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WEEK 4 LECTURE NOTES
THE FAMILY AND DELINQUENCY
There is little question that family dysfunction can lead to long-term social problems.
Interactions between parents and children provide opportunities for children to either acquire, or
inhibit, antisocial behavior patterns. Good parenting lowers the risk of delinquency for children
living in high-crime areas.
The nuclear family is showing signs of breakdown. Research indicates that parents whose
marriage is secure produce children who are secure and independent.
Children who have experienced family breakup are more likely to demonstrate behavior
problems and delinquency than children in intact families. Remarriage does not lessen the effects
of divorce on youth. Children who grow up in dysfunctional homes often exhibit delinquent
behaviors, having learned at a young age that aggression pays off. Kids who are conflict-prone
may actually help to destabilize households. Delinquency will be reduced if at least one parent
can provide parental efficacy. Studies show that the parents of delinquent youths tend to be
inconsistent disciplinarians- either overly harsh, or extremely lenient. Parents who closely
supervise their children, and have close ties with them, help reduce the likelihood of adolescent
delinquent behavior.
A number of studies have found that parental deviance has a powerful influence on delinquent
behavior. Kids whose parents go to prison are much more likely to be at risk for delinquency
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than children of non-incarcerated parents. The link between parental deviance and child
misbehavior may be genetic, experiential, or even related to labeling and stigma.
Many children are physically abused or neglected by their parents. Adolescent victims of sexual
abuse are particularly at risk for stress and anxiety. Millions of allegations of child abuse and
neglect are made each year, and about 700,000 kids are the victims of abuse. Abusive families
suffer from severe stress. Research indicates that step children share a greater risk for abuse than
biological offspring.
If the care a child receives falls below reasonable standards, the state may take action to remove
the child from the home, and place her or him in a less threatening environment. Once reported
to a child protection agency, the case is screened by an intake worker, and then turned over to an
investigative caseworker. Even when there is compelling evidence of abuse, most social service
agencies will try to involve the family in voluntary treatment. Post-investigation services are
offered on a voluntary basis, by child welfare agencies, to ensure the safety of children. If the
allegation of abuse is confirmed, the child may be placed in protective custody.
State jurisdictions have instituted procedures to minimize trauma to the child during court
proceedings for abuse or neglect. Most states now allow a child’s testimony to be given on
closed-circuit television (CCTV). Children in sexual abuse cases have been allowed to use
anatomically correct dolls to demonstrate happenings that they cannot describe verbally.
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This assumed link between maltreatment and delinquency is supported by a number of
criminological theories. Studies of juvenile offenders have confirmed that between 70 and 80
percent may have had abusive backgrounds. It is difficult to assess the temporal order of the
linkage: Does early abuse lead to later delinquency? Or conversely, are antisocial kids subject to
overly harsh parental discipline and abuse?
OUTLINE:
I. Introduction
A. Many experts believe family dysfunction is a key ingredient in development of
the emotional deficits that eventually lead to long-term social problems
1. Good parenting lowers the risk of delinquency for children living in
high-crime areas
2. The assumed relationship between delinquency and family life is critical
today, because the American family unit is undergoing change
a. Nuclear family: A family unit composed of parents and their
children. This smaller family structure is subject to great stress due
to the intense, close contact between parents and children
3. About half of all marriages end in divorce, leading to remarriage and
blended families that can be unstable
II. The Changing American Family
A. The so-called traditional family is a thing of the past; no longer can this family
structure be considered the norm
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1. About three-quarters of all mothers of school-age children are employed,
up from 50 percent in 1970 and 40 percent in 1960
2. The changing economic structure may be reflected in shifting sex roles;
fathers are now spending more time with their children
B. Family Makeup
1. After a decades-long decline, about two-thirds of underage minors now
live in two-parent families
2. However, significant racial differences in family makeup still exist
a. The percentage of children living with two parents varies by race
and ethnic origin
b. 75 percent of white non-Hispanic children, 61 percent of Hispanic
children, and 35 percent of black children have two-parent families
C. Teen Moms/Single Moms
1. Living in a single parent home, especially one headed by an unmarried
teenage mother, has long been associated with difficulties for both the
mother and her children
D. Child Care
1. Family daycare homes are of special concern; several states neither icense
nor monitor these private providers
2. It is estimated that 90% or more of the facilities operate underground
3. Children from working poor families are most likely to suffer from
inadequate child care
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4. Unlike many other Western countries, the United States does not provide
universal day care to working mothers
E. Economic Stress
1. The family is also undergoing economic stress
2. About 6 million American youths live in poverty
3. The majority live in substandard housing without adequate health care,
nutrition, or childcare
4. The elderly population is on the rise; they will require a greater
percentage of the nation’s income for their care, so there will be less
money available to care for needy children
III. The Family’s Influence on Delinquency
A. The family is the primary unit in which children learn the values and attitudes
that guide their actions throughout their lives
1. Four categories of family dysfunction seem to promote delinquent
behavior:
a. families disrupted by spousal conflict or breakup
b. families involved in interpersonal conflict
c. ineffective parents who lack proper parenting skills
d. families with deviant parents
B. Family Breakup
1. Research indicates that parents whose marriage is secure, produce
children who are secure and independent
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2. Research conducted in the U.S. and abroad shows that children raised in
homes with one or both parents absent may be prone to antisocial behavior
3. The broken home-delinquency relationship is important because, if
current trends continue, less than half of all children born today will live
continuously with their own mother and father throughout childhood.
4. Since blended, or step families, are often less stable than families
consisting of two biological parents, an increasing number of children will
experience family breakup two or even three times during childhood
a. Children who have experienced family breakup are more likely to
demonstrate behavior problems and hyperactivity than children in
intact families
C. The Effects of Divorce
1. In a recent study, sociologist Sara McLanahan found that children who
grow up apart from their biological fathers typically achieve less than
children who grow up with both biological parents
a. They are less likely to finish high school and attend college, less
likely to find and keep a steady job, and more likely to become
teen mothers, etc.
b. Children growing up in families disrupted by parental death are
better adjusted than children of divorce. Parental absence is not,
per se, a cause of antisocial behavior.
2. The effects of divorce also seem gender, race and ethnicity-specific
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a. Boys seem to be more affected by the post-divorce absence of the
father
b. Girls are more affected by both the quality of the mother’s
parenting and post-divorce parental conflict
c. Some groups (i.e., Hispanics, Asians) have been raised in cultures
where divorce is rare, and parents have less experience in
developing child-rearing practices that buffer the effects of family
breakup on adolescent problem behaviors
3. Divorce does not always produce delinquency, and many single moms
and dads raise perfectly adjusted children
D. Family Conflict
1. Not all unhappy marriages end in divorce; some continue in an
atmosphere of conflict
2. Intra-family conflict is a common experience in many American families
3. The link between parental conflict and delinquency was established almost
forty years ago when Nye found that a child’s perception of his or her
parents’ marital happiness was a significant predictor of delinquency
4. There seems to be little difference between the behavior of children who
merely witness intra-family violence, and those who are its victims
5. Although damaged parent-child relationships are associated with
delinquency, it is difficult to assess the relationship
6. Research shows that children in both broken homes and high conflict
intact homes were worse off than children in low-conflict, intact families
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7. Bad Parents or Bad Kids?
a. David Huh and colleagues surveyed almost five hundred
adolescent girls, from eight different schools, to determine their
perceived parental support and control, and whether they engage in
problem behaviors such as lying, stealing, running away, or
substance abuse
b. They found little evidence that poor parenting is a direct cause of
children’s misbehavior problems, or that it escalates misbehavior.
Their results suggested that children’s problem behaviors
undermine parenting effectiveness
c. Increases in adolescent behavior problems, such as substance
abuse, resulted in decreases in parental control and support
d. Genetics and Environment: Psychologist Judith Rich Harris claims
that instead of family influence, genetics and environment
determine, to a large extent, how a child turns out
e. Harris reasons that parenting skills may be irrelevant to children’s
future success
f. In addition to genetics, the child’s total social environment is the
other key influence that shapes behavior
g. Kids who act one way at home, may be totally different at school
or with their peers
E. Family Effectiveness
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1. Children, raised by parents who lack proper parenting skills, are more at
risk for delinquency than those whose parents are supportive and
effectively control their children in a non-coercive fashion
2. Delinquency will be reduced if parents provide the type of structure that
integrates children into families, while giving them the ability to assert
their individuality, and regulate their own behavior- a phenomenon
referred to as parental efficacy.
3. Harsh Discipline
a. While most professionals have come out in protest against
corporal punishment of children, both in school and at home, about
94 percent of parents still continue to support the use of corporal
punishment in disciplining children
b. While the debate continues, there is growing evidence of a
<violence begetting violence= cycle
c. Children who are subject to even minimal amounts of physical
punishment may be more likely to use violence themselves
4. Inconsistent Supervision
a. Evidence also exists that inconsistent supervision can promote
delinquency
b. Nye’s early research found that mothers who threatened discipline,
but failed to carry it out, were more likely to have delinquent
children than those who were consistent in their discipline
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c. The data shows that youths, who believe their parents care little
about their activities, are more likely to engage in criminal acts
than those who believe their actions will be closely monitored
d. Poorly supervised kids may be more prone to acting impulsively,
and are therefore less able to employ self-control to restrain their
activities
5. Poor Communication
a. Poor child-parent communications have been related to
dysfunctional activities such as running away, and in all too many
instances these children enter the ranks of homeless street youths,
who get involved in theft and prostitution to survive
b. Holding a <my way or the highway= orientation does little to
improve communications, and may instead produce kids who are
rebellious and crime prone
6. Mother’s Employment
a. The association between mother’s employment and delinquency is
far from certain
f. In addition to genetics, the child’s total social environment is the other key influence
that shapes behavior
g. Kids who act one way at home, may be totally different at school or with their peers
E. Family Effectiveness
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1. Children, raised by parents who lack proper parenting skills, are more at risk for
delinquency than those whose parents are supportive and effectively control their children
in a non-coercive fashion
2. Delinquency will be reduced if parents provide the type of structure that integrates
children into families, while giving them the ability to assert their individuality, and
regulate their own behavior- a phenomenon referred to as parental efficacy.
3. Harsh Discipline a. While most professionals have come out in protest against corporal
punishment of children, both in school and at home, about 94 percent of parents still
continue to support the use of corporal punishment in disciplining children b. While the
debate continues, there is growing evidence of a <violence begetting violence= cycle c.
Children who are subject to even minimal amounts of physical punishment may be more
likely to use violence themselves
4. Inconsistent Supervision a. Evidence also exists that inconsistent supervision can
promote delinquency b. Nye’s early research found that mothers who threatened
discipline, but failed to carry it out, were more likely to have delinquent children than
those who were consistent in their discipline c. The data shows that youths, who believe
their parents care little about their activities, are more likely to engage in criminal acts
than those who believe their actions will be closely monitored d. Poorly supervised kids
may be more prone to acting impulsively, and are therefore less able to employ
self-control to restrain their activities
5. Poor Communication a. Poor child-parent communications have been related to
dysfunctional activities such as running away, and in all too many instances these
children enter the ranks of homeless street youths, who get involved in theft and
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prostitution to survive b. Holding a <my way or the highway= orientation does little to
improve communications, and may instead produce kids who are rebellious and crime
prone
6. Mother’s Employment a. The association between mother’s employment and
delinquency is far from certain b. Some research efforts have found that a mother’s
employment may have little effect on youthful misbehavior, especially when the children
are adequately supervised
7. Resource Dilution a. Large families find that their resources are spread too thin b.
Middle children may suffer the most from resource dilution, because by definition, they
are most likely to live in larger families c. Larger families are more likely to produce
delinquents than smaller ones, and middle children are more likely to engage in
delinquent acts than first or last born children
F. Family Deviance
1. A number of studies have found that parental deviance has a powerful influence on
delinquent behavior
2. The effects can be both long term and inter-generational: the children of deviant parents
produce delinquent children themselves
3. Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development (CSDD) (Farrington)
a. A significant number of delinquent youths have criminal fathers; 8% of the sons
of noncriminal fathers become chronic offenders compared to 37% of youths with
criminal fathers
b. School yard bullying may be both inter- and intra-generational; that is, bullies
have children who bully others
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c. Kids, whose parents go to prison, are much more likely to be at risk of
delinquency than children of non-incarcerated parents
4. The cause of intergenerational deviance is uncertain; a number of factors may play a
role:
a. Genetic factors
b. Substance abuse
c. Parenting skills
d. Stigma
G. Sibling Influences
1. Some evidence also exists that siblings may influence behavior too; research shows that
if one sibling is a delinquent, there is a significant likelihood that his brother or sister will
engage in delinquent behaviors
IV. Child Abuse and Neglect
A. Historical foundation
1. Child abuse and neglect are not a modern phenomenon
2. Mary Ellen Wilson was removed from her parents, and placed in an orphanage
(not through the SPCA), per a judge's order
3. Kempe coined the term <battered child syndrome,= which applies to cases of
non-accidental injury of children by parents or guardians
B. Defining Abuse and Neglect
1. Kempe’s work expanded in a more generic expression of child Abuse, that
includes neglect and physical abuse; specifically, it describes:
a. any physical or emotional trauma to a child
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b. for which no reasonable explanation can be found
c. generally seen as a pattern of behavior, rather than a single act
2. Neglect refers to deprivations children suffer at the hands of their caregivers
3. Abuse is a more overt form of aggression against the child
4. The forms that abuse and neglect take are:
a. Physical abuse – e.g., shaken-baby syndrome
b. Physical neglect – e.g., failure to provide adequate food, shelter, or medical care
c. Emotional abuse or neglect – e.g., constant criticism and rejection, inadequate
nurturing
d. Abandonment - parents leave their children with the intention of severing the
parent–child relationship
e. Sexual abuse – the exploitation of children through rape, incest, and molestation
by parents, family members, friends, or legal guardians
C. The Effects of Abuse
1. Regardless of how it is defined, the effects of abuse can be devastating
2. Mental health and delinquency experts have found that abused kids experience
mental and social problems across their lifespan, ranging from substance abuse to
possession of a damaged personality
3. Psychologists suggest that maltreatment encourages children to use aggression as
a means of solving problems, and prevents them from feeling empathy for others
4. Sexual Abuse
a. Adolescent victims of sexual abuse are particularly at risk to stress and
anxiety
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b. Kids who have undergone traumatic sexual experiences have been later
found to suffer psychological deficits
i. Children who are psychologically, sexually, or physically abused
are more likely to suffer low self-esteem and be more suicidal as
adults
D. The Extent of Child Abuse
1. It is almost impossible to estimate the extent of child abuse
2. Many victims are so young that they have not learned to communicate
3. A groundbreaking 1980 survey by Gelles and Straus estimated that:
a. between 1.4 and 1.9 million children were subject to physical abuse from
their parents
b. average number of assaults per year was 10.5
4. Survey conducted in 1988 indicated that:
a. the incidence of severe violence toward children had declined
b. parental approval of corporal punishment also decreased
5. Monitoring Abuse
a. The Department of Health and Human Services has been monitoring the
extent of child maltreatment through its annual survey of Child Protective
Services
b. In 2010, 3 million children received a CPA investigation, and about 20%
were found to have been victimized in some fashion (600,000 cases)
6. Who Are the Victims of Abuse?
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a. There is a direct association between age and abuse: victimization rates
are higher for younger children than their older brothers and sisters
b. There are also racial differences in the abuse rate: AfricanAmerican
children, Pacific Islander children, and American Indian or Alaskan
Native children suffer child abuse at rates far higher than European
American children, Hispanic children, and Asian children
c. Perpetrators: Four-fifths of victims were maltreated by a parent, either
acting alone, or with someone else
d. Most common form of maltreatment is neglect, followed by physical
abuse; 9% are subject to sexual abuse
e. An estimated 1,560 children die each year because of abuse, a rate of
slightly more than 2 deaths per 100,000 children; 80% were younger than
4 years old
E. Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect
1. Of all factors associated with child abuse, three are discussed most often:
a. parents, who themselves suffered abuse, tend to abuse their own children
b. the presence of an unrelated adult increases the risk of abuse
c. isolated and alienated families tend to become abusive
2. A cyclical pattern of violence seems to be perpetuated from one generation to
another
3. Evidence indicates that a large number of abused and neglected children grow
into adulthood with a tendency to engage in violent behavior
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4. Parents may become abusive if they are isolated from friends, neighbors, or
relatives
5. The relationship between alienation and abuse may be particularly acute in homes
where there has been divorce or separation, or in which parents have never
actually married
6. Substance Abuse and Child Abuse
a. Studies have found a strong association between child abuse and parental
alcoholism
b. In addition, evidence exists of a significant relationship between cocaine
and heroin abuse and neglect/abuse
c. Children of alcoholics suffer more injuries and poisonings than children
in the general population
d. Children raised in such households are themselves more likely to have
problems with alcohol and other drugs
7. Stepparents and Abuse
a. Research indicates that stepchildren are at greater risk for abuse than are
biological offspring
b. Stepparents may have less emotional attachment to the children of
another
c. Stepchildren are overrepresented in cases of familicide
8. Social Class and Abuse
a. Surveys indicate a high rate of reported abuse and neglect among people
in lower economic classes
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b. Children from families with a household income of less than fifteen
thousand dollars per year experience more abuse than children living in
more affluent homes
c. A relationship seems to exist between the burdens of raising a child
without adequate resources, and the use of excessive force
d. Higher rates of maltreatment, in low-income families, reflect the stress
caused by the limited resources that lower-class parents have to help them
raise their children
F. The Child Protection System: Philosophy and Practice
1. For most of our nation’s history, courts have assumed that parents have the right
to bring up their children as they see fit
2. In the 2000 case, Troxel v. Granville, the Supreme Court ruled that:
a. due process clause of the Constitution
b. protects against government interference with certain rights
c. including parents’ right to make decisions about their children
3. The rights of both parents and children are constitutionally protected
4. In the cases of Lassiter v. Department of Social Services and Santosky v. Kramer,
the U.S. Supreme Court:
a. recognized the child’s right to be free from parental abuse
b. set down guidelines for a termination-of-custody hearing, including the
right to legal representation
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c. States provide a guardian ad litem (a lawyer appointed by the court to
look after the interests of those who do not have the capacity to assert their
own rights)
5. Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974
(CAPTA), which provides funds for services for maltreated children and parents
a. Abusive parents are subject to prosecution under statutes against assault,
battery, and homicide
6. Investigating and Reporting Abuse
a. Maltreatment of children can easily be hidden from public view
b. All states require selected occupations to report suspected cases; many
have made failure to report child abuse a criminal offense
c. A case is screened by an intake worker, and turned over to an
investigative caseworker, where the case may be referred to a law
enforcement agency
d. If a child is in imminent danger of severe harm, the caseworker may
immediately remove the child from the home
e. A court hearing must be held shortly after to approve custody
f. The most common reasons for screening out cases is that the reporting
party is involved in a child custody case
7. The Process of State Intervention
a. Although procedures vary from state to state, most follow a similar legal
process once a social service agency files a court petition alleging abuse or
neglect
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b. When an abuse or neglect petition is prosecuted, an advisement hearing is
held
c. The court will review the facts of the case; determine whether permanent
removal of the child is justified; notify the parents of the charges against
them
d. Parents have the right to counsel in all cases of abuse and neglect
e. Many states require the court to appoint an attorney for the child
f. If the parents admit the allegations, the court enters a consent decree, and
the case is continued for disposition
g. About one-half of all cases are settled by admission at the advisement
hearing
h. If the parents deny the petition, an attorney is appointed for the child, and
the case is continued for a pretrial conference
i. At the pretrial conference, the attorney for the social service agency
presents an overview of the case and the evidence
j. Such matters as admissibility of photos and written reports are settled
k. At this point, the attorneys can negotiate a settlement of the case, in which
the parents accept a treatment plan detailing:
i. The types of services that the child and the child’s family will
receive; reunification goals; and
a. Abusive parents are subject to prosecution under statutes against
assault, battery, and homicide
6. Investigating and Reporting Abuse
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a. Maltreatment of children can easily be hidden from public view
b. All states require selected occupations to report suspected cases; many
have made failure to report child abuse a criminal offense
c. A case is screened by an intake worker, and turned over to an investigative
caseworker, where the case may be referred to a law enforcement agency
d. If a child is in imminent danger of severe harm, the caseworker may
immediately remove the child from the home
e. A court hearing must be held shortly after to approve custody
f. The most common reason for screening out cases is that the reporting
party is involved in a child custody case
7. The Process of State Intervention
a. Although procedures vary from state to state, most follow a similar legal process
once a social service agency files a court petition alleging abuse or neglect
b. When an abuse or neglect petition is prosecuted, an advisement hearing is held
c. The court will review the facts of the case; determine whether permanent
removal of the child is justified; notify the parents of the charges against them
d. Parents have the right to counsel in all cases of abuse and neglect
e. Many states require the court to appoint an attorney for the child
f. If the parents admit the allegations, the court enters a consent decree, and the case
is continued for disposition
g. About one-half of all cases are settled by admission at the advisement hearing
h. If the parents deny the petition, an attorney is appointed for the child, and the
case is continued for a pretrial conference
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i. At the pretrial conference, the attorney for the social service agency presents an
overview of the case and the evidence
j. Such matters as admissibility of photos and written reports are settled
k. At this point, the attorneys can negotiate a settlement of the case, in which the
parents accept a treatment plan detailing:
i. The types of services that the child and the child’s family will receive;
reunification goals; and concurrent plans for alternative permanent
placement options should reunification goals not be met
l. About three-fourths of the cases that go to pretrial conference are settled by a
consent decree
m. About eighty-five out of every one hundred petitions filed are settled at either the
advisement hearing or the pretrial conference
G. Trial and Disposition
1. One of the most crucial parts of an abuse or neglect proceeding is the disposition
hearing
2. Here, the social service agency presents its case plan, which includes
recommendations, such as conditions for returning the child to the parents, or a
visitation plan
3. An agreement is reached by which the parents commit themselves to following
the state orders
4. Between one-half and two-thirds of all convicted parents will be required to serve
time in incarceration; almost half will be assigned to a form of treatment
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5. Today, social service agents avoid removing children from the home whenever
possible, and instead try to employ techniques to control abusive relationships
6. In making their decisions, courts are guided by three interests:
a. the role of the parents
b. protection for the child
c. the responsibility of the state
7. The state attempts to balance the parents’ natural right to control their child’s
upbringing, with the child’s right to grow into adulthood free from harm; this is
referred to as the <balancing-of- the-interests approach=
8. Periodically, review hearings are held to determine if the conditions of the case
plan are being met
H. The Abused Child in Court
1. One of the most significant problems associated with abuse cases is the trauma a
child goes through in a court hearing
2. Children get confused and frightened and may change their testimony
3. Much controversy has arisen over the accuracy of children’s reports of physical
and sexual abuse, resulting in hung juries
a. The McMartin Day Care case in California
4. State jurisdictions have instituted procedures to minimize the trauma to the child;
most have enacted legislation allowing videotaped statements, or interviews with
child witnesses, taken at a preliminary hearing, to be admissible in court
5. States that allow videotaped testimony usually put some restrictions
a. Some prohibit the government from calling the child to testify at trial
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b. Some require a finding that the child is <medically unavailable=
6. Most states now allow a child’s testimony to be given on CCTV
7. Some states require a compelling need for CCTV testimony
8. Others require an independent examination by a mental health professional to
determine whether there is a <compelling need= for CCTV testimony
9. The prevalence of sexual abuse cases has created new problems for the justice
system; often accusations are made in conjunction with marital disputes
10. The justice system must develop techniques that can get at the truth, without
creating a lifelong scar on the child’s psyche
11. Legal Issues
a. A number of cases have been brought before the Supreme Court which
test the right of children to present evidence using nontraditional methods
i. Two issues: the ability of physicians and mental health
professionals to testify about statements made to them by children,
and the way children testify in court
b. In White v. Illinois, the Supreme Court ruled that the state’s attorney is
required to neither produce young victims at trial, nor to demonstrate the
reason why they were unavailable to serve as witnesses
c. White removed the requirement that prosecutors produce child victims in
court
12. In-Court Statements
a. In Coy v. Iowa, the Supreme Court placed limitations on efforts to protect
child witnesses in court
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b. The court rules that unless there is a finding that the child witness needs
special protection, the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution grants
defendants <face-to-face= confrontation with their accusers
c. In Maryland v. Craig, the Supreme Court ruled that CCTV testimony is
sufficient
THE FAMILY AND DELINQUENCY
There is little question that family dysfunction can lead to long-term social problems.
Interactions between parents and children provide opportunities for children to acquire or inhibit
antisocial behavior patterns. Good parenting lowers the risk of delinquency for children living in
high-crime areas.
The nuclear family is showing signs of breakdown. Research indicates that parents whose
marriage is secure produce children who are secure and independent.
Children who have experienced family breakup are more likely to demonstrate behavior
problems and delinquency than children in intact families. Remarriage does not lessen the effects
of divorce on youth. Children who grow up in dysfunctional homes often exhibit delinquent
behaviors, having learned at a young age that aggression pays off. Kids who are conflict-prone
may actually help to destabilize households. Delinquency will be reduced if at least one parent
can provide parental efficacy. Studies show that the parents of delinquent youths tend to be
lOMoARcPSD|271398 04
inconsistent disciplinarians- either overly harsh or extremely lenient. Parents who closely
supervise their children and have close ties with them help reduce the likelihood of adolescent
delinquent behavior.
A number of studies have found that parental deviance has a powerful influence on delinquent
behavior. Kids whose parents go to prison are much more likely to be at risk for delinquency
than children of non incarcerated parents. The link between parental deviance and child
misbehavior may be genetic, experiential, or even related to labeling and stigma.
Many children are physically abused or neglected by their parents. Adolescent victims of sexual
abuse are particularly at risk for stress and anxiety. Millions of allegations of child abuse and
neglect are made each year and about 700,000 kids are the victims of abuse. Abusive families
suffer from severe stress. Research indicates that step children share a greater risk for abuse than
biological offspring.
If the care a child receives falls below reasonable standards, the state may take action to remove
the child from the home and place her or him in a less threatening environment. Once reported to
a child protection agency, the case is screened by an intake worker and then turned over to an
investigative caseworker. Even when there is compelling evidence of abuse, most social service
agencies will try to involve the family in voluntary treatment. Post-investigation services are
offered on a voluntary basis by child welfare agencies to ensure the safety of children. If the
allegation of abuse is confirmed, the child may be placed in protective custody.
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State jurisdictions have instituted procedures to minimize trauma to the child during court
proceedings for abuse or neglect. Most states now allow a child’s testimony to be given on
closed-circuit television (CCTV). Children in sexual abuse cases have been allowed to use
anatomically correct dolls to demonstrate happenings that they cannot describe verbally. This
assumed link between maltreatment and delinquency is supported by a number of criminological
theories. Studies of juvenile offenders have confirmed that between 70 and 80 percent may have
had abusive backgrounds. It is difficult to assess the temporal order of the linkage: Does early
abuse lead to later delinquency? Or conversely, are antisocial kids subject to overly harsh
parental discipline and abuse
