PART THREE
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
A. The Nature Of Communication
Communication has been defined in different ways, including as the transmission
of information, the interchange of concepts, or the act of creating a shared understanding
between a sender and a recipient. 1 The aforementioned definitions posit that in order for
communication to transpire, there must exist a shared cognitive framework between two
or more parties, and the transmission of information must take place from one individual
or group to another.
The process of communicating effectively can pose a significant challenge for
companies that are engaged in marketing their products and services in foreign countries.
This is because the use of mistranslations and inappropriate word choices has frequently
resulted in difficulties for companies operating in overseas markets. It is imperative for
international marketers to have a comprehensive understanding of the implications
associated with the words, signs, symbols, and expressions utilized as brand names or
logos in diverse promotional mediums. Furthermore, promotional language, catchphrases,
visual representations, and symbolic elements may not consistently convey the intended
meaning when translated into different languages. The aforementioned issue not only
hinders effective communication but also occasionally leads to regrettable errors that
have the potential to negatively impact the reputation or credibility of a corporation or
brand.
B. Basic Model Of Communication
The communication process involves two primary participants, namely the sender
and the receiver. Two significant communication tools are the message and channel.
There exist four primary communication functions and processes, namely encoding,
decoding, response, and feedback. The final component, commonly known as noise,
pertains to any superfluous variables within the system that may impede the process and
hinder successful communication.
The individual or entity that possesses information to convey to another
individual or group of individuals is referred to as the sender or source of a
communication. The origin of information can be attributed to either a singular person,
such as a sales representative or a contracted public figure featured in a company's
promotional materials, or a non-personal entity, such as the corporation or organization as
a whole. The origin of numerous advertisements can be attributed to the company, as they
often lack a designated spokesperson or identifiable source. Nonetheless, a considerable
number of corporations employ a representative to feature in their commercials and
convey their promotional communications.
The process of communication is initiated by the source who chooses appropriate
words, symbols, images, or other forms of representation to convey a message to the
intended receiver(s). The cognitive operation referred to as encoding encompasses the act
of transforming mental constructs, concepts, or data into a representational format. The
objective of the communicator is to encode the message in a manner that facilitates
comprehension by the recipient. This entails employing lexicon, gestures, or icons that
are recognizable to the intended recipients. Numerous symbols possess a universally
recognized significance, such as the commonly known circle with a diagonal line to
indicate the prohibition of parking, smoking, and similar activities. Numerous
corporations possess logos that are widely identifiable, such as the golden arches of
McDonald's, the swoosh of Nike, or the trademark of Coca-Cola, which are globally
recognized by consumers. It is imperative for marketers to meticulously observe the
symbols linked with their organization or brand, such as logos, as they frequently serve as
a concise means for consumers to recognize them. Marketers may opt to alter their logos
as a means of conveying a distinct message to their target audience.
The process of encoding involves the creation of a message that encapsulates the
intended information or meaning that the source desires to communicate. The
communication can take various forms such as verbal or nonverbal, oral or written, or
symbolic. It is imperative to encode messages in a format that is suitable for the specific
mode of communication employed. Within the realm of advertising, the scope of
activities may vary from composing a brief written message or copy intended for auditory
consumption as a radio advertisement, to creating a costly audio-visual production for
broadcast on television. In numerous instances, the efficacy of a message is not solely
contingent upon its literal content, but rather on the perceptual impact or portrayal that
the advertisement engenders. Marketing professionals are required to make strategic
choices concerning the substance, format, and layout of the communications they
disseminate to their target audience. The term "content" pertains to the conveyed
information and/or intended meaning of a message. On the other hand, "structure" and
"design" pertain to the manner in which the message is organized and presented to
effectively communicate the intended information or meaning.
The channel serves as the conduit through which communication is transmitted
from the sender or source to the recipient. At a general level, communication channels
can be classified into two categories: non-personal and personal. Non-personal
communication channels refer to the means of conveying a message without involving
direct, face-to-face interaction between the sender and recipient. Non-personal channels
are commonly known as mass media or mass communications, as they convey messages
to multiple recipients simultaneously, rather than targeting a single individual.
Interpersonal communication channels, including face-to-face interaction, email,
and social media, facilitate direct communication between two or more individuals.
Salespersons function as individual communication channels when they convey a sales
message or presentation to a purchaser or prospective client. One significant benefit of
utilizing personal communication channels is the ability to customize the message or
presentation to suit the specific individual or audience, while also receiving direct
feedback from them. Individuals' social circles, comprising of acquaintances, colleagues,
relatives, neighbors, and friends, serve as personal communication conduits. Frequently,
they serve as a manifestation of word-of-mouth (WOM) impact, which encompasses
casual exchanges among consumers regarding products and services and holds significant
sway as a source of information.
Numerous marketers exert considerable effort to create favorable word-of-mouth
for their organizations or products through one or multiple variants of WOM. A
marketing professional may prompt individuals to engage in conversations regarding
their product or service with other consumers through various mediums such as face-to-
face interactions, social media platforms, or by providing feedback in the form of ratings
and reviews on websites like Amazon or Yelp. In light of the proliferation of digital and
social media, numerous marketers are employing orchestrated word-of-mouth (WOM)
tactics to draw attention to, or stimulate discourse about, their enterprise or products.
Buzz marketing refers to the act of promoting a company, its products, services, and/or
brands through informal communication channels, such as word-of-mouth. This type of
marketing is often initiated by marketers themselves in order to generate interest and
enthusiasm among potential customers. The utilization of marketing strategies to
stimulate verbal promotion of brands is not a recent phenomenon. For several years,
methods such as distributing product samples, offering products to prominent individuals,
and urging them to endorse the brand to others have been employed.
The recipient refers to the individual or individuals with whom the sender
communicates ideas or data. In the realm of marketing, the term "receivers" refers to the
individuals or groups within the target market or audience who engage with the
marketer's message through reading, hearing, and/or seeing, and subsequently interpret
and decode it. The act of deciphering a message and converting it back into its original
meaning is referred to as decoding. The process in question is significantly impacted by
the recipient's frame of reference or field of experience. This pertains to the individual's
experiences, perceptions, attitudes, and values that they bring to the communication
scenario.
During the process of communication, various external factors may come into
play, which have the potential to distort or impede the reception of the message. Noise
refers to the unintended distortion or interference that occurs in a signal. Noise can be
defined as any interference that disrupts the communication process, such as encoding
errors, signal distortion in radio or television transmissions, and distractions during
message reception. In the event of a signal transmission issue while viewing a television
advertisement or listening to a radio commercial, it is evident that the reception will be
disrupted, thereby diminishing the effectiveness of the advertisement. In recent years, a
novel form of interference has emerged within the context of television consumption,
namely, the encroachment of technological devices such as laptops, tablets, and mobile
phones/smartphones. Currently, a significant proportion of individuals engage in
multitasking while viewing television content, predominantly utilizing digital devices
such as smartphones, tablets, or desktop/laptop computers.
The response refers to the set of reactions exhibited by the recipient upon
perceiving the message through visual, auditory, or textual means. The responses of
receivers may vary from actions that are not observable, such as retaining information in
memory, to prompt actions such as clicking on an online advertisement to access a
marketer's landing page or website, or contacting a toll-free number to purchase a product
that has been advertised on television. The feedback provided by the receiver to the
sender is a crucial aspect that piques the interest of marketers. The act of providing
feedback serves to complete the communication cycle by enabling the sender to monitor
the decoding and reception of the intended message, which can take on various forms.
C. Analyzing The Receiver
In order to achieve effective communication with their clientele, marketers must
possess a comprehensive understanding of their target audience, including their level of
familiarity with and sentiment towards the company's product or service, as well as the
most effective means of communication to influence their decision-making process. It is
imperative for marketers to possess knowledge regarding the potential response of the
market to diverse communication channels or message formats. In order to make
informed decisions pertaining to source, message, and channel variables, promotional
planners must possess a comprehensive understanding of the potential effects that are
associated with each of these factors.
The commencement of the marketing communication process involves the
identification of the target audience, which will be the primary focus of the advertising
and promotional endeavors of the organization. The intended recipients of a message may
encompass individuals, collectives, specialized markets, segmented markets, or a broad
public or mass audience. The target demographic may comprise individuals with distinct
requirements, necessitating customized communication. Frequently, this necessitates
interpersonal communication, which is commonly achieved via the process of personal
selling. Alternative modes of communication, such as advertising, may serve as a means
to capture the attention of the target audience towards the enterprise. However, the
comprehensive message is conveyed by a sales representative who is capable of
addressing the particular requirements of each customer. Products and services such as
life insurance, financial services, and real estate are exemplars of commodities and
amenities that are advertised in this manner.
The concept of audience aggregation encompasses a hierarchical structure that
includes a second level represented by the group. Marketers frequently encounter the
need to engage in communication with a cohort of individuals who possess the ability to
either make or exert influence over the decision to purchase. Organizational procurement
frequently entails the involvement of purchasing centers or committees that exhibit
diversity in terms of their size and composition. Organizations that engage in business-to-
business marketing must possess a comprehensive understanding of the composition of
the purchase committee, the specific decision-making roles of each member, and the
evaluative criteria employed by each individual in assessing a product or service.
Marketing communication, including advertising, can be targeted towards all members of
the buying center. In order to effectively reach those individuals who have decision-
making power or influence, it may be necessary to employ multilevel personal selling
techniques.
The subsequent stage in audience aggregation involves market segments, which
refer to more extensive groups of purchasers who possess comparable requirements and
can be targeted with comparable communication strategies. As market segments expand
in size, marketers tend to resort to more generalized media platforms such as newspapers,
magazines, and television in order to effectively reach their target audience. Marketers of
consumer goods generally aim to capture the interest of a broad audience of current or
prospective customers, commonly referred to as mass markets, by means of mass
communication channels such as advertising or publicity. Mass communication refers to
the unidirectional transmission of information from the marketer to the consumer.
Assessing the audience's response to a message is typically an arduous task as it is often
implicit and challenging to quantify.
D. The Response Process
Several models have been formulated to illustrate the various stages that a
consumer may undergo while transitioning from a state of unawareness regarding a
company, product, or brand to the point of exhibiting purchase behavior. Various models
were formulated with distinct objectives and diverse phases. The AIDA model was
conceptualized to illustrate the sequential phases that a sales representative must
undertake to guide a potential customer through the personal selling process. 33 The
model presented illustrates the progression of the buyer through distinct stages, namely
attention, interest, desire, and action. The innovation adoption model has its roots in the
diffusion of innovation research and delineates the various stages that a consumer
undergoes while embracing a novel product or service. 34 The stages antecedent to the
ultimate determination to embrace a novel product or service encompass cognizance,
attraction, assessment, and experimentation. The response hierarchy model formulated by
Robert Lavidge and Gary Steiner is widely recognized as a prominent framework for
establishing and evaluating advertising goals. 35 The hierarchy of effects model
delineates the various phases that a consumer undergoes while progressing from a state of
unfamiliarity with a brand to gaining knowledge about it, developing positive attitudes or
emotions towards it, and ultimately procuring the brand.
The response process, according to the hierarchy of effects model, AIDA model,
and innovation adoption model, is perceived as a progression through a series of three
fundamental stages. The cognitive phase pertains to the consumer's knowledge regarding
the brand. The initial phase of brand recognition involves the recognition of the brand's
existence and the acquisition of knowledge, information, or understanding of its
attributes, characteristics, or advantages. The affective phase pertains to the emotional
state or affective disposition (favorable or unfavorable) of the consumer towards the
specific brand. This phase additionally encompasses heightened levels of emotionality,
such as inclination or certainty. The cognitive or behavioral phase pertains to the actions
taken by the consumer towards the brand, which may include trial, purchase, and
ultimately, a decision to either repurchase it or reject it.
The utilization of hierarchy models in consumers' response processes is
advantageous for promotional planners from multiple viewpoints. Initially, the authors
outline a sequence of actions that prospective buyers must undergo to transition from a
state of unfamiliarity with a particular brand to a state of preparedness to acquire it. The
utilization of hierarchy models can serve as an intermediary gauge of the efficacy of
communication. It is imperative for the marketer to have an understanding of the
audience's position in the response hierarchy. From a marketing standpoint, it is crucial to
analyze the communication scenario for a given product or service and determine the
most probable type of response process. It is recommended to conduct an analysis of the
degree of involvement and differentiation of the product or service, as well as the
utilization of diverse information sources and the level of experience of consumers with
the product or service. Upon identification of the most probable response sequence, the
manager can proceed to formulate an integrated marketing communications program
aimed at favorably influencing the response process towards the company's product or
service. Numerous planning models have been formulated to incorporate involvement
levels, response processes, and underlying motives that influence attitude formation and
subsequent brand selection.
For a considerable period, the primary emphasis of methods for examining the
recipients' reactions to marketing communications was on the hierarchical response
models. The focus is on discerning the connections between particular manageable
variables, such as source and message factors, and the resulting or reactive variables,
such as attention, comprehension, attitudes, and purchase intentions. Numerous
methodologies have been devised to investigate the cognitive processing of advertising
messages by consumers.
E. Cognitive Processing Of Communications
A prevalent approach to investigating the cognitive processing of advertising
messages among consumers is through the evaluation of their cognitive responses, which
refer to the mental reactions that arise during the consumption of a message, whether
through reading, viewing, or listening. 49 Typically, the assessment of these thoughts
involves soliciting feedback from consumers through written or oral means regarding
their responses to a given message. It is assumed that the aforementioned thoughts are
indicative of the cognitive processes or reactions of the recipient and play a role in
determining the final decision to either accept or reject the message. The approach of
cognitive response has been extensively employed in research by scholars and
professionals in the field of advertising. The primary objective of the study has been to
ascertain the various categories of reactions elicited by an advertisement and their
correlation with attitudes towards the advertisement, brand attitudes, and intentions to
purchase. Counterarguments refer to the opposing thoughts that the recipient may have
towards the position presented in the message. The advertisement may elicit supportive
arguments or thoughts from other consumers that validate the assertions presented in the
message.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion is a theoretical
framework that examines the variations in how consumers process and react to persuasive
messages. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) posits that the process of forming or
changing attitudes is contingent upon the extent and quality of elaboration, or cognitive
processing, of pertinent information that is prompted by a persuasive communication.
The concept of high elaboration pertains to the recipient's active involvement in the
cognitive processes of scrutinizing, reflecting upon, and assessing the content or
reasoning presented in the communication. Low elaboration can be observed when the
recipient of a message does not engage in active information processing or cognitive
reflection but instead relies on basic positive or negative cues to draw inferences about
the position being advocated in the message. According to the Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM), the likelihood of elaboration is dependent on two factors, namely the
individual's motivation and their ability to process the message. The degree of motivation
to engage with a message is contingent upon various factors, including but not limited to
the level of personal involvement, relevance to the individual, and their specific needs
and level of arousal. The capacity to perform a task is contingent upon an individual's
cognitive abilities, level of education, and access to information processing resources.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is a highly referenced theory in the realm of
consumer advertising and is widely regarded as a significant theoretical advancement in
the academic literature on advertising and other forms of persuasion.
F. Promotional Planning Through The Persuasion Matrix
In order to create a successful advertising and promotional strategy, it is
imperative for a company to carefully choose a suitable spokesperson who can effectively
communicate a persuasive message via appropriate channels or media. The
communication model comprises controllable elements such as source, message, and
channel factors. The utilization of the persuasion matrix facilitates marketers in
comprehending the manner in which each modifiable component interacts with the
consumer's response mechanism. 1 The matrix comprises two distinct sets of variables.
Marketers possess the ability to select the messenger or origin of the message, the manner
in which the message is presented, and the mode or platform through which it is
disseminated. While the sender may not have control over the receiver, they do have the
ability to choose their intended audience.
The inclusion of the destination variable is motivated by the possibility that the
primary recipient of the message may engage in informal communication with others,
such as acquaintances or colleagues, thereby necessitating the specification of the
intended recipient. In the realm of promotional planning, it is crucial for practitioners to
possess an understanding of how decisions pertaining to individual variables can impact
the various stages of the response hierarchy. This knowledge is essential in order to avoid
the inadvertent prioritization of one stage over another. The utilization of humor in a
message may capture the audience's interest; however, it may lead to a reduction in their
ability to comprehend the message if they are unable to effectively process its content.
Several advertisements that employ comedic elements, sexual appeals, or celebrity
endorsements tend to attract the attention of consumers, yet they often yield inadequate
retention of the brand name or message.
The subsequent instances serve as illustrations of choices that are amenable to
assessment through the employment of the persuasion matrix: The first stage of the
communication process is the receiver/comprehension stage. Is the advertisement
comprehensible to the recipient? In order to effectively communicate their messages,
marketers must possess a thorough understanding of their intended audience. Individuals
with lower levels of education may encounter challenges when attempting to comprehend
complex messages. The use of technical language or specialized terminology, commonly
referred to as jargon, may pose a challenge to certain recipients who lack familiarity with
such terminology. Marketers can enhance their understanding of their target market by
identifying the words, symbols, and expressions that resonate with their customers. 2.
Medium selection: What are the appropriate media channels for conveying the
advertising message? Advertisers procure media based on exposure potential, which
refers to the likelihood of consumers encountering their message. Media determinations
are predominantly influenced by the magnitude and configuration of the audience
attained, along with the expenses incurred. NCIS, a widely viewed prime-time television
program, garners a weekly audience of up to 15 million individuals. In a similar vein,
Time and People magazines boast a readership of over 3 million individuals per weekly
issue, with additional readership through their digital platforms.
The crucial aspect pertains to the efficacy of a media platform in effectively
reaching the intended audience of the marketer. The television program Keeping Up with
the Kardashians, broadcast on the E! cable network, attracts a weekly viewership of
approximately 2 million individuals. The program's primary audience comprises young
adults aged between 18 and 49 who exhibit a keen interest in fashion and possess a high
level of technological proficiency. Despite the recent decline in ratings, numerous
corporations perceive the show as a viable means of accessing a highly sought-after
demographic. This audience is particularly attractive to advertisers due to their potential
as prime consumers of clothing, fashion, consumer electronics, and various other
products. 2 What kind of message is likely to elicit positive attitudes or emotions?
Marketers typically aim to generate favorable messages that elicit positive emotions
toward the product or service. Amusing messages have the potential to induce positive
emotions in consumers, which can subsequently be linked to the advertised brand.
The inclusion of music in communication can evoke emotional responses that
enhance the audience's receptivity to the intended message. Numerous advertisers employ
explicit sexual appeals that are intended to elicit arousal among consumers or imply that
their products can augment their appeal to the opposite gender. Certain marketing
professionals engage in brand comparisons with their competitors. Which entity is most
likely to effectively capture the attention of consumers? The pervasive volume of
advertisements that inundate individuals on a daily basis poses a challenge for marketers
seeking to effectively capture their target audience's attention. To address this issue,
marketers employ individuals who possess the ability to captivate the attention of the
intended audience, such as actors, athletes, entertainers, or aesthetically pleasing models.
