascism, which was viewed as risky and ineffective by most
intellectuals, including Popper. Popper was a firm believer in democracy thus opposed the rise of
fascism. Karl felt that it was difficult to determine facts in the social sciences. He thought that if
researchers or educators used a different research method, most theories could be disproven
(Ormerod, 2009). He felt that research should not only involve the process of identifying a
problem, coming up with research questions, experiments and conclude ending up developing or
proving a theory instead of coming up with facts. Instead, according to Popper, researchers,
scientists, and educators needed to be critical or seriously thinking about the issue at hand.
He proposed critical rationality where all issues or answers to an issue or a problem to be
viewed first as a failure and further tests conducted to determine its viability. In the case of a
theory, researchers should conduct other tests to refute the initial claim. If during the testing
process, the theory is disapproved, then it is false. After the trials, the theory has some truth in it,
then it is refined, and if it is proved as truth through the tests, it is held as truth and acceptable in
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the field of study. An example of Popper's hypothesis is that there are white swans; Popper
falsified this hypothesis upon observing black swans. Thus the theory that there are only white
swans is false.
Karl Popper's critical rationalism forms the basis for research in today's education sector
(Ulrich, 2006). It calls for establishing considerable evidence for a particular area of study.
Researchers can get proof through a "trial and error" system of conducting empirical research
and verifying facts. The coherent steps of conducting research, are also known as critical systems
thinking, highlight a systematic way of addressing problems from identifying the problem,
developing hypotheses about the issue, testing the theories, and eventually implementing the
change from the solutions identified (Richmond,1997). This paper critically looks at the
emergence of critical rationalism and its relationship with critical systems thinking.
The philosophy of critical rationalism explains the importance of solving problems through
careful verification processes (Ormerod, 2009). Popper based his philosophy on the natural
disposition of resolving issues. Society develops solutions to specific problems through a process
of trial and error that is done through criticism or subjecting commonly held perspectives and
theories through vigorous testing. The philosophy provides a chance for society to embrace
positive change developed through the critical rationalism process. Critical rationalism provides
for validation of knowledge through the falsification of theories through active research.
Critical rationalism calls for a systemized way of solving problems, provided through Critical
Systems Thinking (CST). A critical Thinking System refers to solving problems through the
combination of participation methods and systems thinking. The technique was developed to
analyze complex societal issues (Jackson, 2001) critically. Richmond (1997) identified four-step
in the critical thinking systems as follows: Specification of the problem, constructing the
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hypotheses, testing the premises using various models, and implementing the change based on
the findings established from testing the hypotheses. Critical Systems Thinking, a basis for social
scientific research, receives its tenets from critical rationalism with critical analysis of every
methodological approach.
Critical rationalism is a crucial aspect in most disciplines in the education sector (Fitzsimons,
2013). It has been integrated into higher education through research, a practical program to
achieve set goals and objectives. Most higher learning institutions require their learners to
engage in research to ensure that they learn critical rationalism and integrate it with Critical
System Thinking. Chitpin (2016) noted that the nature of teaching is changing with the changing
society. These teaching changes are inherent due to students' diversity and diverse needs in the
learning institutions. Thus, it is of paramount importance for both teachers and students to
embrace changes in the education sector through critical rationalism and, more so, incorporate a
Critical Thinking System.
Critical Analysis
Critical rationalism is the opposite of emotionalism, which focused on emotions to stir the
great awakening in the United States (Smith, 2020). Feelings sparked the sentimentality of the
great awakening besides having intellectuals in its inception. The great awakening came about as
a grass-root intellectual movement focused on the emotional aspects moving many to submit to
God's sovereignty. On the other hand, Critical rationalism provides a base of knowledge in
qualitative and quantitative research (Holtz & Odağ, 2020). The systematized way of conducting
either form of research can be attributed to the Critical Thinking System closely related to
critical rationalism.
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The approach calls for knowledge validation by first falsifying the theory, testing it, and
establishing facts related to the theory. Thus, it means that theories guiding a specific topic
should not be viewed in their totality as a representative of the subject but should be tested. It
does not satisfactorily meet the requirements of the issue; it is disregarded as not valid. Thus,
theories should only guide researchers in the study. The researchers should then engage in a
critical thinking process on the theory and tests it. Critical rationalism calls for an experimental
justification process of theories based on orderly observation and inductive thinking as a method
of verification. Further, the method of "falsification" is used by eliminating hypotheses after
empirically testing them and rational reason (Ulrich, 2006).
The incorporation of critical thinking systems in critical rationalism provides a bigger picture
of handling complex societal issues. The critical thinking systems provide various methodologies
and strategies like interactive planning, which, when used in collaboration, promote effective
interventions under challenging situations (Jackson, 2001). A combination of critical rationalism
and critical thinking systems creates a diverse verification system that provided the needed
solutions for problems and issues affecting society. Thus, it is of paramount importance for
scientists and educationists, including teachers and learners, to embrace critical rationalism and
critical thinking systems.
The education system has taken the problem-solving approach that is advanced by critical
rationalism and critical thinking systems. Most higher learning institutions encourage students to
conduct empirical research to obtain facts of a situation/problem. The areas teach teachers and
students to engage in research to approve or verify theories but rather look at them critically and
encourage first falsifying the theories and the hypotheses, testing them repeatedly using various
methodological approaches and establishing facts. Hence, it can lead to approving the
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theory/hypothesis or disapproving its tenets, or improving its essential characteristics using the
new points.
The bible is the book of 1 John 4:1, states, "Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the
spirits to see whether they are from God, for many false prophets have gone out into the world"
(Holy Bible, New Living Translation, 2015). This verse clearly states that Christians should
always "falsify" any spirit that comes their way and instead test them before believing in them. It
relates clearly with the critical rationalism concepts, which call for verification of theories or
hypotheses before believing in the stated facts about them. AS the bible directs us, it is essential
as teachers to arouse curiosity in our learners to search for more or test further the theoretical
knowledge imparted in them.
Conclusion
Critical rationalism devised by Karl Popper provides a verification process designed to
follow the critical thinking system. This method offers tests to verify commonly stated theories
and hypotheses that describe problems or issues in society. Critical rationalism in collaboration
with critical systems of thinking is crucial in addressing complex situations in the community.
Researchers and teachers, learners, politicians, organizations, and society should utilize the
methods and adopt them in their day-to-day activities. They provide an extensive framework for
solving complexities in the community. The bible provides a framework of critical thinking for
Christians in 1 John 4:1 to engage in verification before accepting, thus essential to embrace the
concept of critical rationalism as prompted by Karl Popper.
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References
Chitpin, S. (2016). Popper's Approach to Education: A Cornerstone of Teaching and Learning.
Routledge.
Fitzsimons, P. (2013). Critical rationalism and educational discourse G. Zecha (ed.). Educational
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Holtz, P., & Odağ, Ö. (2020). Popper was not a positivist: Why critical rationalism could be an
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research in psychology, 17(4), 541-564.
Holy Bible, New Living Translation. (2015). New Living Translation. (Original work published
1996)
Jackson, M. C. (2001). Critical systems thinking and practice. European Journal of Operational
Research, 128(2), 233-244.
Ormerod, R. J. (2009). The history and ideas of critical rationalism: the philosophy of Karl
Popper and its implications for OR. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 60(4),
441-460.
Richmond, B. (1997). The "thinking" in systems thinking: how can we make it easier to
master. The Systems Thinker, 8(2), 1-5.
Smith, S.J. (2020). Windows into the History and Philosophy of Education. Kendall Hunt.
Ulrich, W. (2006). Rethinking Critically Reflective Research Practice: Beyond Popper's Critical
Rationalism. Journal of Research Practice, 2(2), P1.
