Prior studies of coping mechanisms for work-related stress in entrepreneurship
In previous research, coping is defined as ‘a process of managing taxing circumstances,
expending effort to seek solutions to personal and interpersonal problems, seeking to
manage, minimise, reduce or tolerate stress induced by unpleasant and stressful situations
( Wong, Yik and Kwong 2006:194). In the field of entrepreneurship, research on the
work-related stress coping mechanism of self-employed has recently gained attention
(Shepherd and Patzelt, 2015; Baron et al., 2016). There are some papers on the coping
mechanism of self-employed dealing with work-related stress. This study summarises
these prior studies of investigating the differences in coping with work-related stress
among the self-employed in Table 18. Three approaches have been identified of which
researchers used to explore the coping mechanism among the
152
self-employed. The first one is the external coping approach. Previous research adopting
this approach focus on the factor of social supports, for example, support from partners,
family and friends or business networks. However, the effect of social support on work-
related stress from the prior studies is inconsistent. For example, Pollack, Vanepps and
Hayes(2012) found that the self-employed with larger quantities, and with higher
frequency of contacting external business relationships experience lower work-related
stress. Tetrick et al.(2000) studied US licensed morticians owners and found that Social
supports only have significant moderating effects rather than the direct effect on self-
employed. However, Ahmad and Salim(2009) used a 118-Malaysian business owners
dataset fail to verify the relationship between networking and work-related stress. The
second is the workplace coping approach. This approach aims to identify effective coping
resources or factors in the workplace, such as job demands, job control, the content of
tasks, and characters of the working environment. Research following this approach has
found that many of these workplace factors are significantly related to work-related
stress, For example, job demand (workload) (Terick et.al,2000; Hessels,Rietveld and
Zwan,2017) and job control(job autonomy) (Hessels,Rietveld and Zwan,2016; Prottas
and Thompson,2006) have been found to have a close association with work-related
stress among American and Australian self-employed. The content of tasks, such as
venture demand, variety and ambiguity within the personal daily tasks(Terick et.al,2000;
Wincent and Örtqvist, 2009) and characters of work-environment ( e.g. complexity,
changeable and variety of
153
organization strategy)(Wincent and Örtqvist, 2009) are significantly related to work-
related stress of self-employed individual from America and Sweden. The third is the
personal coping mechanism approach. One of the popular focal of previous research is
the personal strategies or style of coping work-related stress. For example, Drnovsek,
Örtqvist, and Wincent (2010); Brink and Rey(2001) and Patzeltand Shepherd(2011)
separate self-employed into problem-based(focus), and emotional based(focus) types and
found problem-based coping strategy effectively helps self-employed reduce work-related
stress. Örtqvist, Drnovsek, and Wincen (2007), Oren(2012) and Uy, Foo and Song(2013)
revealed that self-employed individuals with an active coping strategy experience lower
level of work-related stress than self-employed individuals who used passive coping
strategy. Perry and Penney (2008) tested with 226 American self-employed and found
that two personality characters of self-employed, neuroticism and conscientiousness, are
closely associated with reduced work-related stress.
Above all, support from outside of the organisation is very complex and arduous for an
individual to change and develop (Greve, and Salaff, 2003). For factors within the
organisation, for example, job demand and job autonomy, the self-employed are highly
driven by the business target. Sacrificing business benefits to adjust the appropriate
amount of job demand and job autonomy is not realistic for the self-employed (Chay,
1993). Moreover, the majority of the self-employed are solo self-employed individuals,
for them supports from colleagues or employees are impossible (Hessels, Rietveld and
Zwan,2017). Thus, the trend of current research is more focused on the factors that can
154
be empirically developed at the individual level (Baron, Franklin and Hmieleski,2016).
One recent study suggests that the psychological capital of individual is a valuable
personal asset for self-employed to cope with work-related stress as the malleable nature
of psychological capital offers an opportunity for self-employed to strengthen their
psychological capital and that of their employees (Baron, Franklin and Hmieleski,2016).
Self-efficacy as the core element of psychological capital should be highly taken into
consideration (Bradley, and Roberts, 2004).
155
Table 18 Prior studies of investigating coping work-related stress of self-employed. Studies are ordered by the date
Study
Sample
coping factors
Method Significance
Terick et.al(2000)
160 US licensed morticians owners， employees
social support, workload, job-personal conflict,
MANOVA and moderated
Workload and work ambiguity is significant.
and managers work ambiguity and role conflict hierarchy regressions Social supports only have significant moderating
effects
Brink and Rey(2001) 110 woman south Africa self-employed
emotional and problem-focused coping
mix methods
significant
Prottas and US 2002 national study of Changing
Job autonomy mean differences and
significant
Thompson(2006) workforce(NSCW):3504 self-employed and
Multivariate Analysis
employees
Drnovsek, Qrtqvist and
469 Slovenian and Swedish self-employed
Structural role redefinition, personal role
Profile analysis and
significant
Wincent(2007) redefinition, reactive role behavior, and passive
structural equation
role behavior. modeling
Perry and Penney(2008) 226 U.S. self-employed
personality: neuroticism and conscientiousness Hierarchical Multiple
significant
Regression
Wincent and
282 Swedish self-employed
venture technology, venture environment, structure equation model
significant
Qrtqvist(2009) personality
Ahmad,Salim(2009)
118 Malaysian self-employed
prioritize work, effective communication,
Online Analytical
disregarding, divert thinking and effective
disregarding, divert thinking, networking, exercise
Processing (OLAP) Cubes communication is significant
regularly
Drnovsek,Qrtqvist and
3600 European self-employed problem-based and emotions-based coping structure equation model
problem-based coping strategy is significant
Wincent(2010)
Patzeltand
1996 General Social Survey (GSS):2700 US
problem-focused and emotions-focused coping hierarchical regression significant
Shepherd(2011)
self-employed and employees analysis
Oren(2011)
308 Israel self-employed and employees
active and passive coping strategies
mean differences significant
Uy, Foo and Song(2012)
156 Philippines self-employed
active and avoidance coping strategies, Hierarchical Multiple active coping strategy is significance
entrepreneurial experiences
Regression
Pollack,Vanepps and
262 US self-employed
social ties
Multiple OLS Regression
significant
Hayes(2012)
Hessels,Rietveld and
Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Job Demand and Job Control
multivariate analyses significant
Zwan(2016)
Australia (HILDA) survey(2005-2013):15837
self-employed and employees
Baron, Franklin and
2000 US business founders(2005-2010) psychological capital
mean-scored, hierarchy
significant
Hmieleski(2016) regression and mediation
analysis
156
4.1.2 Prior studies of job satisfaction and the relationship between work-related
stress and job satisfaction in entrepreneurship
Regarding with job satisfaction, which is the positive conclusion of career experience has
received far more attention than work-related stress. According to Monitor 2013 Global
Report, ‘Entrepreneurs are among the happiest individuals across the globe when it comes
to individual satisfaction with their work conditions.’ (Amorós and Bosma, 2013).This
report serves as a trigger of interest in the further investigation into the topic of job
wellbeing in entrepreneurship. Table 19 presents the major journal papers on the theme of
job satisfaction within entrepreneurship. From the Table 19, it can be seen that the earliest
research on job satisfaction since 1995, only 20 years ago, recently, after 2010, the
increased number of papers published in top journals, including Journal of Business
Venturing, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice etc. The majority researches were
conducted in the USA, EU countries with the large national dataset. However, most data
sets used in the researches were collected before 2010. There are three main questions
these researches focus on: 1) the comparison of job satisfaction between the self-
employed and employees. 2) Factors contribute to job satisfaction 3) the impact of the
self-employed’s job satisfaction. For the first question, except the study conducted by
Jamal(1997), who used the 235 Canadian self-employed and employees sample, found
that no significant differences between self-employed and non-self-employed individuals
in term of job satisfaction, the conclusion of self-employed are more satisfied with job
compared with their wage-paid counter
157
partners were verified by the majority studies from many countries all over the world. For
example, Benz and Frey (2004) used a 23 countries sample with 14041 self-employed and
employees found that the higher job satisfaction among the self-employed can be directly
attributed to the greater independence and autonomy they enjoy. Representative U.S.
samples showed that self-employed feel a higher satisfaction with their jobs than regular
employees (Thompson, and Prottas,2006; Hundley, 2001; Schjoedt and Shaver,2007).
Similar results that indicate the self-employed have higher job satisfaction were found in
studies with large panel dataset of other countries as well(Benz and Frey,2004; Benz, and
Frey,2008; CooperandArtz,1995; Millán, Hessels, Thurik and Aguado,2013;
Schneck,2014; Hanglberger and Merz,2015; Lange,2012). Regard with the second
question, various factors have been tested to predict job satisfaction at the individual level,
organisational level and society level by existed researches. For example, the self-efficacy
has been verified has predicting power on job satisfaction in America and Singapore
( Hmieleski, and Corbett,2008; Lee, Wong, Der Foo, and Leung(2011). Some studies also
found the innovation-related factor also can simulate the job satisfaction. For example,
Feldman, and Bolino(2000) revealed a desire for entrepreneurial creativity affect job
satisfaction. Lee, Wong, Der Foo, and Leung(2011) found that individual's innovation
orientation strengthens the work-environment to the job-satisfaction relationship.
However, the results on testing personality’s impact on job satisfaction are inconsistent.
Lange (2012) verified the significance of personality trait’s impact on the self-employed’s
job
158
satisfaction. However, Gupta and Muita(2012) found that entrepreneurial personality and
job satisfaction was not statistically significant. Moreover, regarding the individual
variable, Cooper, and Artz (1995) found that the particular entrepreneurial objectives,
personality, and backgrounds are likely to be associated with greater satisfaction. At the
organisational level, job characters are closely related to job satisfaction, previous studies
( Schjoedt,2009; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk and Beutel,1996) tested and verified the
job involvement and family-work conflict affect career satisfaction. Lange (2012) found
that the higher job satisfaction of the self-employed due to large extent of job autonomy.
Van and Adonisi (2008) found that the self-employed’s work discretion, work
improvement and rewards/reinforcement have an impact on job satisfaction. At the
society level, Yetim,and Yetim,(2006) used the Turkey sample to test and confirm socio-
cultural backgrounds affect job satisfaction of the self-employed. The other paper listed in
the Table 19 focuse on the third question, the impact of the self-employed’s job
satisfaction. For example, Noorderhaven, Thurik, Wennekersand Stel(2004) discovered
that dissatisfaction at the level of societies has a positive and significant influence on self-
employment income levels. Kautonen Hytti, Bögenhold, and Heinonen(2012) revealed
that job satisfaction is a significant determinant of the intention to retire later and prolong
the career life of individuals. Also, job satisfaction variables significantly affect transition
probabilities of both self-employment candidates and job quitters, moreover, the results
showed that individuals that transit from self-employment to wage-employment have
improved their income, life and job satisfaction (Guerra and
159
Patuelli,2016; Mattes, 2016)
However, among these researches, only a few types of research discuss the relationship
between these two facets of the workplace wellbeing, the job satisfaction and work-
related stress (Jamal,1997; Prottas and Thompson,2006; Tetrick, Slack, Da Silva, and
Sinclair,2000; Bradley, Roberts,2004). Jamal( 1997) and Prottas and Thompson(2006)
examined the differences in job satisfaction, stress between full-time self-employed and
organizational employees in their study. Jamal( 1997) found that the self-employed
experienced higher job stress, and, no significant differences were found between self-
employed and non-self-employed in job satisfaction. Prottas and Thompson(2006) found
that the self-employed experience higher job satisfaction, no significant differences were
found between self-employed and non-self-employed in job stress. However, the main
purpose of these two researches are the comparison between the self-employed and
employees, the negative relationship between job satisfaction and stress only been
presented in bivariate correlations test and has not been discussed as a main question.
Tetrick,Slack,Da Silva,and Sinclair, (2000) raised a stressor-strain-outcome model to
examine the relationship between stress, strain and job satisfaction among the self-
employed and employees. They found that emotional exhaustion partially mediate the
effect of the perceived stressors on job satisfaction; the perceived stressors explained a
significant amount of the variance in both job satisfaction and professional satisfaction
after controlling for emotional exhaustion and social support. Bradley and Roberts (2004)
used The National Survey of Families and
160
Households: Wave I, 1987–1988, and Wave II 1992–1994 sample and found that a
portion of the association between job satisfaction and self-employment can be
explained by higher levels of self-efficacy and by lower levels of job stress (job
depression) among the self-employed compared to others.
In conclusion, current researches on job satisfaction and work-related stress within
entrepreneurship mainly focus on doing the comparative analyses between the self-
employed and employees. A few study tested the various factors contribute to the job
satisfaction and work-related stress, but the majority of them lack strong theoretical
support or model-based system perspective. Moreover, research on the relationship
between the job satisfaction and stress, the two main sides of the workplace
wellbeing, is largely non-existent in the entrepreneurial field.
Thus, this study aims to discuss these two significant subjects of the self-employed’s
wellbeing and how the self-efficacy helps self-employed cope work-related stress and
increase their job satisfaction. In addition, this paper also do the comparative analysis
between the self-employed and employees
161
Table 19 Prior studies of job satisfaction among the self-employed. Studies are ordered by the date
Study
Sample size
Place
Year of
Journal
Topic
Results
Data
Collecte
d
Cooper, and 287 entrepreneurs America 1985 Journal of Business Factors
contribute
to job Particular goals, attitudes, and backgrounds are likely to be associated with
Artz,(1995) -1987 Venturing satisfaction greater satisfaction
Parasuraman, 111 business America 1995 Journal of vocational Factors
contribute
to job job involvement and family to work conflict affect career satisfaction
Purohit, owners behaviour satisfaction
Godshalk
andBeutell(199
6)
Jamal(1997) 235 self-employed Canada 1996 Journal of Small comparison between the No significant differences were found between self-employed and
Business
self-employed and employees non-self-employed in job satisfaction
Management
VandenHeuvel, 1,317 Australian 1994 Journal of small comparison between the Self-employed contractors who were independent of the hiring organisation
and Wooden self-employed and business management self-employed and employees were more satisfied than both other self-employed workers and wage and salary
（1997）
employees
earners. However, contractors who were dependent on the recruitment firm were
no more satisfied.
Feldman, and 153 self-employed America 1999 Journal of Small Factors
contribute
to job Desire for entrepreneurial creativity affect job satisfaction
Bolino(2000)
Business
satisfaction
and comparison
Management between self-employed and
employees
Tetrick,Slack,D
160 licensed America 2000 Journal of Factors
contribute
to job Business Owners higher levels of job satisfaction, Social support moderate the
a Silva,and morticians occupational health satisfaction
and
comparison relationship between emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction
Sinclair(2000)
psychology
between self-employed and
employees
Hundley,2001 9187 America 1977-19 Industrial Relations: Factors
contribute
to job The self-employed job satisfaction advantage is relatively small or nonexistent
self-employed and 97 Journal of Economy satisfaction among managers and members of the established professions—occupations
employees
and Society
where organisational workers have relatively high autonomy and skill utilisation.
Benz and Frey 14041 23 1984-19 Swedish Economic comparison between the Higher job satisfaction among the self-employed can be directly attributed to the
(2004) self-employed and countries 99 Policy Review self-employed and employees greater independence and autonomy they enjoy
employees
162
Blanchflower,( 7204 self-employed 11 EU 1997 Labour Economics Description of The self-employed are more satisfied with their job
2004) and employees countries self-employment
Bradley,
13008
America 1987– Journal of small Factors contribute to job Self-efficacy and job depression contributed to job satisfaction
Roberts(2004) self-employed 1988 business management satisfaction
and
1992–
1994
Noorderhaven, 15
country-level
15 EU 1978-20 Entrepreneurship Job satisfaction works on rate Dissatisfaction at the level of societies has a positive and significant influence
Thurik, variables countries 00 Theory and Practice of self-employment on self-employment levels
Wennekersand
Stel(2004)
Prottas, and 3504 self-employed America 2002 Journal of comparison between the Both business owners and independents
Thompson,(200 and employees occupational health self-employed and employees are more satisfied with their lives than employees
6) psychology
Yetim, and 217 male
SMEs Turkey
1999 Social Indicators Factors contribute to job socio-cultural backgrounds affect job satisfaction
Yetim,(2006)
entrepreneurs
and Research satisfaction
1140 employees
Schjoedt and 1,261 nascent America
Shaver(2007) entrepreneurs and
others
Benz, and Three country-level German,
Frey(2008) variables British
and
Switzerla
nd
Hmieleski,
and
159 entrepreneurs America
Corbett(2008)
Kawaguchi(200 12686 America
8) self-employed and
employees
Van and 396 managers South
Adonisi, (2008) Africa
1998-20 Entrepreneurship comparison between the nascent entrepreneurs have a higher mean of job satisfaction
00 theory and practice self-employed and employees
1984-20 Economica comparison between the Self-employed derive higher satisfaction from work than those employed in
00 self-employed and employees organisations, irrespective of income gained or hours worked
2007 Journal of business Factors contribute to job Entrepreneurial self-efficacy was found to have a negative moderating effect on
venturing satisfaction the relationship between entrepreneur improvisational behaviour and work
satisfaction
1985-19 Hitotsubashi Journal comparison between the Self-employed workers are more satisfied with their jobs than salary/wage-paid
98 of Economics self-employed and employees workers
2007 South African Journal Factors contribute to job Work discretion, work improvement and rewards/reinforcement has impact on
of Economic and satisfaction job satisfaction
Management
Sciences
163
Akehurst, 114 firms and 228 Spain 2008
Small
Business Job satisfaction works on Job satisfaction has positive effect on Internal Entrepreneurship
Comeche,
and
collaborators Economics Internal entrepreneurship
Galindo(2009) (members of
managing teams)
Schjoedt(2009) 547 entrepreneurs America 2008 Entrepreneurship Factors
contribute
to job Job characteristics were significant predictors of entrepreneurial job satisfaction
and top managers theory and practice satisfaction
Kautonen
and
777 recently Finland 2006
International
Factors
contribute
to job The adverse effect of a necessity-based start-up on subsequent entrepreneurial
Palmroos(2010 established Entrepreneurship and satisfaction satisfaction
) microenterprises Management Journal
Lee, Wong, Der
4192 IT Singapore 2008 Journal
of
business Factors
contribute
to job Individual’s innovation orientation strengthens the work-environment to the
Foo, and professionals venturing satisfaction job-satisfaction relationship; self-efficacy reinforces the job-satisfaction to
Leung(2011) entrepreneurial intentions relationship.
Pagán-Rodrígu 9192 self-employed 11 EU 2004
European Journal
of comparison between the Self-employed persons are more satisfied with their jobs
ez(2011) and employees countries and Ageing self-employed and employees
2007
Bianchi(2012)
50978
46 1981-20 Review of Economics Factors
contribute
to job Entrepreneurs have higher job satisfaction than employees due to financial
self-employed and countries 01
and Statistics
satisfaction
and
comparison development
employees between self-employed and
employees
Gupta,
and
142 SMEs America 2011
International
Journal Factors
contribute
to job Entrepreneurial personality and Job Satisfaction was not statistically significant
Muita(2012) of
Business
and satisfaction
Management
Kautonen 1,262 white-collar Finland 2010
International
Journal Predicting of retirement age Job satisfaction is a significant determinant of the intention to retire later and
Hytti, professionals of Manpower thus prolong a career
Bögenhold, and
Heinonen(2012
)
Lange, T.
11157
19 EU 2006
Small
business Factors
contribute
to job Personality traits, autonomy contributes to job satisfaction
(2012) self-employed and countries economics satisfaction
wage-paid workers
Hytti, 2327 self-employed Finland 2010 The International Comparison between the Self-employed are significantly more satisfied with job, task significance,
Kautonen and and employees Journal of Human self-employed and employees variety and autonomy have similar effects on the level of job satisfaction among
Akola(2013) Resource both employees
Management
Moreover, self-employed individuals
164
Millán, 59604 15 EU 1994-20
Small
business comparison between the The self-employed are more satisfied with their job
Hessels, Thurik self-employed and countries 01 economics self-employed and employees
and paid-employed
Aguado(2013) people
Schneck(2014）25 European25 2010 Journal of
Business comparison
between the Self-employed are more satisfied with their jobs than employee
countries European
Research
self-employed and employees
countries
Hanglberger 18587 German 1984-20 Journal of Labour comparison between the no specific long-term effect of self-employment on job satisfaction
and Merz self-employed
and
08 Market Research self-employed and employees
(2015) employees
Guerra
and 4713 employees
Switzerla 1999– Entrepreneurship predicting of self-employment job satisfaction variables significantly affect transition probabilities of both
Patuelli(2016) nd 2008 Theory and Practice transition self-employment candidates and job quitters
Mattes(2016）569 entrepreneurs Australian 2001-20
International
Journal Predicting of entrepreneurial Unsatisfied entrepreneurs that transition from self- to wage-employment
12 of Entrepreneurial quit improve their income, life and job satisfaction
Behavior
and
Research
