Self-esteem
Conceptual and Research Overview of Self-esteem
Historically, defining self-esteem has been tried and seemed elusive. Mruk (1995) pointed out
that self-esteem is both a popular and elusive construct. Arguably, different scholars and authors
(Bernichon, Cook, & Brown, 2003; Brandel, 1987; Brown, Dutton, & Cook, 2001; Burns, 1993;
Lightsey, Burke, Ervin, Henderson, & Lee, 2006; Kassin, Fern, & Markus, 2011; Leary, Tambor,
Terdal & Downs 1995; Trzesniewski, Donnellan, & Robbins, 2003; Rosenberg 1965) regard it
differently. For some, it is a cause, for others it is an effect. Others view it as both as an
explanation and an outcome. For some it is a goal to be attained.
Self-esteem is a widely studied topic among counsellors and psychologists; particularly within
developmental and social psychology, as a result, several definitions have arisen and texts have
been written (Bernichon et al, 2003; Brandel, 1987; Brown et al., 2001; Burns, 1993; Ervin,
Henderson, & Lee, 2006; Kassin, Fern, & Markus, 2011; Leary et al., 1995; Trzesniewski et al.,
2003). Rosenberg (1965) defined self-esteem as “the evaluation which the individual makes and
customarily maintains with regard to himself/herself: it expresses approval or disproval”, and
indicates the extent to which the individual values himself/herself (Rosenberg, 1965, p. 5).
Brown and Dutton (1995) defined self-esteem as feelings for oneself, whether positive or
negative. Baumeister, Campbell, Kruger and Vohs (2003) asserted that self-esteem is the
evaluative component of self-knowledge. They further said that self-esteem is a perception rather
than a reality. According to Sedikides and Gregg (2002), an individual’s self-esteem is their
subjective appraisal of themselves as intrinsically positive or negative; and can have significant
implications for psychological functioning. From the above definitions, common themes about
self-esteem emerge namely; evaluation of self, perception about self and levels based upon these
perceptions and evaluations.
A review of literature reveals the uses of self-esteem. Brown, Dutton and Cook (2001),
distinguished three ways in which self-esteem is used namely: as global self-esteem, as self-
evaluation and as feelings of self-worth, which is explained below.
Global self-esteem: According to Brown et al. (2001 p. 616), self-esteem is “used to refer to the
way people characteristically feel about themselves”. They further pointed out that psychologists
refer to this form as “global or trait esteem”. They explained that it is “relatively enduring both
across time and situations”. Based on this, Brown et al. (2001 p. 616) defined self-esteem as
“feelings of affection for oneself”. In addition, Pierce and Gardner (2004) defined global self-
esteem as an individual’s assessment of whether they are capable, significant, successful and
worthy.
Self-evaluation: According to Brown et al. (2001), self-evaluation refers to “the way people
evaluate their various abilities and attributes” (p.616). Furthermore, they explain that the beliefs
of self-confidence and self-efficacy can be equated with self-esteem. They stated that they prefer
to call these beliefs “self-evaluations or self-appraisals” (p.616).
Feelings of self-worth: This refers to “momentary emotional states, particularly those that arise
from a positive or negative outcome” (Brown et al. 2001, p.616). They explained further by
giving examples e.g. feeling happy with self (positive side), feeling sad with self (negative side).
These three constructs are generally interesting. Brown et al. (2001) further explained the
relationship between them. They emphasised that self-esteem develops in childhood in response
to environmental and temperamental cues, and that people with high self-esteem are endowed
with the ability to promote, protect and restore feelings of self-worth. In addition, Brown and
Marshall (2006) argued that the three constructs; global self-esteem, self-evaluation and feelings
of self-worth, should not be used interchangeably because they are theoretically distinct and have
different antecedents and consequences developmentally.
Some authors have also looked at how self-esteem is structured. Branden (1969) contended “that
self-esteem has two interrelated aspects namely; a sense of personal efficacy and a sense of
personal worth” (p.120). Accordingly, it is the integrated sum of self-confidence and self-respect.
In addition, self-confidence is the sense of efficacy, whereas self-respect is the sense of
worthiness.
Self-esteem and Action
Self-esteem has been suggested to influence behaviour. Brown et al. (2001) pointed out that
some researchers are interested in finding out whether high self-esteem influences feelings,
thoughts and behaviours. What this means is that self-esteem as a predictor variable is of great
interest to psychologists.
In this thesis, self-esteem was a predictor variable to employee turnover intention. According to
Brown et al. (2001) some researchers study whether “high self-esteem people think, feel and
behave differently than do low self-esteem people” (p.615). Similarly, Baumeister (2005)
contended that people with high self-esteem are more likely in comparison to others to act on
their impulses and beliefs.
Reported texts talk about variations in self-esteem (Crisp & Turner, 2007; Kassin
et al., 2011). Kassin et al., (2011) contended that higher self-esteem is significant
on the way people “think about, feel about and present themselves” (p.99). They
further stated that self-esteem is dynamic and fluctuates in response to life
scenarios like success, failure, social relations and fortune. In the same breadth,
Crisp and Turner (2007) argue that some individuals’ self-esteem fluctuate in
relation to daily experiences.
Another notable review is by Baumeister et al. (2003). They cited that self-esteem
has been influential in schools, particularly American schools and its relation to
academic performance. They noted a common assumption that raising a child’s
self-esteem will improve their academic performance. In the same breadth,
Baumeister et al. (2003) cited different conclusions from different authors
regarding correlations of self-esteem and performance.
When self-esteem is applied to the world of work, it is hypothesized thus,
“people who feel better about themselves perform better” (Baumeister et al.,
2003, p.14). Baumeister et al. (2003) pointed out that there is a correlation
between self-esteem and job performance or put differently, self-esteem might
improve performance. Accordingly, Baumeister et al. (2003) argued that in
relation to job performance, self-esteem influences people to persist even in the
face of failure, and if there is an alternative “high self-esteem is associated with
knowing when to quit”( p.15).
Similarly, Ferris, Lian, Brown, Pang and Keeping (2010) in their review argued
that an individual’s self-esteem has “main and moderating effects on job
performance” especially if it is contingent upon workplace performance (p.563).
They stated that individuals with high self- esteem are more productive and
satisfied at work.
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