LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Reflection Paper I on the Emergence of the Chaplain Ministry 27 B. C.-1600 A. D.
Submitted to Dr. Paul B. Greer, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the completion of the course
CHPL 500 – D02
Introduction to Chaplaincy
by
Jamelle E. McKenzie
April 3, 2016
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1
The Roman Empire 27 B. C. through 500 A. D ........................................................................ 2
The Emergence of Roman Military Priests ....................................................................... 2
The Emergence of Clergy in the Roman Army ................................................................ 3
Chaplains Emerge: The Middle Ages ....................................................................................... 3
The Carolingian Period .................................................................................................... 3
The Medieval Military Chaplain ...................................................................................... 4
Chaplains At War: Three Kingdoms ................................................................................ 4
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 5
Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 6
i1
Introduction
Armies from time immemorial have had their spiritual advisors.The Egyptians, sixteen
centuries before the Christian Era, went to battle accompanied by the priests of Ammon-
Re, god of Thebes. The Hebrews, under Joshua, marched around the walls of Jericho, led
by seven priests. No declaration of war could be made by ancient Rome without first
consulting the priests of the College of Augurs. Christianity provided for army chaplains
in its ecclesiastical law at the council of Ratisbon on April 12, 742, A. D.1
Chaplains have been a vital part of world history since ancient times. Religious men and
women have risked their lives to minister as priests, to support, and administer sacraments to
soldiers in battle.2 They have not always been called chaplains, and their roles have emerged and
changed over time. It was not until 800 A. D. that word chaplain, which is derived from the Latin
form capellanus was given to who we now know to be chaplains.3 In 300 A. D., a holy man
named St. Martin, used his sword to slice his cape “in half to share with a naked homeless man
who turned out to be Christ.” Thus chaplains got their name from St. Martin’s cappa.4 This
discussion will examine the counterpart of today’s military chaplain during the period, 27 B. C.
1 United States, Army Service Forces, Office of the Chief of Chaplains, American Army
Chaplaincy: a Brief History, (Washington, D.C.: The Chaplains' Association, 1946), 1.
2 Naomi K. Paget, Janet R. McCormack, The Work of The Chaplain, (Valley Forge, PA: Judson
Press, 2006), 2.
3 Ralph W. Mathisen, “Emperors, Priests, and Bishops: Military Chaplains in the Roman
Empire,” in The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First
Century, edited by Doris L. Bergen (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009), 29.
4 Michael McCormick, “The Liturgy of War from Antiquity to the Crusades,” in The Sword of
the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century, edited by Doris L.
Bergen (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009), 46.
through 1600 A. D. Special attention will be given to how the role of chaplain evolved during
this time some of the challenges these persons may have encountered while carrying out their
commitment to God and to the people they served.
The Roman Empire 27 B. C. through 500 A. D.
The Ancient Romans were extremely religious people. Way before Christianity was
introduced to their society they were worshippers of their pagan gods and goddesses and wanted
to be certain that they had the protection and the “goodwill of the gods,”5 upon preparing to go
into battle. Each military base had shrines, performed religious ceremonies and dedications that
were usually carried out by the emperor himself, his commanders, or other military personnel.6
“None of these indivduals, however, was called a priest or could ever qualify as a chaplain.”7
The Emergence of Roman Military Priests
During the second century in Rome, scattered accounts of priests begin to surface as in
the case of T. Aelius Malcus who served as a antistes sacerdos (priest) of the temple of Mars in
the camp of the praetorians and Aurelius Mucianus who was described as a saerdos (priest) and
miles (soldier) of the tenth praetorian cohort stationed at Sindrina in Bulgaria.8 However,
according to Ralph H. Mathisen, the ceremonies these priests and other leaders performed at the
5 Mathisen, “Emperors, Priests, and Bishops,” Bergen, Sword, 30.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid., 31-32.
military camps were not tailored to fit “the personal spiritual needs of individual soldiers” and
therefore did not qualify them as “modern-type” chaplains.9 The only cult in the Roman world
catering to the personal spriritual needs of soldiers was Mithraism, named after the Persian sun
god, Mithras, whose priests may have performed some chaplain type roles but Mathisen could
notes that there is no indiction of what those roles might have been.10
The Emergence of Clergy in the Roman Army
After the conversion of Constanine in the fourth century the presence of clergy in the
Roman army became more pronounced, but only for a short time. Initially Eusebius of Caesarea
established a traveling tent, representing a church to be carried before the army, and followed by
priests and deacons, as the Christian Roman army engaged in war.11 However, not much mention
is made of, nor is there any “other evidence for Christain clergy accompanying Roman armies
after the fourth or during the early fifth centuries.12 By the middle of the fifth century more
accounts and evidence of clergy being appointed to the Roman and Barbarian militaries exist, but
only on an “ad hoc basis.”13
Chaplains Emerge: The Middles Ages
The Carolingian Period
9 Ibid., 33.
10 Mathisen, “Emperors, Priests, and Bishops,” Bergen, Sword, 35.
11 Mathisen, 36
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid., 37
The Carolingian era had a great impact on the evolution of the military chaplain. It was
during this period that the chaplaincy received it’s name from the cappa of St. Martin.14 Initially
the Carolingian church excluded clergy from involvement in military feats, except for a bishop or
two and one priest for every military leader.15 As chaplains became more involved in the
medieval military they were able to influence and develop Christian military religious practices.
Michael McCormick refers to the chaplain’s role in combat during this period as one of creating
“the liturgy of war.”16 As the crusades of the Middle Ages continued the message and ministry of
chaplains to their troops changed to accommodate the spiritual, emotional and physical needs of
the brave men they served.
In terms of the chaplains’ pastoral function, what is perhaps most striking is the
imagination and creativity that the clergy of the early Middle Ages deployed. In so doing,
they brought the values of the Christian religion into a most unlikely place, but one where
it was sure to command the attention and penetrate the hearts and minds of men about to
face death.17
The Medieval Military Chaplain
“By the mid-thirteenth century, the sacramental and moral aspects of the chaplain’s office
had achieved a firm basis in law. In 1238, Pope Gregory IX (1227-41) provided a detailed list of
the military chaplain’s duties.”18 Pope Gregory established chaplains in their position of spiritual
14 McCormick, “Liturgy of War”, Bergen, Sword, 46.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid
17 McCormick, “Liturgy of War”, Bergen, Sword, 57.
18 David S. Bachrach, “The Medieval Military Chaplain and His Duties,” in The Sword of the
Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century, edited by Doris L. Bergen
care givers and gave them authority to provide sacramental duties as well as moral
encouragement through sermons. Prior to Pope Gregory’s rulings, other leader’s such as Pope
Innocent III (1198-1216) and Bishop Ivo of Chartres (1090-1115) laid out groundwork for
spiritual, moral and sacramental duties for military chaplains.19 In terms a defining the roles of
chaplains and placing them in the military in number, this period proved to be fruitful in the lives
of the military troops and well as the chaplains themselves.
Chaplains at War: Three Kingdoms
In the seven years between 1642 and 1649 the English Parliament found itself embroilded
in three wars: The English Civil War and the Wars of Three Kingdoms. “Religious matters
played a central role in all three conflicts, and for all three, Parliament made provisions for
chaplains to be a part of the army.20“The challenges for chaplains during these wars were many.
Aside from the wars being fought over Protestantism and Catholicsm, chaplains found
themselves on both sides of the fence. Since several were employed by Parliament it was
virtually impossible for them to remain objective and unbiased. Negative propaganda spread
through media accusing military chaplains of “corrupting their hearers and disciples from the
(Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009), 70
19 Ibid., 70-71
20 Anne Laurence, “Did the Nature of the Enemy Make a Difference? Chap;ains in the Wars of
the Three Kingdoms,” in The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the
Twenty-First Century, edited by Doris L. Bergen (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
2009), 89
simplicity of the gospel.”21 Several found themselves rising up against the king and against one
another.
Conclusion
Chaplains have play an important role in the history of the military even though they
have not always been called by the name chaplain or allowed to ministry to the personal spiritual
needs of the troops who fight for their countries. During the period 27 B. C. through 1600 A. D.
the role of chaplains in European society evolved and expanded. Initally their position was
limited to pagan worship and ritual. As Christianity became more prominent they were called
upon and authorized to perform sacraments, develop religious military practices and influence
the soldiers in their care. The inclusion of the chaplain in military affairs was not without
challenges. As chaplains found themselves in civil and religious wars the challenge of remaining
objective and respected as religious was often brought under scrutiny. Overall, chaplains have
remained a positive force in the military and withstood the tests that even the ages have failed.
Bibliography
Bachrach, David S. “The Medieval Military Chaplain and His Duties.” in The Sword of the
Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century. edited by Doris L.
Bergen. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009.
Laurence, Anne. “Did the Nature of the Enemy Make a Difference? Chaplains in the Wars of the
Three Kingdoms.” In The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the
Twenty-First Century. Edited by Doris L. Bergen. Notre Dame: University of Notre
Dame Press, 2009.
McCormick, Michael. “The Liturgy of War from Antiquity to the Crusades.” In The Sword of the
Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century. Edited by Doris L.
Bergen. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009.
21 Ibid., 93.
Paget, Naomi K., McCormack, Janet R., The Work of The Chaplain. Valley Forge, PA: Judson
Press, 2006.
Ralph W. Mathisen. “Emperors, Priests, and Bishops: Military Chaplains in the Roman Empire.”
In The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century.
Edited by Doris L. Bergen. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009.
United States. Army Service Forces, Office of the Chief of Chaplains, American Army
Chaplaincy: a Brief History. Washington, D.C.: The Chaplains' Association, 1946.
Wall, Max B. “We Will Be: Experiences of an American Jewish Chaplain in the Second World
War.” In The Sword of the Lord: Military Chaplains from the First to the Twenty-First Century,
edited by Doris L. Bergen, 187-213. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009.
