Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
Ian D. Sullivan
Professor Charles Williams
Liberty University
BUSI600 D03
12 May 2017
Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
Introduction
Qualitative research, as defined by Cooper and Schindler (2014), is an “array of
interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms
with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more less naturally occurring phenomena in the
social world” (p. 144). Instead of simply measuring quantities, such as statistical data,
qualitative research aims to answer the “why” and “how” things occur. This is often
accomplished through open-ended questions, the responses of which are not easily compared as
they would be with a quantitative method. By utilizing the qualitative method of research,
researchers can better understand “people’s beliefs, experiences, attitudes, behavior and
interactions” [Jen13]. Put differently, “qualitative researcher relies on the participants to offer in-
depth responses to questions about how they have…understood their experience” [Cam07].
When conducting research on elections, researchers use qualitative research as a means to
understand how a candidate was elected, why voters chose one candidate over another, and how
a candidate’s positions are received by the electorate. For example, the state of West Virginia is
comprised of more registered Democrats than registered Republicans but has increasingly
elected more Republicans since the early 2000’s. Democrats have commanded a majority in the
state legislature from 1932 to 2014, and West Virginians have only elected two Republican
governors in as many years, one of which was elected to two non-consecutive terms. Qualitative
research aims to answer why a state that has traditionally been represented by Democrats is
increasingly electing Republicans, despite maintaining a higher ratio of Democrat voters to
Republican voters. This paper looks to explore techniques used for qualitative research and how
these techniques can be applied to election research.
Types of Qualitative Techniques
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
Sampling
Surveys are relatively easy methods to extract qualitative data from a population. Often a
population is too large to survey, so representatives of the population are selected to survey
instead. These representatives are selected through sampling. Sampling is defined as “the
selection of specific data sources from which data are collected to address the research
objectives” [Cha15]. Unlike quantitative research, “qualitative research involves nonprobability
sampling—where little attempt is made to generate a representative sampling” [Coo14]. Because
the objective is not to quantify data, there is no reason to select a sample that is representative of
the population, but merely represents part of the population.
Important aspects of sampling. There are a few aspects of sampling that should be
considered when conducting qualitative research. First is the sampling unit, or what is being
sampled. The sample unit can be comprised of individuals, groups of individuals, events or
situations. In quantitative research, researchers can determine how many responses from a survey
are necessary to quantify results for the population. The qualitative method does not afford
researchers the opportunity to predetermine sampling size. “The commonly proposed criterion
for determining when sufficient sample size has been reached in qualitative research is
saturation” (Charles et al., 2015, p. 1782). Saturation, best explained, is when “no additional data
are being found” (Charles et al., 2015, p. 1782). Therefore, saturation is said to be achieved when
researchers no longer observe new responses from new participants.
There are a number of ways nonprobability sampling can be conducted. Perhaps the
easiest and cheapest method available is that of convenience. Researchers who utilize this
method sample choose participants as they become available. An example would be if a
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
researcher stood on a street corner, their sample could be the first ten people that walk past them
on that street corner. The convenience method is highly unreliable due to lack of controls.
Purposive sampling is another, more accurate method of sampling. When utilizing
purposive sampling, researchers are attempting to sample from a very specific group, perhaps
someone who has had a particular experience. One example would be if researchers were
attempting to understand the motivations of serial killers, researchers would seek out participants
who were convicted of multiple homicides. Finally, snowball sampling is utilized when
researchers begin selecting participants, the participants are able to identify other like-minded
individuals researchers can interview. This process continues with each “group” of participants
identifying more potential participants, so that the research gathers more subjects the longer it is
conducted. An example of the snowball sampling is found in Ingle, Johnson and Petroff (2012),
in which they utilized a snowball technique by first selecting preliminary informants “based on
their leadership roles within the district and/or campaign” (p. 823). These initial informants were
then “asked to identify additional stakeholders who participated in the campaigns and would
serve as useful informants” [Ing12].
Using sampling in elections. Proper sampling will ensure that research questions are
answered accurately. Improper sampling may not provide researchers with the insight they are
looking for and could even mislead the researchers from the real conclusion in favor of a skewed
conclusion. Whether researchers are studying a phenomenon across a broad population or a
specific segment of the total population, careful attention must be given to how sampling takes
place. Each one of the aforementioned nonprobability sampling techniques can be useful in
regional elections.
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
Convenience sampling in elections. Examples of convenience sampling are readily
apparent. Local news reporters conduct convenience sampling throughout each Election Day
when they conduct what is known as “exit polling.” As voters leave the polling place after they
have cast their ballot, often pollsters will be stationed slightly off the premise of the polling
location in order to collect their thoughts. Pollsters often ask questions regarding issues like the
economy and foreign policy, and social issues like traditional marriage and drug legalization, in
order to gain perceptions from voters [Ros04]. Understanding why voters cast their ballots in a
certain manner help the campaign staff understand how their message was received by voters
leading up to an election.
Purposive or purposeful sampling in elections. As mentioned earlier, registered
Democrats far outnumber registered Republicans in the state of West Virginia, however as of the
2014 election, Republicans not only held a majority in both the state House and Senate, but also
all three Congressional districts were represented by Republicans, and West Virginians replaced
one Democrat senator with a Republican. As of 2017, West Virginia is only represented by one
Democrat senator and a Democrat governor. Researchers can reasonably assume that Republican
voters elected Republican candidates based on a shared commonality of values, or at minimum,
being members of the same political party. Therefore, researchers do not need to sample
Republican voters to determine why a state of majority Democrats elected a majority of
Republicans to represent them. This is purposive sampling. To understand the research question,
researchers need to poll Democrats, and specifically Democrats who voted for more Republicans
than Democrats.
Snowball sampling in elections. For election purposes, snowball sampling is most likely
to occur when researchers do not have a substantive sample in order to conduct a purposive
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
sampling. Researchers may only be able to identify a few Democrats who either voted for more
Republicans than Democrats, or are willing to participate in the study. Researchers can then ask
the few participants if there are others who the participants believe share their beliefs and are
likely to have voted similarly.
Interviews
Interviews are often an easy way for researchers to gain a high volume of knowledge
regarding subjects they are researching. Interviews offer researchers the ability to tailor questions
and to ask follow-up questions in order to garner more information. Researchers conduct
different types of interviews based on what they are attempting to understand. For example,
some interviews are personal, or individual, interviews, utilized in order to explore the
experiences and history of an individual in depth. Other interviews are conducted as group
interviews in order to explore various attitudes and feelings on issues, or to “add contextual
detail to quantitative findings” [Coo14].
Types of qualitative interviews. Researchers utilize three different types of interviews:
(1) unstructured interview, (2) semistructured interview, and (3) structured interview. Each
interview style has pros and cons.
Unstructured interviews. Unstructured interviews are most commonly utilized by trained
interviewers. In this type of interviewing, the researcher or interviewer allows the participant to
guide the interview through their answers. Unstructured interviews provide the best method for
researchers to eliminate interviewer bias, so as to not influence the responses of the participant.
Researchers eliminate bias through a method called bracketing. “Bracketing is a way to increase
awareness, to put aside assumptions and to look at a phenomenon with an open mind” [Ast15].
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
In order to fully implement bracketing, a researcher must suspend any influence that prior
research may have on their perception of the phenomenon being studied.
Semistructured interviews. Sometimes researchers are required to structure their
interviews slightly as a way to guide the interviewee. Researchers may see fit to “start with a few
specific questions” and follow the “individual’s tangent of thought” from those questions
[Coo14]. Whereas an unstructured interview provides no structure to specific questions or order
of topic, the semistructured interview does provide this most basic form of structure while
indulging the interviewee’s thoughts and allowing for follow-up questions based off of
interviewee responses.
Structured interviews. Questions in structured interviews are already predetermined and
the order of questions has already been decided prior to the start of the interview. Although
questions may remain open-ended, “structured interviews provide clinicians exact wording and
procedures for interpreting responses without much opportunity for follow-up questioning or
clarification” [Lef17]. Most interviewer bias is eliminated through structured interviews because
of the wording and order of the questions. There still exists the potential for interviewer bias with
how the interviewer communicates through voice tone and body language.
Considerations for qualitative interviews. There are certain considerations that
researchers should take into account when developing and conducting qualitative interviews. Of
foremost importance is how questions are constructed and worded. Questions must be
constructed so as to define what is to be measured. “The query typically contains information
about the object that is being measured and the attribute of the object that is of interest” [Dol13]
Dolnicar (2013) further describes the respondent’s answer “The return can be open, requiring
respondents to use their own words when responding. Alternatively, the return can consist of a
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
check or tick to one or more response options or answer options listed in the questionnaire” (p.
552). In researching elections, queries will primarily be based in abstract attributes, such as
knowledge, emotions, and impressions. Dolnicar (2013) identifies the elements of a query are the
rater (interviewee), object (what is being studied), components of the object, attribute (what the
researcher is measuring in reference to the object), and the components of the attribute.
Additionally, when conducting either unstructured or semistructured interviews, it is
recommended that skilled interviewers are utilized. These types of interviews have room for
interviewers to inadvertently insert bias that may skew the responses from interviewees. Face-to-
face interviews accommodate the ability for the interviewer to “observe body language to see the
effects of the questions on the respondent, and then adjust to avoid the subject’s boredom,
annoyance, and physical discomfort” [Boy14]. Interviewers should make participants
comfortable, signaling that their honest responses are welcome and will be well-received.
Relatedly, Boyce and Brayda (2014) explain that “a researcher must interview participants with a
case-by-case approach to prevent the misrepresentation and objectification of a group” (p. 322).
Just as the bias of an interviewer can skew the response of a study participant, a strong opinion
from another member of a group being interviewed as such may skew other responses in the
same manner.
Case Studies
When researchers utilize a case study method of conducting qualitative research, the
objective is to collect as much information on the research subject as is available. “Researchers
extract information from company brochures, annual reports, sales receipts, and newspaper and
magazine articles” as well as previous literature related to the subject [Coo14]. Researchers often
use case studies to provide background on what they are researching. Case studies are also useful
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
in assisting researchers in developing their own research questions, parameters for their study,
and the structure of the study in terms of who and what will be analyzed. Oftentimes, researchers
will study case studies and find ways to improve or expound on existing studies. “In a case study,
the researcher is often at a distance from the context under examination and is studying the
phenomenon by collecting multiple artifacts or kinds of data” [Cam07]. Types of data
encompassed in these case studies include “interviews, focus groups, printed materials, media,
and other sources of data” (Camara et al., 2007, p. 26).
Important considerations for case studies. When conducting a case study for
qualitative research, it’s important to be able to establish that the cases being studied are of good
quality. Beverland and Lindgreen (2010) present a set of criteria that can be used to measure case
quality:
Construct validity. Construct validity refers to ensuring “that correct operational
measures have been established for the concepts” being studied [Bev19]. Triangulation can be
defined as a method of confirming a statement or conclusion through the viewpoints or
conclusions of various related sources. In the context of case study analysis, triangulation is
applied through validation of the method of research by analyzing how similar studies conducted
their studies. If the methodology of the study is aligned with methodologies of similar studies, it
can be said to be valid. Triangulation can also “provide the historical context within which such
events occurred” [Sta98]. In understanding the context of a study, one can understand how and
why the methodology was used.
Internal validity. Internal validity refers to making “sure that a causal relationship…has
been established” [Bev19]. The objective of internal validity is to measure how well the content
of the study supports the conclusion.
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
External validity. External validity refers to proving “that the domain to which a case
study’s findings belong can be generalized” [Bev19]. Case studies can analyze previous literature
through a long period of time or studies conducted in different areas that observe the same
phenomenon and create a generalization. “It allows expanding and generalizing theories by
combining the existing theoretical knowledge with new empirical insights” [Vis10].
Reliability. Finally, reliability is the ability to demonstrate “that the findings...can be
replicated if the case study procedures are followed” [Bev19]. Simply put, can other researchers
take the methodology of the study, carry out the study according to the methodology, and
produce the same results? If so, then the study can be considered reliable.
Application of case studies in elections research. Case studies can be helpful in
analyzing historical trends and providing background on phenomenon. For example, as the coal
industry and unionization of workers play a large role in West Virginia’s history, it becomes clear
why a large portion of the population remains politically affiliated with the Democrat party.
Through a case study of the culture of Appalachia and the people of West Virginia, the values
and beliefs of West Virginia residents becomes apparent. Conclusions can then be drawn that,
historically, West Virginians have maintained their socially and fiscally conservative views
despite a strong reliance on and support for labor unions which has led them to remain registered
as Democrats while they vote for socially and fiscally conservative Republicans. Historical
context plays a large role in election outcomes.
It should be mentioned that case studies are routinely used in conjunction with other
forms of research such as interviews and direct observation. Researchers typically gain initial
knowledge of a phenomenon through these research methods and then conduct a case study to
provide greater understanding and context of the phenomenon.
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
Conclusion and Biblical Integration
As three different qualitative research techniques have been analyzed and defined, it is
important to understand their relevant application to studying elections. To summarize, sampling
allows researchers to identify participants relative to the phenomenon being observed. The
example provided is that of West Virginia Democrats who have increasingly elected Republicans
to represent them. Sampling provides the framework for determining who to study, which in our
case would be West Virginia residents who are registered as Democrats and actively participate
in elections. Interviews allow researchers to collect data through face to face interaction or via
telephone or internet. The purpose of the interviews for elections research are to give researchers
an understanding of the knowledge, feelings, and impressions of candidates and their policy
positions. Through interpretation of these abstract attributes, researchers can validate hypotheses
and answer research questions regarding why certain candidates are elected over others. Lastly,
case studies provide researchers the opportunity to add depth to the data collected in interviews
or other types of research conducted. By analyzing historical context and insight from similar
literature, researchers are able to develop a more firm conclusiveness to their findings. All of
these qualitative research techniques help produce exceptional studies that provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research being conducted, which in the case of this paper, is
elections.
Applying a biblical perspective to qualitative research. The books of Psalm and
Proverbs provide a multitude of examples of gaining knowledge and understanding. Qualitative
research is not merely about collecting information, but understanding why a phenomenon exists.
Proverbs 18:2 states “A fool has no delight in understanding, but in expressing his own heart”
(New King James Version). Likewise, Proverbs 3:13-14 reads “Happy is the man who finds
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
wisdom, and the man who gains understanding; for her proceeds are better than the profits of
silver, and her gain than fine gold” (New King James Version). Qualitative research goes beyond
collecting statistics and figures; it aims to form a deeper understanding of an event. Instead of
simply answering how many West Virginia Democrats vote to elect Republicans, we can
measure the experiences that lead to Democrats voting for Republicans
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Qualitative techniques used in regional elections
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