Select a chapter from the assigned reading for the week in which the Chapter Application
Paper is due and write a 3-5 page paper which summarizes, synthesizes, and then applies
the information from the Chapter to issues relevant to the topic.
Each paper must identify the premise and supporting points of the chapter, a synthesis of the
information from the chapter, and a critical application of the premise(s) and supporting
points from the chapter to an issue in psychology and the legal system. The paper should
address:
Key points, patterns, and trends from the information in the chapter
How the chapter information applies to issues in psychology and the legal system
Analysis of the chapter information from a Christ-centered perspective?
The organization of your paper is very important. Please follow APA and make sure to use
section headings in your paper. Make sure to include a cover page, a references page, and
develop a well-formatted, grammatical correct paper.
Your paper must be a minimum of 3–5 pages, be well-organized, and be reflective of your
thinking and struggles in these very complex areas of psychology and the legal system.
Lie Detection
Chapter 3
Lie Detection
•In this chapter
•The Complexity and Pervasiveness of
Deception
•Can We Tell When Others Are Lying?
•The Development of the Polygraph
•The Process of Polygraphing
•Research on the Polygraph
•Legal Status of the Polygraph
Lie Detection
•In this chapter-continued
•An Alternative Polygraph-Based Technique
•The Polygraph as Coercion Device
•How Jurors Respond to Polygraph Evidence
•Looking for Lies in the Brain
•Telling Lies from the Eyes
Agree or Disagree?
•“Lying is just so ordinary, so much a part of
our everyday lives and everyday
conversations that we hardly notice it. And,
in many cases, it would be more difficult,
challenging, and stressful for people to tell
the truth than to lie”.
-Bella DePaulo
Complexity and Pervasiveness of
Deception
•Common in social interactions
•Adaptive from evolutionary perspective
•Ubiquitous and multifaceted
Can We Tell When Others Are Lying?
•Lie detection accuracy is only slightly
better than chance.
•Detection is poor even among those with
training.
• Mistaken liar’s stereotype
•Flawed interpretation of verbal and non-
verbal behavior often fuels confirmation
bias.
The Polygraph
•Theory: Lying causes physiological
arousal
•1960s-1980s: Polygraph was lucrative
business
•Polygraph Act of 1988
•9/11/01: Resurgent of polygraph use and
surrounding controversy
The Process of Polygraphing
•Polygraph must be used with systematic
questioning
•Relevant-irrelevant test (RIT)
•Control question test/Comparison question
test (CQT)
•Positive-control test (PCT)
The Process of Polygraphing
•Weaknesses of Polygraph
•Differential reaction of person being tested
(e.g., emotionally non-responsive; innocent)
•Lack of standardization
•Use of countermeasures
•Doubt about polygraph validity
•Rejection on purely ethical grounds
Research on the Polygraph
•Categories of empirical studies
•Laboratory studies use mock juries and crimes
•Field studies use actual suspects
•Accuracy rates inflation causes
•Low consequence for lying
•Limited or no subject experience or training in
countermeasures
•Lies told in controlled studies tend to be more
simple than those told about real crimes
100
ad
Guilty
suspects
correctly
classified
as
guilty
Innocent
Guilty
suspects
suspects
incorrectly
correctly
classified
classified
as.
as
innocent innocent
Innocent
Guilty
suspects Innocent
suspects
that
cannot
suspects
incorrectly
classified
be
classified
_
that
cannot
as
guilty
be
classified
LIBERTY
UNA
ERS
TY.
Hit and Misses Using the
Polygraph
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
SPOTLIGHT
•The Burden of Lying
•Lying is more cognitive demanding than telling
the truth (Vrij et al., 2011)
•Limited cognitive capacity to manage extra
demands of fabricating and managing a lie and
suppressing the truth
•Strategies for lie detection
•Requiring reserve storytelling
•Insisting on suspect-questioner eye contact
•Asking for spatial information through drawing
Legal Status of the Polygraph
•Polygraph results admissible in court in many
states
•1993 Supreme Court decision (Daubert v.
Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals)
•Admissibility of scientific evidence determined case-
by-case based on evidentiary hearings
•1998 Justice Clarence Thomas concerns about
polygraphing
•Lack of consensus about scientific validity and
reliability
•Concern that polygraph evidence upsurps jury role
Alternative Polygraph Method
•Guilty Knowledge Test limitations
•Sufficient number of crime facts must be available
•Facts must not be widely publicized
•Details must be recalled by guilty person
•Applicability to large number of crimes may not
occur
•Resistance of professional polygraphers may
occur
HOT TOPICS
•Lower-Tech Lie Detection: Words and Wizards
•Criteria-based content analysis (CBCA)
•Truthfulness assessment through systematic analysis of
written statements
•High acceptance in European courts
•Validity questioned
•Reality monitoring (RM)
•Reliance on written accounts of alleged crimes
•Correct classification rate around 63%
•Lie-detection wizards
•42 identified wizards notice more cues
•Detection rate around 80%
Facial Action Coding System
•Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friedman, in the 1970s,
set up a classification
system for human facial
expression, part of which
is lettered in this photo.
•The Facial Action Coding
System identifies 43 sets
of muscles, which often
work in tandem to facially
express emotion.
Polygraph as Coercion
•Polygraphs
•Used to induce confessions
•Presented as opportunity to prove innocence
•Attempts to avoid viewed as guilt; not
avoiding viewed as innocence
•Results sometimes manipulated by
polygrapher to coerce suspect
Jurors and the Polygraph
•Jurors generally find results persuasive.
•Results can change outcome of a trial.
•Experts are more skeptical than general
public.
•Limited research is available.
•Effectiveness of results based on
•Persuasiveness of polygrapher testimony
•Sophistication of jurors
•Instructions from judge
Lies in the Brain and Eyes
•The Brain
-fMRI detects “where”lying occurs
-EEG detects “when”lying occurs
•The Eyes
-High Definition Infrared Thermal Imaging
-Eye Movement Memory Assessment
-Laser Doppler Vibrometry
Interrogations and
Confessions
Chapter 2
Interrogations and
Confessions
•In this chapter
•The Power of a Confession
•The Evolution of Interrogation Techniques
•Inside the Modern Interrogation Room
•The Problem of False Confessions
•Should Interrogators Be Allowed to Lie?
•Potential Solutions to the Problem of False
Confessions
Power of Confession
•Goal of questioning is to elicit confession.
•39%-48% of suspects make full confession.
•13%-16% of suspects make damaging
statements or partial admissions.
•68% of police-interrogated suspects make
self-incriminating statements.
Power of Confession
•Why do police prefer confessions?
•Confessions save time.
•Trials are avoided; convictions are almost
guaranteed.
•Research show mock jurors do not discount
confession, even if false.
•This may be explained by fundamental
attribution bias.
Power of Confession
•The existence of a
confession predisposes
juries toward reaching a
guilty verdict.
•Mock jurors were asked
whether they judged the
confession to be voluntary,
whether it influenced their
verdict and whether they
voted for conviction (Kassin
& Sukel, 1997).
What do the data tell us?
Evolution of Interrogation Techniques
•Prior to 1930
•Use of direct physical violence
•1931
•Report on Lawlessness and Law Enforcement led to
covert abuse that did not leave marks, including such
things as deprivation, isolation, and intimidation
•Since 1961
•Series of legal decisions pushed police from covert
physical to more psychological coercion forms
•Culombe v. Connecticut, 1961; Davis v. North
Carolina, 1966; Reck v. Pate, 1961; Townsend v.
Swain, 1963
Evolution of Interrogation Techniques
•1966: Miranda Rights (Miranda v. Arizona)
•To remain silent
•To have attorney present during questioning
•To have appointed attorney when financial
need exists
•To acknowledge understanding of rights
Evolution of Interrogation Techniques
•Are rights waived? Why?
•80% of suspects waive rights and are subject to
interrogation.
•Police delivery of Miranda rights may be perfunctory,
rushed, or ritualistic in manner.
•Suspect may be upset, lack clear thinking, or unable
to understand that rights are being waived.
•1961: Totality of circumstances (Culombe v.
Connecticut)
•Judges must look at all circumstances surrounding
interrogation
Modern Interrogation
•Modern interrogation is primarily psychological (e.g.,
good cop/bad cop).
•Police receive training and are familiar with
interrogation manuals and techniques.
•Most widely used reference by Inbau and
colleagues offers detailed advice on every aspect of
interrogation processes.
•Central to the process is the Reid technique.
Let’s take a closer look.
Modern Interrogation
•Reid technique
•Involves 9 step technique that represents the general
flow of many interrogations.
•Includes 4 psychologically powerful strategies
•Loss of control
•Social isolation
•Certainty of guilt
•Exculpatory scenarios
SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
SPOTLIGHT
•Group Interrogation May Help To Reveal
Liars
•U.S. police manuals promote myth that
suspects are reluctant to talk.
•Truth-tellers interrupt and correct more often.
•Deceivers are more tacitum.
•Truth-tellers’ interactions with one another
comes more naturally than it does for liars
(Vrij)
CORE PRINCIPLES OF
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
•Cialdini proposed six
principles that
underlie influence of
others.
Are any of these
principles used by
police to elicit
incriminating
admissions from
suspects?
If so, how?
False Confessions
Are caused most by police interrogations
May be related to mindset of innocent suspects
Involve vulnerable, suggestible, compliant suspects; especially vulnerable youth
Occur most often in murder cases (80% of proven false confessions)
Contribute to 25% of known wrongful convictions
Are prompted by lying, intimidation, deception, fatigue, abuse
Types of False Confessions
•Four types of false confessions across two
dimensions
•Instrumental or authentic
•Voluntary or coerced
Types of False Confessions
•Cases can involve all four types of
confessions.
•Instrumental-coerced false confessions:
Suspects confess to crimes not committed;
most common false confession in criminal
cases
•Instrumental-voluntary false confessions:
Suspects provide false confession as means
to end
Types of False Confessions
•Authentic-coerced false confessions: Suspect
becomes convinced of own guilt after long,
intense interrogation; vivid false memories
may be created
•Authentic-voluntary false confessions:
Suspect suffer from delusion and confess with
little or no pressure from interrogation
Instrumental
Authentic
Four
Types
of
False
Confessions
Coerced
End
interrogation
by
acquiescence
Confessor
becomes
persuaded
that
he
or
she
is
guilty
Voluntary
Protect
someone
else
Gain
notoriety
Confessor
is
delusional
or
mentally
ill
LIBERTY
UNAV
ERS
ET
Y
Four Types of False Confessions
HOT TOPIC
•The Use of Torture in Interrogations
•Practices such as waterboarding violate international
and national treaties and laws.
•Ethical and moral codes of conduct are also be
violated.
•Little research on effectiveness of torture, but
irrefutable evidence that less coercive interrogation
can produce verifiability false confessions.
•Actions based on false information from torture may
have dire consequences, especially in military
actions.
Should Interrogators Be
Allowed to Lie?
•United States
•Police interrogators are legally allowed to use
false evidence ploys.
•England and Wales
•PACE Act makes it illegal to lie.
•Witness must be present.
•Interrogation must be audio-recorded.
•Intimidation is not permitted.
Potential Solutions to Problems of
False Confessions
•Video recording of interrogations
•Creates permanent record
•Improves interrogation methods
•Video recording can be manipulated,
especially if interrogation is partially
recorded
•Recording admission and not interrogation
•Only showing segments at trial
•Manipulating camera angle
Potential Solutions to Problems of
False Confessions
•Time limits and expert testimony
•Lengthy interrogations common in false
confessions
•Four hours or less is recommended
•Appropriate adult witness for vulnerable
suspects
•Juveniles should be provided with appropriate
adult during questioning
•Subjects with mental impairment require special
treatment during interrogation
Potential Solutions to Problems of
False Confessions
•Expert testimony on interrogations and
confessions
•Expert witnesses can provide assistance
•Discussing pertinent research that documents police-
induced false confession
•Explaining relationship between heightened risk rate of
false confession and specific interrogation methods
•Case law supports admissibility of expert
testimony.
•About three-fourth of jurors believe expert witness
testimony would be helpful.
Lie Detection
SUMMARY
Lies are considered to be commonplace. The Machiavellian intelligence hypothesis suggests that a leap
in human intelligence was initiated by the need for social skills. Within this framework, lying can be
viewed as an adaptive mechanism. It helps us to obtain what we want, get out of trouble, and refrain from
hurting the feelings of others. Lies can be labeled as lies of commission, saying things that are not true, or
omission, leaving out material that might be important. For the legal system to work properly, it is
assumed that jurors can distinguish between witnesses who are lying and those who are telling the truth.
In fact, a study of 24,000 people showed that the odds of their detecting lies was 54%, barely higher than
chance (50%). When police officers were tested for their ability to detect lies told by prison inmates, the
officers scored more poorly than did college students, and the officers’ results were not significantly
different than if lie detection was by chance. Despite this outcome, the confidence of the officers in this
study increased as a function of their training and years of experience, even though their detection
abilities did not increase. Perhaps the fact that they had been trained in deception detection led to their
exaggerated feelings of confidence, even though the training they received (e.g., identifying behavioral
cues such as gaze aversion) was, in this case, ineffective. Some studies have shown that attention to
behavioral and verbal cues taught in training actually make officers worse at deception detection while
boosting their confidence in their ability. Officers misinterpret these signals, possibly because of
confirmation bias, which is defined as looking for behaviors that are consistent with the suspected guilt
of the interrogated person.
Because people, even those trained to do it, detect deception so poorly, the polygraph was developed
by Dr. William Marston to do the lie detecting for us. The polygraph monitors multiple physiological
measures (blood pressure, heart rate, Galvanic skin response) during the interview process. Based on the
assumption that there are specific changes in physiological arousal that accompany lies, it is thought that
by comparing responses to known questions with responses to crime-relevant questions, an examiner
should be able to detect the lies. Several decades ago the polygraph was held in high demand,
particularly by employers that used it to know more about the people they were hiring. Although the
Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 prohibited most private employers from using the polygraph as a
requirement for employment, it is still used by the public sector: Police, CIA, FBI, and Secret Service are
among the organizations still using the polygraph for screening purposes.
Once a suspect is hooked up to the polygraph, one of a number of questioning techniques is used: the
relevant–irrelevant test (RIT), the control question test (CQT), and the guilty knowledge test (GKT). The
RIT uses three types of questions: nonarousing crime-irrelevant questions (Is your name John Smith?),
arousing crime-irrelevant questions (Have you ever stolen something?), and arousing crime-relevant
questions (Did you rape your secretary?). The first type of question provides a baseline of physiological
response. If people are innocent, then their response to the other two types of questions should be similar;
if they are guilty, their responses should be more pronounced (i.e., show more physiological arousal) to
the crime-relevant questions. This questioning method produces a high number (71%) of false positives.
3
The CQT and its variants are the most common questioning methods used with the polygraph. In these
methods, the control questions are referred to as “known lies.” They are questions broad enough (Have
you ever tried to get someone else in trouble?) so that almost everyone should respond with a “yes” but
embarrassing enough so that most people lie and say “no.” So, examiners are able to look at the relative
difference between responses to known irrelevant lies and responses to crime-relevant questions.
Innocent suspects should react more to the control questions, whereas guilty suspects should respond
more dramatically to the crime-relevant questions. Polygraphs are scored numerically, with the score
depending on the degree of difference between control questions and relevant questions.
The success of the polygraph depends on the skills of the examiners in developing questions, as well
as their questioning skills and ability to read polygraph results. In addition, some individuals are very
emotional and reactive regardless of their guilt or innocence, whereas others (e.g., career criminals and
sociopaths) show no reactivity even when lying. For the polygraph to be effective, it is essential that the
person being questioned believes that the lie detector really works. This effect can sometimes be
achieved by duping the suspect—having him or her tell what the person administering the polygraph
knows to be a lie and then declaring the polygraph has detected that a lie is being told. There is no
standardization of the content of questions. Creating control items as well as relevant items of equal
arousal is difficult, and there are no set criteria for the scoring of the polygraphs. Polygraphs can be
tricked by suspects using countermeasures whereby they either become aroused by all questions or
remain calm for all questions, so no relative differences in their responses to the different types of
questions can be found. Research on the polygraph is conducted in either the lab or the field. Lab studies
using mock crimes have been criticized because of the difficulty in raising the stakes high enough for
subjects to exhibit arousal levels seen in the field. But field studies have their own problems: They lack
the control of lab experiments. In the lab, it is possible to know when lies are told. In the field, by
contrast, establishing accuracy rates is difficult. A review of 97 studies using the CQT found an accuracy
rate of 77% for guilty suspects that were later found guilty. These studies also found 16% of innocent
suspects were found guilty. Polygraphs have been banned in court in 23 states, but even in these
circumstances, they may have an impact prior to the trial. The test results may inform the police about
whether a case should be pursued and these “results” may then be combined with the other interrogation
techniques to encourage a suspect to make a confession.
An alternative to the RIT and CQT is the guilty knowledge test (GKT).The GKT measures
respondents’ reactions to facts about the crime only a guilty party would know. Questions with six
possible answers are read to respondents. If they have no knowledge of the crime, they should respond
equally emphatically to all possible answers. If people have “guilty” knowledge, they should react
physiologically to the correct answer in a more extreme way; there should be more physiological arousal.
In existing laboratory studies, accuracy rates appear to be better for the GKT than they are for the other
questioning techniques, but success in using the GKT depends on there being a number of known facts
about the crime so questions can be formed. But pretrial publicity may also lead to those other than the
perpetrator knowing details about the crime. Other influencing factors are a witness or accomplice may
have the same knowledge of the crime, and the suspect needs to have good memory for the crime scene.
When it is allowed in court, jurors often find polygraph evidence to be convincing, and if it is presented
with expert testimony that claims high accuracy rates for the polygraph, the percentage of jurors who
find the defendant guilty increases dramatically.
Recent advances in brain science have been applied to lie detection. Using fMRI, scientists have
observed that the prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex are slightly more active when subjects are lying.
Brain researchers have also observed that different parts of the brain become active when rehearsed and
spontaneous lies are told. Still, this technology is developing. Although the fMRI can take brain images
about every 2 seconds, it is expensive, cumbersome, and requires a cooperative subject. The EEG, which
can read neural activity in milliseconds, has also been used in detecting lies. Whereas the fMRI is good at
reading where the brain is active, the EEG is much better at reading when the brain is active. In the EEG,
a skull cap with many electrodes, is placed over the suspect’s head and then electrical patterns are
collected as he or she experiences stimuli. Generally, the P-300 (an electrical activity that occurs
approximately 300 ms after a stimulus is encountered) is the wave pattern that is tracked when testing a
suspect for deception. The P-300 is more prominent when a person lies. Another recent technology used
to detect lies is the high-definition infrared thermal imaging technique. This technology picks up tiny
changes in the heat of a human face. Once again, the underlying theory is that physiological changes,
specifically an increase in the heat around a suspect’s eyes, accompany lying. Eye movements and pupil
dilation have also been tracked while a suspect views a crime scene. And the laser Doppler vibrometer
may, in time, be able to see physiological changes in a suspect from a distance by means of an infrared
light beam. Clearly the technology to detect changes in physiological arousal exists and though quite
complicated is accurate. However, the degree to which the physiological changes this technology records
is indicative of lying as opposed to other types of cognitive processes has yet to be determined.
Interrogations and Confessions
SUMMARY
A primary goal of police officers is to obtain a confession from a suspected criminal. It is estimated that
self-incriminating statements are obtained from about 68% of suspects interrogated by police.
Confessions save time and money, and they are almost certain to result in a conviction because they are
one of the most powerful types of evidence in jury verdicts. Although jurors can oftentimes identify
when confessions have been coerced, they are unable to ignore such confessions when making their
decisions. Jurors are also likely to make a fundamental attribution error by blaming the suspect’s
behavior on him or her rather than on the circumstances surrounding the confession. It is the judge’s
responsibility to determine whether there is convincing evidence that a confession was coerced and, if the
judge decides there is, to disallow it and so prevent the confession from being presented in court.
Interrogation techniques have undergone changes over the years. Whereas prior to the 1930s, suspects
were essentially tortured, the Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement led to legislation banning such
processes. The ban led interrogators to switch to forms of physical abuse that would leave no marks on
suspects. More recently, psychological forms of abuse have become popular and if a confession is
deemed to have been obtained by coercion, the confession is said to be inadmissible. The term coercion
is, however, not well-defined in the legal sense, and police routinely lie to suspects about evidence (e.g.,
eyewitnesses or fingerprints) that they actually do not possess. Because coercion is not clearly defined in
the U.S. legal system, other than physical abuse, it is very difficult to have juries form a consensus if
coercion has occurred. But suspects are not without legal protection. Since 1966, they must be read their
Miranda rights before being interrogated. These rights are to remain silent, to have an attorney present at
questioning, have an attorney provided free of charge if they cannot afford to hire an attorney, and to
assent that they understand their rights. Unpredictably, 80% of suspects waive their Miranda rights.
Innocent people feel they have nothing to hide, and guilty people want to appear cooperative. If they
waive their Miranda rights, an interrogation following the nine-step Reid technique is likely to ensue.
The Reid technique specifies the desired physical characteristics of the questioning environment as well
as four strategies for extracting confessions—creating in suspects a sense of loss of control, social
isolation, convincing suspects of the certainty of their own guilt, and offering suspects exculpatory
scenarios. For those being interrogated as suspects, having all aspects of the physical location and the
process of interrogation determined by the interrogator generally result in feelings of loss of control.
Feelings of social isolation are enforced by questioning the person with none of his or her acquaintances
present. Interrogators accuse him or her, dismissing all denials, while presenting fictitious evidence to
create a certainty of guilt and maximize the apparent case against the suspect. Last, they provide
exculpatory scenarios, which are acceptable explanations for why the suspect may have committed the
crime, implying these may result in reduced punishment.
False confessions have been implicated in 25% of wrongful convictions. They are especially likely to
occur in cases involving very serious crimes. Certain classes of individuals are particularly vulnerable to
giving coerced false confessions. These include people with a low IQ, developmental disabilities, low
2
socioeconomic status, strong desires to comply as well as those who are highly suggestible or sleep
deprived. Being young is among the strongest of factors implicated in false confessions. There are four
categories of false confessions: (1) instrumental (to achieve a goal), (2) authentic (the suspect believes in
his or her own guilt), (3) coerced, and (4) voluntary.
A well-known case, the “Guilford Four”—in which three men and one woman, members of the Irish
Republican Army, confessed to exploding bombs in two pubs— was instrumental in effecting policy
change in the way interrogations were to proceed in England and Wales. The case led to the Police and
Criminal Evidence Act, prohibiting interrogators from lying to suspects or intimidating them. All
interviews had to be recorded and an “appropriate adult” had to be present when a young or vulnerable
suspect was being questioned. Whether such reforms simply changed the venue of such questionable
interrogation tactics to a location other than the interrogation room is unclear. In the United States, police
still retain the right to lie to suspects, which has led some to question whether this may lead the police to
believe that lying is acceptable in other forums as well, such as the courtroom. Possible remedies for
addressing false confessions include video recording of interrogations. Many states now require the
recording of criminal case interrogations, though this practice leads to additional problems, such as
introducing edited videos. Another associated problem concerns camera focus. The person the video
focuses on is seen by viewers as more powerful than if he or she were not the focus. Because of this
perception, if the suspect is the video’s focus, his or her confession is interpreted as having been less
coerced or not coerced at all. Other potential remedies for the false confession problem are to set time
limits on interrogations, ensure that vulnerable suspects have an “appropriate adult” present during
questioning, and allow expert testimony on false confessions in court.
Another well-known case of a possible false confession and repressed memories was the case of
Paul Ingram. In 1988, Paul Ingram was a deputy sheriff and married father of five. One of his daughters,
Erika, at the age of 22, brought allegations against her father of sexual abuse and Satanic rituals involving
sacrificing live babies and full-term fetuses. When she first spoke to police, she stated that she and her
sister were abused up until she was 9 years old and her sister Julie was five years old. After continuous
questioning, Erika stated she had also been recently abused by her father. Julie also backed up Erika’s
story.
Paul Ingram was interrogated by police and hypnotized but could not remember any of the events
of abuse. He was told by a psychologist that sex offenders often repress memories they do not wish to
acknowledge. At the urging of his pastor, Paul confessed.
Dr. Richard Ofshe was hired by the prosecution to examine the case, and he concluded that Paul
Ingram’s confession was false. His confession was coerced through faulty hypnosis and planting of
thoughts and narratives in Paul’s mind and in the minds of his children. Dr. Ofshe also found that the
police and interrogators used leading questions throughout the interrogation procedure.
Though no charges were brought for the Satanic rituals and baby sacrifices, Paul Ingram was
found guilty of six counts of rape against his daughters and sentenced to 20 years in prison. He was
released in 2003 after serving 15 years in prison.
Running head: INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 1 1
Interrogations and Confessions
By: (Name)
Course:
Professor:
Institutional Affiliation:
Date:
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 2
INTERROGATION AND CONFESSIONS
Summary and synthesis
The objective of police authorities is to generate confessions from the suspected
perpetrators of criminal acts. It is approximated that 68 percent of self-incriminating reports are
gathered suspects interrogated by the police. Confessions are a preferred method because it saves
time, resources, and is gives accurate evidence that can be used in courts. The Judges are capable
of establishing if the confessions are as a result of coercion and factor such in their decisions.
Thus, the justice system can make attribution error by blaming the suspects based on behavior
rather than the circumstances under which the confession was made. Judges are responsible for
determining if there is satisfactory evidence to prove if a confession was coerced. If established,
the judge can disqualify such confessions from being made in courts.
The interrogation techniques have transformed over the years to attain the current
standards. Before the 1930s, torture was applied on suspects to confess; such cruel methods led
to the enactment of legislation illegalizing such approaches. The legislation led to a shift in
interrogation to physical abuse leaving no marks on suspects used against the authorities. In
recent years, psychological forms of abuse have gained roots in ascertaining if a suspect was
coerced to confess; if established, the confession is regarded as objectionable. The U.S
constitution does not give a clear definition of coercion, posing a challenge for the judicial
system to reach a consensus if it has been committed. From 1966, the suspects have legal
protection, which must be considered before commencing the interrogation process.
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 3
In most cases, innocent persons are free and feel that they have nothing to hide, while
guilty individuals tend to cooperate with the investigators. Reid technique highlights intended
tenets of the questioning environment and strategies of generating confessions. False confessions
contribute to a quarter of wrongful cases, often witnessed in serious crimes. Specific individuals
such as people with low IQ, disable, and low socioeconomic backgrounds are forced to give
coerced false confessions. The objectives of false confessions are to attain a goal and establish if
a suspect believes in their guilt. Police and criminal evidence Act prohibit interrogation teams
from lying or intimidating suspects. It demands that all interviews be recorded, and an adult
should be present to represent the underage and vulnerable persons. In some countries like the
United States, the police are permitted to lie to suspects raising concerns if such acts can be acts
that can be carried forward to the courts.
How the chapter information applies to issues in psychology and the legal system
Introduction
Interrogation is an essential act of probing suspects to ascertain if allegations placed
against them are true or false. The police officers have a role of establishing evidence among the
suspects if they confess on the acts. The information obtained through interrogation and
confession is essential for the legal system to charge the convicts or not. The psychological
approach is utilized to ascertain if the suspect was coerced to confess or done out of goodwill.
The legal system can establish if the confessions have been coerced by incorporating such
considerations in their decisions. The judges handling the case are mandated to determine if there
is convincing evidence of coercion of confessions. If their findings establish so, the legal system
is at liberty to disallow it and deter confessions from being presented in courts.
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 4
Evolution of interrogation techniques
In the contemporary world, psychological forms of abuse have gained popularity if a
confession is considered to have been obtained by coercion, such confessions are regarded as
inadmissible. The American constitution does not clearly define coercion; thus, the legal system
is at crossroads in reaching an agreement if it has been perpetuated. The lawlessness and law
enforcement report of 1961 led to covert abuse leaving no marks on deprivation, isolation, and
intimidation of suspects (Slide 6). The period marked a turning point in legal decisions triggering
the police from physical covert to psychological coercion. Five years later, Miranda rights were
passed to remain silent, have a lawyer present during questioning, and have an appointed lawyer
if the suspect is incapable of hiring an attorney (Slide 7). The totality of circumstances allows the
judges to look at all circumstances surrounding an interrogation process explicitly.
Modern interrogation
Modern interrogation is an essential psychological through the good and bad cop. Police
officers have been trained on psychological aspects of interrogation (Slide 9). The Reid approach
highlights nine steps of how an appropriate interrogation should flow (Slide 10). This approach
incorporates four psychological strategies: loss of control, isolation, the certainty of committed
guilt, and exculpatory scenes.
Use of torture in interrogation
Torture is contrary to international law and violates both domestic laws and international
treaties. The act also violates moral and ethical codes of conduct; it has been established that
torture can force the suspects to give false confession (Slide 18). Actions emanating from torture
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 5
may pose severe consequences like military actions. In the United States, police interrogators are
legally allowed to use false evidence against the suspects (Slide 19). In countries such as
England and Wales, PACE Act illegalizes lying, demands that witnesses should be present, the
interrogation must be recorded in audio format, and intimidation of either suspect or witnesses
should not be accepted.
Analysis of the chapter information from a Christ-centered perspective
The Bible serves a guideline to Christians in making decisions and navigation of the
challenging paths in life. God's intention for creating man in his image was to have man follow
his command and nature. Humanity are all equals before God; thus, we should not manipulate
others by giving false testimony against them to avoid our wrongdoings because God is righteous
and just. The Bible records that we should confess our sins to another and pray for each other to
be healed (James 5:16). People may make mistakes, but the Bible insists that we should confess
our sins one to another to be healed. The ultimate teachings of Jesus revealed the truth; thus,
during interrogations and confessions, the objective should be anchored on truth as the driving
principle because knowing the truth sets people free (John 8:32). Again, it is necessary for police
interrogators not to coerce the suspects but to carry out genuine and impartial investigations to
render justice where it is due. The quest for humanity is to receive justice; hence, false
accusations used by American police should not be encouraged because it is against the Biblical
principles. The Bible records that, when God will be judging individuals on the final day,
everyone will account for careless words they utter because with it, they shall be condemned,
and with it, they shall be justified.
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 6
References
Chapter 2 (n.d). Interrogation and confessions
James 5:6 (n.d). Confess your sins to one another
John 8:32 (n.d). The truth shall set you free
Slides (6-19). Interrogation and confession
INTERROGATIONS AND CONFESSIONS 8
