Research Paper Instructions
Each student will choose a topic from the list provided below and write a paper of 2,000-3,000 words (7–
10 pages, excluding front and back matter). The final paper must include no less than three (3) primary
sources and six (6) secondary sources. Secondary sources must be scholarly books and journal
articles. Students may not use course textbooks or recommended reading from the syllabus. No two
students may write on the same subject, and subject selection is first come, first served. At the end of
the course all papers will be combined for the mutual benefit of the entire class. Your paper should focus
on the historical aspects of the topic and how to apply what you have learned in your research to
contemporary challenges in the church.
Your paper must conform to the style standards of the latest edition of Kate L. Turabian’s A Manual for
Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Most of the detailed instructions you need can be
found at the School of Divinity Writing Guide located
at https://www.liberty.edu/divinity/index.cfm?PID=28160. For items not covered here see Turabian.
Your paper should draw upon the writings of Church Fathers, scholars, theologians, and historians as
well as Scripture to present a concise overview of the topic along with a view to how to apply what you
have learned in the context of contemporary ministry. This project, in many respects, will be merely a
sampling, something to whet your appetite, so to speak, for further study. You will be expected to
choose your sources judiciously. Works that are general histories or historical accounts should be
counted as secondary sources. Works by the persons with whom you are dealing should be considered
primary sources. Be sure you consult up to date scholarly journals. These can be accessed through the
LUO Library portal.
Remember to review the LUO Honor Code. Also read Turabian, chapter 7, sections 4—10 on the issue
of plagiarism. You are writing, not merely for a grade, but for the benefit of your entire class. Put your
best effort into your research and your writing. If you are not sure, or think you might need help, contact
either the LUO Writing Center or www.tutor.com/libertyu for help with grammar, style, and spelling.
LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Christian Apologetics in the Early Church
Submitted to Prof: ,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the completion of
CHHI 510-D02
Survey of the History of Christianity
By
CHRISTIAN APOLOGETICS IN THE EARLY CHURCH
Thesis Statement
Christian apologetics is the art of defending the Christian faith as mandated in 1 Peter
3:15, and this paper will present support of that notion.
I will establish the rationale difference between today’s use of the word apologetics and
Christian apologetics, as well as taking a look of our history and the many ways we carried out
his mandate in the past.
Outline
Introduction
I. Biblical Roots
A. Apologetics biblical roots
B. Theological and philosophical objections
C. Biblical justification
II. Various Methods of Apologetics
A. Worldview Evaluation
1. Laws of Logic
2. Worldview Hypothesis
B. Fideism
C. Presuppositionalism
D. Reformed Theology
E. Evidentialism
F. Natural Theology
III. 1 Peter 3:15 and the Proper Way of Doing Apologetics
A. The Christian Way
B. The Right Way
Conclusion
Through the entire Christian history, Christians had to defend their faith and the reason why they
believe that Christ is God incarnated.
“The word apologetics (in both the noun and verbal form) appears nineteen times in the New
Testament. The word is used either to denote an answer that is given to a charge, objection or
accusation leveled against an individual or a vindication (implying a successful answer or
defense).”
1
Learning how to be apologetic can help Christians on winning skeptic soul the right way for
Christ, by inviting the Holy Spirit to always take charge.
Bibliography
Douglas Groothius (2018). Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith.
Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.com
James K Beilby (2017). Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It.
Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.com
L. Russ Bush (2018). (p. 40). The Advancement: Keeping the Faith in an Evolutionary Age.
Retrieved from https://app.wordsearchbible.com
1
Beilby, James, Thinking about Christian Apologetics. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011),
11.
Christian Apologetics in the Early Church
Thesis: There are numerous instances of apologetics found within the Bible where some followers
of Jesus Christ took it upon themselves to defend attacks directed at their faith from non-believers.
Apologetics is a crucial element of the Christian faith.
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Biblical Roots ........................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Apologetics biblical roots .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Theological and philosophical objections .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Biblical justification........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Various Methods of Apologetics ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Worldview Evaluation ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Laws of Logic ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Worldview hypothesis .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Fideism ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Presuppositionalism ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reformed Theology .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Evidentialism .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Natural Theology .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1 Peter 3:15 and the proper way of doing apologetics .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
The Christian way ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
The Right way ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Conclusion ............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Bibliography ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1
LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Christian Apologetics in the Early Church
Submitted to Prof:
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the completion of
CHHI 510-D02
Survey of the History of Christianity
By
2
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Biblical Roots ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Apologetics biblical roots ............................................................................................................... 3
Theological and philosophical objections ....................................................................................... 4
Biblical justification........................................................................................................................ 6
Various Methods of Apologetics ........................................................................................................ 6
Worldview Evaluation .................................................................................................................... 6
Laws of Logic ............................................................................................................................. 6
Worldview hypothesis ............................................................................................................... 7
Fideism .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Presuppositionalism ...................................................................................................................... 8
Reformed Theology ....................................................................................................................... 8
Evidentialism ................................................................................................................................. 9
Natural Theology ........................................................................................................................... 9
1 Peter 3:15 and the proper way of doing apologetics ..................................................................... 10
The Christian way ........................................................................................................................ 10
The Right way .............................................................................................................................. 10
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 12
3
Introduction
The concept of apologetics refers to how Christians responded to critics who questioned
certain aspects of their faith. It accords Christians with an opportunity to explain to other people
what their religion entails. There are numerous instances of apologetics found within the Bible
where some followers of Jesus Christ took it upon themselves to defend attacks directed at their
faith from non-believers. Apologetics is a crucial element of the Christian faith.
Biblical Roots
Apologetics Biblical Roots
In the Bible, instances of apologetics reside mostly within the New Testament. The
authors of verses within that section of the bible go into great effort to defend their faith seeking
to make to doubters understand certain aspects of their religion. At times they would also use
apologetics as a way of preventing perversion of their faith from those residing within the
church. Passages written by Luke are primarily apologetic. His verses in Luke seeks to set the
record straight regarding the origins of Christianity
1
. Luke defends Jesus and some of his
disciples against assertions that they did not abide by the laid down law.
In Acts, Luke canvasses the resurrection of Jesus Christ as a depiction of the lordship
bestowed to him. Luke also seeks to inform the masses that Christ's lordship should never get
doubted since his resurrection was an act that got prophesied
2
. To further his apologetics
tendencies, Luke utilized speeches given to people by Paul. An example if the use of Paul's
statement directed at the Athenians by Luke in Acts 17. The passage in Acts is unique since it
focusses on non-Jews
3
.
Luke seeks to counter claims that Paul’s sermons on the resurrection of Jesus Christ
were making changes to the traditional deities
4
. According to Luke, Paul was using
1
Luke 1: 1-4
2
ibid
3
Acts 14: 15-17
4
Acts 17:18.
4
philosophical concepts similar to those used by Stoics in his address to the Athenians. An
illustration of this is when Paul uses terms mostly used by Stoics and even makes reference to
a famous Stoic prophet in the course of his address
5
. Besides the apologetics found in Luke and
Acts, Paul also canvasses the concept in his many addresses.
In his speech directed at Jews, Paul endeavors to bring down the notion that Jews are
incapable of committing sins similar to those committed by Gentiles
6
. He believes that the two
can commit the same crimes since neither is above the other. His message also targets the non-
believers who doubt the existence of God. He tells them that at one point in their life, they once
"knew God," but that changed at one point or another turned their back on such knowledge.
Paul engages his audiences in philosophical arguments when defending the notion of Jesus
Christ’s resurrection
7
.
Paul gets into an argument with persons who do not believe that after death, Christians
will rise and live once again. He reprimands them for being hypocritical, in the sense that if
they believe that Jesus Christ resurrected why they fail to believe that they will also resurrect
after their death
8
. John also embraced the concept of Apologetics in his writings. He adopts the
use of Stoic terminologies in a manner that resembles the one utilized by Paul. John mostly
covers the notion of logos as directing people's behavior and actions. He defends Jesus Christ
to the non-believers by continuously pointing out that Christ is the son of God.
Theological and Philosophical Objections
There have been numerous theologians and philosophers who routinely used apologetic
thoughts in their works. Justin Martyr is one of the theologians who incorporated philosophical
thought to defend the Christian faith from persons' doubting the existence of God
9
. He often
made use of proofs with philosophical underpinnings to explain certain aspects of Christianity.
5
Acts 17: 24-29
6
Ibid.
7
1 Corinthians 15
8
1 Corinthians 15: 12-19
9
N.L. Geisler, “Justin Martyr” in Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics (2006), 395-397
5
Martyr took an interest in showing people that Jesus Christ is God's representative on earth.
When defending this aspect of his faith, Martyr used instances in the bible where miracles
happened or prophesies that came to pass as a representation that God was working through
Jesus Christ
10
.
Thomas Aquinas is another scholar who used philosophical deductions to make it
known to non-believers that God exists in every bodies’ lives. He sought to challenge the
objections put forward by Anselm, who incorporated the ontological argument in matters
revolving around the existence of God
11
. Aquinas countered arguments put forward by Anselm
by using cosmological arguments backed up by philosophical thought. He believed philosophy
alone was not enough to explain how God operates and cannot get substituted as true Christian
faith
12
. The approach embraced by Aquinas in matters of apologetics remains quite popular,
especially amongst those currently dealing with apologetics.
Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield is another theologian whose writings focused on
Christian apologetics. His primary point of contention was upholding the supernatural nature
of Christianity
13
. Warfield’s assertions stemmed from the belief that Christ is supernatural since
he is God’s incarnate. He propounded that Christianity and certain supernatural elements are
linked and cannot exist in isolation. A proper Christian embraces this point of view because
there is no Christianity without the supernatural. Warfield passionately and consistently
defended his Calvinistic assertions regarding certain aspects of the Christian faith
14
.
He came up with two steps that everybody seeking to defend the Christian faith should
adopt. The first requires a person to acknowledge that God does exist
15
. After this, then comes
10
Ibid.
11
Thomas, Aquinas. Summa Contra Gentiles, trans. Anton C. Pegis (Notre Dame Ind., and London: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1975).
12
Ibid.
13
David, Smith, P. B.B. Warfield’s Scientifically Constructive Theological Scholarship. Pickwick, 2011
14
David, Smith, P. B.B. Warfield’s Scientifically Constructive Theological Scholarship. Pickwick, 2011
15
Ibid
6
providing requisite evidence from scriptures top back up their assertions concerning matters of
their faith. Kim Riddlebarger objects to the categorization of Warfield as a classical apologist,
instead of seeing him as an evidentialist. The failure to use theistic proofs is the reason why
Kim considers Warfield as an evidentialist instead of a classical apologist.
Biblical Justification
There are various scriptures in the bible that requires persons ascribing to the Christian
faith to take up the challenge and defend their faith from attacks by non-believers. God expects
every Christian to proclaim his power to the rest of the world without fear of admonition or
persecution. According to the scriptures, “but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy,
always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that
is in you, yet do it with gentleness and respect”
16
. Some scholars like R.C Sproul, Geisler, and
Wilson get credited with mounting great defenses targeting all attacks directed at inerrancy
associated with the Bible. They mostly focus on ascertaining the credibility of individual
sections of the Bible that get cited by non-believers as a way of instigating doubt.
Various Methods of Apologetics
Worldview Evaluation
Laws of Logic
Laws of logic are fundamental principles that govern people's perception of reality
concerning how they conceive the word of God
17
. Some doubt that those who wrote passages
in the Bible got inspiration from God, choosing to believe that the authors got influenced by
Western ways of thinking. Laws of logic should be self-evident and simple for everybody to
decipher and comprehend what they are
18
. The moment a person has an understanding of what
these laws are, they can then start believing in their existence. Such laws are quite distinct from
the laws of nature known to man. John captures the notion of the laws of logic in his verse,
16
1 Peter 3:15
17
, J. P., Moreland. "What are the three laws of logic? Apologetics Resource Centre, 6 January 2015.
https://arcapologetics.org/objections/three-laws-of-logic
18
Ibid.
7
stating that "in the beginning, there was logic"
19
. Such a statement is a defense directed at
persons who assert that God behaves illogically. The fact that God operates in ways ordinary
people cannot comprehend does not mean that such actions violate the laws of logic.
Worldview Hypothesis
Worldview refers to how a person perceives the reality around them and what is
happening around the world
20
. In Christians, worldview encompasses understanding the world
around them by looking at it through the lens of the scriptures. The Bible is an essential element
for those incorporating worldview into their faith. Three questions form the crust of this
notion
21
. The first revolves around the question where did people originate from? Followed by
seeking to determine if there is something amiss in the world. Finally, a person can delve into
the question of whether they can fix the problems plaguing the world. The world view in the
Christian sense answers the above three questions using the Bible as a guiding framework. In
reference to the first question, God is the source of life enjoyed by everyone
22
.
Fideism
Fideism is born out of the idea that it is impossible to prove every aspect of religious
knowledge, and the only way to assert the existence of such knowledge is via faith
23
. It seeks
to contradict a dominant notion that religious knowledge stems from rational thought. People
defending the existence of God using rational thought patterns would seek to use classical
apologetics as proof of their assertions. However, an individual relying on fideism defends the
existence of God by alluding to the faith they have that God exists. In such a scenario, all of
them have come to a similar conclusion even though they used different approaches to arrive
at their final deductions. Fideism mostly seeks to counter the assertions of skeptics who seek
19
John 1:1
20
. Chris, Daniel. "How to know the truth and Evaluate Competing Worldviews." 17 July 2012.
https://www.christianity.com/christian-life/worldview/how-to-know-truth-and-evaluate-competing-worldviews-
11636267.html
21
Ibid
22
Genesis 1:27-29
23
Van Vlastuin, Willem. “Complementary Apologetics: An Attempt for the Integration of apologetic schools. Die
Skriflig 50, no. 1, (2016): 1-9. doi: 10.4102/ids.v50i1.1890.
8
to disapprove the existence of God, simply because it cannot get proven
24
. Fideism advocates
that despite the lack of proof, if a person truly believes that God exists, then God does exist.
Presuppositionalism
It is a form of apologetics through which Christians use to defend their faith from
skeptics
25
. Using presuppositionalism in Christian apologetics requires a person first to have a
particular set of core beliefs from the onset. These beliefs have to originate from the knowledge
a person gains by reading and understanding the Bible
26
. Through such knowledge, only can a
person mount an excellent defense of the Christian faith by alluding to the teachings retrieved
from the scriptures. Presuppositional apologetics seeks to show people that Christianity is
objectively true. It is a method used by Paul in his speeches directed at the Greeks in Acts. He
uses the approach to cover the word of God in a wholesome manner without focusing on
proving every single statement he makes
27
(Acts 17: 30-34).
Reformed Theology
Reformed apologists endeavor to provide an alternative method of defending
Christianity that does not involve classical or evidentialism apologetics
28
. The reason for this
stems from the fact that such people believe that the knowledge possessed by human beings is
not autonomous. Reformed apologetics asserts that the knowledge people have comes from the
relationship and bond they share with their God. Van Til is one of the famed reformed
theologists and stipulates that God is the ultimate source of knowledge that we can use to
defend Christianity. Til attacks the use of inductive and deductive patterns of thought when
explaining some aspects of the Christian faith
29
. He believes that doing this requires the
24
Ibid, p 3
25
Ibid, p 6
26
Ibid, p. 7
27
Acts 17: 30-34
28
. Cornelius, Van Til. Christianity in Conflict. Philadelphia: Westminster Theological Seminary, 1962.
29
Ibid.
9
existence of common premises between Christians and non-believers, an element that if false
as such an agreement never exists.
Evidentialism
Evidentialism approach in matters of apologetics refers to the use of evidence as a way of
supporting arguments defending Christianity
30
. Such a component is also prevalent in classical
apologetics. The use of evidence seeks to add extra impetus to the fundamental principles that
form the crust of the arguments used to defend certain elements of Christianity
31
. Evidentialism
relies heavily on the use of available information on God, mostly from the Bible or other
historical texts. It is one of the most effective mechanisms that a person can use to defend or
explain the Christian faith to skeptics. Evidentialism offers a simple and believable approach
because it incorporates the use of physical and textual proof
32
. Even Jesus Christ used this
approach when he sought to show his disciples that he had risen from the dead by allowing
Thomas to put his fingers through the wounds he suffered during his crucifixion
33
.
Natural Theology
Natural theology is a form of apologetics that uses logic as the cornerstone for all
arguments seeking to prove that God exists
34
. Douglas Groothuis is one of the people associated
with this approach. He notes nine objections peddled against Christianity and responds to them
using natural theology. Groothuis believed that there is a lot of complexity involved in human
reasoning, which might make it harder for people to comprehend theistic arguments
35
. An
individual might refrain from such discussions since they interfere with their comfort. He felt
that theistic arguments are not the best placed to prove the existence of God since they are
dependent on proving their validity.
30
. Van Vlastuin, Willem. “Complementary Apologetics: An Attempt for the Integration of apologetic schools.
Die Skriflig 50, no. 1, (2016): 1-9. doi: 10.4102/ids.v50i1.1890
31
Ibid, p 5
32
. Ibid.
33
John 20:24-28
34
Douglas, Groothius. Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith. InterVarsity Press, 2011
35
Ibid.
10
1 Peter 3:15 and the proper way of doing apologetics
The Christian way
1 Peter 3:15 is the cornerstone of all matters apologetics and mandates all Christians
to defend their faith against those who would seek to sow the seed of doubt. Some people
tend to forget that when defending our faith we should do it with “gentleness and respect”
36
.
Explaining some aspects of the Christian faith requires the use of a certain standard of
decorum; otherwise all the efforts will bear not come to fruition
37
. To successfully convince
skeptics and atheists, a person needs to incorporate respect and truthfulness when addressing
their audience. Logic should also guide all forms of defenses of the Christian faith
38
.
The Right way
There are four approaches to doing apologetics in the right manner. The first involves
the use of rational thought patterns to prove skeptics and non-believers wrong
39
. The second
approach revolves around the use of empirical evidence as a way of proving elements of the
Christian faith. The facts used in such an approach are verifiable, which makes it one of the
most effective methods for apologetics. The third approach seeks to ensure that faith is the core
guiding tenet when defending Christianity and not rational thought that might be hard to prove.
The final plan refers to the use of reformed apologetics as a way of supporting Christian faith
40
.
All these approaches are practical when used to defend and explain elements of Christianity to
other people.
Conclusion
Through the entire Christian history, Christians had to defend their faith and the reason
why they believe that Christ is God incarnated. “The word apologetics (in both the noun and
verbal form) appears nineteen times in the New Testament. The word gets used either to denote
36
1 Peter 3:15
37
Russ, Bush, L. The Advancement: Keeping the Faith in an Evolutionary Age, 2018 p. 40.
https://app.wordsearchbible.com
38
Ibid.
39
James, Beilby. Thinking about Christian Apologetics. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011),
40
Ibid
11
an answer that given to a charge, objection or accusation leveled against an individual or a
vindication (implying a successful answer or defense).”
41
Learning how to be apologetic can
help Christians on winning skeptic soul the right way for Christ, by inviting the Holy Spirit
always to take charge.
41
Ibid, 41.
12
Bibliography
Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Contra Gentiles, trans. Anton C. Pegis (Notre Dame Ind., and
London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1975).
Beilby, James, K. Thinking About Christian Apologetics: What It Is and Why We Do It, 2017.
https://app.wordsearchbible.com
Bush, L. Russ. The Advancement: Keeping the Faith in an Evolutionary Age, 2018 p. 40.
https://app.wordsearchbible.com
Daniel, Chris. "How to know the truth and Evaluate Competing Worldviews." 17 July 2012.
https://www.christianity.com/christian-life/worldview/how-to-know-truth-and-
evaluate-competing-worldviews-11636267.html
Geisler, N.L. “Justin Martyr” in Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics (2006), 395-397.
Groothius, Douglas. Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith.
InterVarsity Press, 2011.
Moreland, J.P. “What are the three laws of logic? Apologetics Resource Centre, 6 January
2015. https://arcapologetics.org/objections/three-laws-of-logic.
Smith, David, P. B.B. Warfield’s Scientifically Constructive Theological Scholarship.
Pickwick, 2011.
Van Til, Cornelius. Christianity in Conflict. Philadelphia: Westminster Theological Seminary,
1962.
Van Vlastuin, Willem. “Complementary Apologetics: An Attempt for the Integration of
apologetic schools. Die Skriflig 50, no. 1, (2016): 1-9. doi: 10.4102/ids.v50i1.1890.
13
