Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 1
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education
Amy J. Perry
School of Education, Liberty University
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 2
Email: ajperry5@liberty.edu
Abstract
John Dewey,was a educational philosopher, that influenced the development of progressive
education. He also without knowing it most likely also had an influence on the inclusion
movement in special education. Experiential learning and individual differences were at the heart
of his philosophy. This way of thinking about education challenged traditional, one-size-fits-all
approaches in education. But Dewey kept ion pushing for the student centered approach. He
recognized that the one size fits all doesnt fit everyone. He recognized the unique needs and
abilities of each learner.Dewey want the hands-on experiences to be at the top of the list for
change. He also advocated for critical thinking, and social interaction to be apart of the lessons
created for students. Dewey's ideas for inclusive classrooms is where this began because he knew
students with disabilities could thrive alongside their peers if given the right environment to do
so and by creating hands on activities that allow for social interaction and give the students social
skills and a sense of belonging.
Keywords:special education, inclusion, experiential learning,
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 3
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education
John Dewey, was a rebel in terms of education. He shook up the traditional education
systems with his progressive ideas. He definitely believed the theory that getting a good
education was more than just memorizing facts or taking tests to determine growth. Real-world
experiences were at the top of his list for change. He thought that every student had unique
talents and needs. He believed they deserved a personalized education to help them thrive. This
idea of his about individual differences and strengths really was the early stepping stones of
special education. His push for inclusion for the students whose abilities were not as strong to
learn alongside their peers made a difference. This paper will dig into how Dewey's progressive
philosophy has shaped the way we think about special education and inclusion. And look into
how his ideas have influenced teaching methods, classroom design, and the approach to
educating students with diverse needs. John Dewey’s philosophy of progressive education,
focused on individual differences and experiential learning, significantly influenced the
development of special education and the inclusion movement.
Background and Cultural Context
John Dewey lived in the 19th and 20th centuries. He was American and had a background
in Philosophy, Psychology, and Education. “ John Dewey, as a significant figure in American
thought, was described by Alfred North Whitehead as "the typical effective American thinker." It
emphasizes that Dewey's work is characterized by a method rather than a fixed philosophical
system, focusing on inquiry and the evolution of ideas through experience and reflection.”
(Knickerbocker, 1940). The era of the Gilded Age was full of industrialization. This was a time
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 4
when social changes were occurring and there was a shift of the economy and urban living and
immigration changes were all coming into play. These challenges had everyone shifting their
thinking into new ideas on how to help make things better.
Dewey's philosophy was first known as pragmatism. It was a practical application of
ideas. And Dewey saw the importance of experience and how they shape a person’s intelligence.
He saw every interaction as a learning experience both in the environment and possibly in the
classroom. His ideas were that education should be continuous and a process for both growth and
adaptability. No one else had challenged the system like this before; everything was teacher-
centered, and he wanted to flip the script and make it student-centered, which was very
controversial.
Dewey's work was focused on creating schools to be more functional and responsive to the needs
of the children and society. He had a focus on the differences in children and their needs when it
came to development or if there was a disability. So, learning had to be different for every
student, and he also called for inclusion for those with special needs to learn besides those they
could learn alongside.
Philosophy of Education
“ Progressivism meant different things to different people at different times”,
(Smith,2020). Dewey encouraged many different educators even though there was really no real
definition of progressive education and really no type of leadership. His philosophy of
diversification and individualism still kept a strong grip on educators and their perception of the
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 5
direction that they wanted to take during their careers. This made American education stand out
as different and made a pathway for special education to develop. Turning away from the
traditional, teacher-centered approaches. The argument is that education should foster growth for
the whole child, and not just their intellectual abilities. Dewey believed in the importance of
experiential learning, where students actively engage with the world around them. This hands-on
approach allows students to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills and a deeper
understanding of the world they live in.
At the core of the philosophy was the recognition of the individual differences in the
children. He emphasized that each student is unique and learns at their own pace. This is relevant
to special education as students with disabilities have unique learning needs that require
differentiation, scaffolding, and accommodations or modifications to the lessons and work. The
student-centered approach with an inclusive classroom would in fact be the exact environment to
accommodate all learners.
The next thing on the list of change was to integrate curriculum to include real-world
experiences and Dewey also advocated for the integration of academic subjects with practical,
real-world experiences. This can be seen as pragmatic-focused. He believed that learning should
be meaningful and relevant to students' lives. This emphasis on practical application is essential
for students with disabilities, as it allows them to develop the skills they need to participate fully
in society.
By wanting to implement social interaction and collaboration, Dewey's philosophy also
strengthened the goals of starting the movement of special education. He believed that students
learn best when they have opportunities to work together and share their ideas. The collaborative
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 6
approach would be beneficial for children with disabilities, as it allows them to build social skills
and develop a sense of belonging. Being included is what makes the difference.
This came with a lot of scrutiny from conventionalists who thought that standard methods
were sufficient. According to HOPKINS, E. A. (2017), many believed that Dewey’s theory was
not structured enough for students to grasp important concepts. This would then in turn hinder
their progress in the more complex subjects.
Theory to Practice
Progressive education inspires the importance of including special education students in
the regular school environment. According to Mohamed, N. (2020), The approach aims to
provide an inclusive and beneficial education that addresses the individual needs of all students.
Dewey’s theory for inclusion was put into practice when legislation such as the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)was enacted in Congress in 1975. This legislation mandates
that an Individualized Education plan include measurable postsecondary goals and necessary
transition services for special education students. There was finally the need for the education
department to include progressive characteristics while recognizing the historical and social
influences that shape educational practices. Dewey believed that these students with limited
abilities would learn better alongside their peers. That the learning would occur by their
experiences in the classroom with hands-on activities. These kinds of strategies were helpful in
including these students in the classroom and giving them a broader knowledge of their subjects.
Cultivating Inclusion: Dewey's Philosophy and Special Education 7
Perspectives on Diversity
According to Cremin, L. A. (1959). Diversity served as the central theme of the
progressive education movement. Influencing the goals and practices with commitment to equal
educational opportunity. Dewey saw diversity as an important element of the inclusive
classroom. While there is not a lot on how he viewed diversity as far as talking about race, he did
want all children to learn together despite their abilities. Chambliss, J. J. (1964), mentions John
Dewey's book "Schools of Tomorrow" and mentions it as a documentation of this extraordinary
diversity. Dewey's perspective on the importance of individual growth, freedom for children, and
a meaningful school curriculum. This is the way the movement started with diverse thinking on
Dewey’s part.
Critical Analysis
Dewey most likely had several critics of his theories and the movement. One of his
largest critics was Arthur Bestor. According to Sizer, T. R., & Schen, M. (1987), Bestor, was a
historian and critic of progressive education. He argued that Dewey making experiential learning
and social reform so important led to a decline in academic standards and a neglect of traditional
subjects like history and science. He believed that Dewey's focus on child-centeredness and
individual expression took the importance away from the rigor that comes with learning the
curriculum and that there must be teacher-led instruction. Arthur Bestor's argument was that the
power of formal schooling is designed to create a devoted citizenry, which aligns with the ideals
sought by Dewey. Bestor also says that by the forties, the excesses of progressivism were already
troubling Dewey himself.
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According to Matthews, F. (1990), another critic of Dewey's ideas was Allan Bloom, who argued
that progressive education had led to a decline in Western civilization. Meaning that he felt that
society as a whole was affected by the new progressive teaching methods. Bloom criticized
Dewey for implementing real-world connections and that knowledge is internal. He argued that it
took away from what was important in the classroom and also took away the shared values that
belong in schools.
Implications and Conclusions
In conclusion, John Dewey's philosophy of progressive education has had a huge and
lasting impact on the field of education. He can also be known as the initial founder of the
special education movement. He made experiential learning, child-centeredness, and social
justice important, and this continues to shape educational and special education practices today.
By recognizing individual differences and fostering a supportive learning environment, Dewey's
approach has paved the way for more inclusive and equitable education for all students. While
his ideas have faced criticism, his legacy remains a powerful part of education, inspiring teachers
to transform lives and put well-educated students out into society. Dewey's vision offers a
valuable framework for creating a better future through inclusion education.
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References
Chambliss, J. J. (1964). [Review of Schools of Tomorrow; Modern Educational Theories, by J.
Dewey, E. Dewey, & B. H. Bode]. History of Education Quarterly, 4(2), 130–133. https://
doi.org/10.2307/367457
Cremin, L. A. (1959). John Dewey and the Progressive-Education Movement, 1915-1952. The
School Review, 67(2), 160–173. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1083643
HOPKINS, E. A. (2017). John Dewey and Progressive Education. The Journal of Educational
Thought (JET) / Revue de La Pensée Éducative, 50(1), 59–68. https://www.jstor.org/
stable/26372390
Knickerbocker, W. S. (1940). John Dewey. The Sewanee Review, 48(1), 119–137. http://
www.jstor.org/stable/27535633
Matthews, F. (1990). The Attack on “Historicism”: Allan Bloom’s Indictment of Contemporary
American Historical Scholarship [Review of The Closing of the American Mind, by A.
Bloom]. The American Historical Review, 95(2), 429–447. https://doi.org/
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Mohamed, N. (2020). The Debate Between Traditional and Progressive Education in Light of
Special Education. Journal of Thought, 54(3/4), 5-7. https://www.jstor.org/stable/
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Sizer, T. R., & Schen, M. (1987). Arthur Bestor’s Educational Wastelands [Review
of Educational Wastelands: The Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools, by A.
Bestor]. History of Education Quarterly, 27(2), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.2307/368473
Smith, S. J. (2020). Windows into the history and philosophy of education. Kendall Hunt. ISBN
eBook 9781792424625, Print Book 9781792424632
