Comparative Animal Physiology lecture notes

Physiological effects of gastrointestinal hormones:(1) Regulates the secretion of digestive

glands and digestive tract (2) Paracrine: diffusion

through interstitial fluid

Motion; to the target cells to function

(2) regulate the release of other hormones; (3) Nerve secretion: VIP, P

substance, etc

(3) Nutritional effect: stimulate the digestive tract tissue generation Can be

neurosecretory hormones

Xie and the role of growth

Gastrointestinal hormones are routed by: (1)

Remote secretion: reached through blood

circulation

The target cells come into play

(4) Endocrine: There are

also some hormonal

releases

After release, the plexus cell space diffuses into

the gastrointestinal lumen through tight

junctions.

Innervation of the digestive tract:

(1) Internal plexus innervation

Distribution: From the middle of the esophagus to the anal wall,

also called the enteric nervous system.

Composition:(1) Submucosal plexus: It mainly regulates the

function of glandular cells and epithelial cells and

innervates submucosal blood vessels. (2) Interscalene

plexus: mainly innervates smooth muscle cells

Formation of a local nervous response system.

(2) Extraneous innervation

Parasympathetic nerves: vagus nerve, pelvic nerve sympathetic nerve

Secretion of ACH Secretion of NE

Intrinsic plexus Intrinsic plexus

Smooth muscle secretory cells

Endocrine cells

Smooth muscle secretory cells

Endocrine cells

Both ends:

parasympath

etic N Middle: Sympathetic N

Double N domination

Parasympatheti

c N:

predominantly

excitatory

Sympathetic N:

Predominantly

inhibitory

Oral digestion

Saliva is secreted by the parotid

glands, submandibular glands,

sublingual glands, and many

scattered small salivary glands.

Saliva is colorless, odorless, and almost

neutral liquid.

☆ Composition and function of saliva:

Composition of saliva: water (99%), organic

matter (salivary amylase, tongue

lipase, mucin, globulin, lactoferrin, lysozyme,

etc.),

Physiological functions: (1)

moisten the oral cavity and feed,

which is convenient for chewing

and swallowing; (2) dissolve soluble

components in food, stimulate taste

production, and cause a variety of reflex

activities in the digestive tract;

(3) clean and protect the oral cavity;

(4) Digestion:

decompose starch into

maltose; (5)

Antibacterial effect

(6) Maintain the alkaline environment of the oral cavity, so that the alkaline enzymes in the feed are

not destroyed;

(7) Regulate body temperature (such as cows, cats, dogs);

(8) In ruminants, it participates in the body's urea recycling and reduces nitrogen loss.

Digestion in the stomach

1. Gastric glands

Cardia glands (mucus glands)

Pyloric gland (alkaline mucus)

exocrine

gland

arietal cells: secrete HCl, intrinsic factor

Fundic glands (oxyntic glands) Main cells: secrete pepsinogen

Mucus neck cells: secrete mucus

Endocrine cells: G cells—gastrin; D-cell—somatostatin

2. Gastric juice

COLORLESS ACIDIC LIQUID, PH 0.9-1.5, IS THE LOWEST PH LIQUID IN THE BODY

☆ Composition and function of gastric juice: (1) Hydrochloric acid - source: active secretion of

parietal cells

Form: free acid (10%), conjugated

acid (90%), total acid Effect: (1)

Activation of pepsinogen,

(2) Provide a suitable acidic environment for pepsin

(3) denatures protein and makes it easy to digest;

(4) inhibit and kill bacteria in food;

(5) Promote the secretion of pancreatic

juice, bile and small intestine fluid, and

stimulate the movement of the small

intestine (6) After entering the small

intestine, it helps the small intestine to

absorb iron and calcium

Excessive erosion of the mucous membrane by hydrochloric

acid is an important cause of ulcer disease.

(2) Pepsinogen

Source: Secreted by master cells

Purpose:

Pepsinogen

pepsin Hydrolyzed

protein peptone

When activated, proteins can be broken down into small

molecules

Characteristics: (1) It is always inactive, secreted in the form of

zymogen, and must be activated before it is active

(2) The optimal PH=1.8-3.5, and the PH>6.0 is inactivated;

(3) It is not necessary for protein digestion;

(4) At rest: a small amount of secretion at a constant

rate;

When stimulated: Abundant, rapid secretion.

(3) Intrinsic factors

Source: Parietal cell secretion

Composition: Glycoprotein (2 subunits)

Subunit A+B12 complex: protects B12 from being

destroyed by hydrolases

Subunit B+ binds specific receptors: uptake of B12

Purpose: Promotes the absorption of vitamin B12 at the end of

the ileum

Clinical: megaloblastic anemia can occur when parietal cells

are damaged or reduced

Characteristics: Secretory capacity and irritants are

comparable to gastric acid

(4) Mucus and HCO3-

Source: Mucus is secreted by superficial epithelial

cells and cervical mucus cells; HCO3- is mainly

secreted by non-secretive cells of the gastric

mucosa;

Mucus composition: mainly glycoproteins, with high

viscosity and gel-forming properties.

THE PH VALUE IS NEUTRAL.

Function: Forms gastric mucus-HCO3- barrier and protects

gastric mucosa.

(1) The role of lubricating food and

protecting the mucous membrane

from mechanical damage of food (2)

Neutralizing gastric acid

(3) Reduce the activity of pepsin and effectively prevent

the erosion of mucosa by gastric acid and pepsin

Mucus-bicarbonate barrier: Gastric mucus and HCO3- secreted by non-acid-producing

cells of the gastric mucosa work together to form a barrier against gastric acid and

pepsin erosion. ☆ Regulation of gastric juice secretion: (1) Gastric juice secretion during

the digestive period

The secretion of gastric juice after eating is generally divided into three stages according to the

location of the receptors that feel the food stimulus: the first phase, the stomach phase, and the

intestinal phase

Cephalic stage: secretory mechanism: conditioned and unconditioned: the vagus nerve is a

common efferent nerve whose peripheral transmitter ACH causes gastric juice secretion

Vagus-gastrin: The vagus nerve peripheral transmitter GRP (gastrin-releasing peptide) causes gastral

agral G cells to secrete gastrin Gastric juice

secretion

Secretion characteristics: long duration, large secretion, high acidity, strong digestion (high

pepsin content); The amount of secretion is related to appetite and mental factors.

Gastric phase: dilatation of the corpus and fundus→ vagus-vagus long reflex and intramural plexus

short reflex → gastric gland secretion↑

Dilated antral → intramural plexus short reflex → G cells release gastrin → gastric gland

secretion↑

The chemical composition of food → G cells release gastrin → secretion by gastric glands↑

Secretion characteristics: (1) High secretion and acidity. (2) Digestion (pepsin amount) is lower than

that of the first stage

Intestinal phase: Secretion mechanism: After food enters the small intestine from the stomach, it

stimulates the mechanical and chemical receptors of the small intestine wall to cause gastric juice

secretion↑.

Hormones: gastrin, cholecystokin→ promote gastric juice secretion↑.

Secretory characteristics" (1) The secretion is low, accounting for about 10% of the total gastric

juice secretion during the digestive period. (2) The acidity and pepsin content were low.

(2) Substances that promote gastric juice secretion: (1) Acetylcholine: The transmitter released

from the post-vagus ganglion fiber endings innervating the stomach is acetylcholine, and acetylcholine

acts on

On the parietal cells, receptors, cause an increase in gastric

acid secretion, the action of which can be blocked by atropine.

(2) Gastrin (gastrin): synthesized and released by G cells in the gastric

antrum and duodenal mucosa, it acts on the

gastrin-stimulating receptors of parietal cells

through blood circulation to promote gastric acid

secretion. Proglumide blocks the action of gastrin.

(3) Histamine: secreted by chromophile-like cells (ECL) in the mucosa of

gastric acid-secretion zone, reaching neighboring parietal

cells through local diffusion, acting on histamine type 2

receptors (H2 receptors) on parietal cells, which has a strong

effect on stimulating gastric acid secretion. Cimetidine

(methonitrile) blocks H2 receptors and inhibits gastric acid

secretion.

(3) Substances that inhibit gastric juice secretion:(1) Hydrochloric acid: antral PH1.2-1.5 Inhibits G

cell secretiongastrin

ANTRAL PH1.1.2-1.5 STIMULATES D-CELL SECRETION OF

SOMATOSTATIN INHIBITION OF G-CELL SECRETION AND

INHIBITION

Parietal cells

secrete gastric

acid

PH<2.5

S cells secrete

secretion-

stimulating cincin

Inhibits gastrin secretion and

inhibits gastric juice

secretion

(2) Fat: Fat and its digestive products stimulate the mucosa of the small intestine

enterogastrone Inhibits gastric juice

secretion

(3) Hypertonic solution: stimulates the osmoreceptors of the small intestine and

strengthens the gut-gastric reflex Inhibits gastric juice

secretion

Stimulates the small intestinal mucosa to release "enterostatin"

and inhibits gastric juice secretion

(4) Somatostatin: somatostatin is a typical cerebro-intestinal peptide that

produces a strong inhibition of gastric acid secretion through paracrine mode

Function. Gastrin promotes the release of somatostatin;

Acetylcholine inhibits its release.

(5) Others: bad mood, sympathetic nervous tension drugs (atropine, metritrile,

etc.), hormones (secretin,

Gastric inhibitors, PG, etc.)

☆ Forms of monogastric movement: 1. Receptive diastolic (movement of the head area).

When chewing and swallowing food, the vagus nerve reflexively causes the

relaxation of the muscles of the fundus and the anterior part of the gastric body,

which is called gastric receptive relaxation. The efferent pathway is an inhibitory

fiber in the vagus nerve, and its terminal release transmitter is vasoactive intestinal

peptide (VIP), which may also be NO

Receptive relaxation increases the volume of the gastric lumen from 50 mL on an

empty stomach to 1.5 mL after eating, with little change in intragastric pressure.

Significance: Increases the capacity of the stomach to hold food

2. Gastric peristalsis (movement of the tail area)

The contraction activity of the stomach wall, which originates in the middle of the

stomach body and is dominated by annular muscle contraction and migrates in the

direction of the pylorus, is called gastric peristalsis.

Physiological significance: to fully mix food with gastric juice to facilitate the

digestion of gastric juice.

Food can be stirred and pulverized, and gastric contents can be advanced

through the pylorus into the duodenum.

3. Tension contraction: The smooth muscles of the stomach are in a state of

continuous tension contraction

Significance: Enhances gastric pressure, helps gastric juice penetrate

into food and promotes gastric emptying; Maintain the normal shape

and position of the stomach

Gastric emptying: The process by which chyme is excreted from the stomach into the duodenum is

called gastric emptying. Gastric peristalsis is the driving force for gastric emptying.

Emptying speed: Varies

depending on the food, it

usually takes 4-6 hours for

sugars> proteins, > fat mixtures

to be completely emptied by the

stomach

Factors that promote gastric emptying: promote gastric motility

Gastric contents, as a mechanical stimulus to dilate the stomach, cause an

intensification of gastric motility and promote gastric emptying through the intramural plexus

reflex and vagus-vagus reflex; Food expansion stimulation and chemical composition can cause

the release of gastrin, which not only stimulates gastric juice secretion, but also has a moderate

stimulation effect on gastric motility.

Factors that inhibit gastric emptying in the duodenum: inhibition of gastric motility

Gut-gastric reflex: acids, fats, hypertonic solutions, mechanical

dilation, etc. in chyme stimulate receptors on the duodenal wall

Reflexively inhibits gastric motility, causing gastric emptying

to slow down, called the gut-gastric reflex.

Gastrointestinal hormones: After a large amount of chyme (especially

acids and fats) enters the duodenum, it can cause the release of secretin and

contraction of the small intestinal mucosa

Cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptides, etc.,

these hormones can inhibit gastric motility.

Vomiting: Vomiting is a protective

defensive reflex

It can expel harmful substances

from the stomach.

Vomiting center: near the nucleus of the solitary tract at the level of the dorsal nucleus of the vagus

bulbar nerve

Severe vomiting can interfere with eating and cause disturbances in water, electrolyte, and acid-base

balance

Digestion of the stomach

1. Forestomach digestion: (1) Microbial digestion: The rumen is highly sunny and nutritious,

which is conducive to the survival of anaerobic microorganisms.

Ciliate: the body itself protein, glycogen; Starch and protein

particles stored in the body

Bacteria: Break down cellulose VFA; Utilize urea

Information exchange, mutual constraints, synergistic effect

between microorganisms and microorganisms, vitamins

and hosts

2. Forestomach movement: Forestomach contraction originates from the reticulated stomach

A wave: rumen vestibule rucksackAbdominal pouch Back to front

B wave: The rumen contracts separately and grows in the posterior part of the

rumen

3. Rumination: Process: regurgitation, then chewing, then mixing saliva, and then swallowing

4. Belching: belching Reflex movements

gas Rumen wall receptors medulla oblongataabout muscles

Cattle 17-20 times/hour

Rumen Qi (Young Grass)

5. Esophageal sulcus reflex: when young animals are sucking, they can reflexively cause

the esophageal sulcus to close into a tube, and the milk enters the folded stomach directly

from the esophageal sulcus through the valve stomach.

Small intestinal digestion: 1. Pancreatic juice The pancreatic juice is a colorless, transparent,

alkaline liquid with a pH of about 7.8-8.4 and an osmotic pressure of about the samePlasma is equal.

Adults produce 1-2 liters per day

Composition and function of pancreatic juice: (1) Water and bicarbonate:

secreted by the cells of the wall of the small duct, the main role is to neutralize

gastric acid, and to protect it

The intestinal mucosa is not eroded by gastric acid, providing the

most suitable PH environment for a variety of digestive enzymes

in the small intestine

(2) Pancreatic amylase: pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes

polysaccharides (except cellulose) into oligosaccharides such

as maltose

It is then broken down into monosaccharides by

oligosaccharidase on the brush margin of intestinal epithelial

cells and absorbed.

(3) Pancreatic lipase: pancreatic lipase can decompose

fat into fatty acids and monoacylglycerol, and it must be

synergistic by the colipase secreted by the pancreas to

play a role. Pancreatic juice also contains cholesteryl ester

hydrolase and phospholipase A2.

(4) Proteolytic enzymes: Trypsin and chymotrypsin are

inactive zymogens just secreted, and their role after activation

is to decompose proteins in food. Pancreatic juice also

contains elastase and carboxypeptidase, which are activated

by zymogen to break down polypeptides.

Pancreatic juice also contains RNases and DNases that

hydrolyze nucleic acids into single nucleotides.

Regulation of pancreatic juice secretion: (1) Neuromodulation

Regulatory mechanism: feeding and food stimulation through conditioned

reflex and unconditioned reflex

Ejaculation (vagus nerve release ACH; Vagus-gastrin)pancreas

Pancreatic juice

secretion

Characteristics: caused by the secretion of

pancreatic juice, in which the content of water

and bicarbonate is less,

However, the content of pancreatic enzymes is very rich.

(2) Fluid regulation: (1) Secretin: acidic chyme,

protein decomposition products and fatty acids promote

the secretion of secretion of secretin by S cells, which

mainly acts on the epithelial cells of the small ducts of

the pancreas, causing them to secrete a large amount

of water and bicarbonate, thus greatly increasing the

total secretion of pancreatic juice, but the content of

pancreatic enzymes is very low.

(2) Cholecystokinin (CCK): Protein breakdown

products and fatty acids promote the secretion of cholecystokinin

by I cells, and CCK can promote the secretion of various

pancreatic enzymes in pancreatic juice, but has a weak effect on

HCO3- and water in pancreatic juice (so it is also called trypsin-

stimulating hormone).

Synergistic effect: secretion of pancreatic

juice by secretion of secretion of pancreatic

juice

There is a synergistic effect, i.e. one hormone can intensify the

action of another.

2. Bile

Bile is secreted by

hepatocytes and is called hepatic bile and is golden-yellow, alkaline, with less

solid components, and flows into the gallbladder reservoir during non-digestible

periods

Exi

st.

The bile stored in the

gallbladder is called

gallbladder bile. The

color becomes darker,

it is weakly acidic, and

there are more solid

components.

Bile secretion: 800ml/day

Properties and composition of bile: (1) Bile salts: mainly sodium

glycinate and sodium bezoar cholate, about 50%.

(2) Cholesterol: Cholesterol in bile is a liver fat metabolite,

accounting for about 4%

(3) Bile pigment: Bilirubin is a degradation product of

hemoglobin, accounting for about 2%

In addition, bile also contains fatty acids, inorganic salts, etc

It is important to emphasize that there are no digestive enzymes in bile

Physiological effects of bile: (1) Emulsify fats and promote fat

digestion: bile salts, cholesterol and lecithin in bile are

emulsifiers, which can reduce the surface tension of fat, so

that fat emulsification is called fat droplets with a diameter

of 3-10μm, which are dispersed in aqueous solution,

thereby increasing the area of action with lipase, which is

conducive to lipolysis.

(2) Promote fat absorption: bile salts and fat

decomposition products, such as fatty acids,

monoacylglycerol, etc., form water-soluble complexes

(mixed micromicelles), and then pass through the

hydrostatic layer on the surface of the small intestinal

epithelium to absorb the cells and reach the surface of the

absorbing cells to be absorbed. Bile salts are essential

carriers for water-soluble lipolysis products to reach the

surface of the intestinal mucosa, which can effectively

promote the absorption of lipolysis products. This effect is on

the nootropic

Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K) is

also important.

(3) In addition, bile in the duodenum can also neutralize a part

of the stomach acid.

Intestohepatic circulation of bile salts: After bile salts enter the small

intestine, more than 90% are absorbed by the mucosa at the end of the ileum, and

return to the liver through Gate V

It is the raw material for the synthesis of bile, and then the bile

is secreted into the intestine, a process called the enterohepatic

circulation of bile salts.

The role of the gallbladder: The gallbladder has the function of storing and

concentrating bile during the digestive interval. It concentrates bile 5-12 times

more and increases storage efficiency

Yes; Direct discharge during digestion.

Regulation of bile secretion and discharge: (1) Neuromodulation

Food stimuli Conditioned vs. unconditioned (vagus nerve

releases Ach; vagus

—gastrin) liver, gall bladder Bile secretion and excretion

High-protein foods have the strongest stimulation, followed by

high-fat or mixed foods, and sugary foods have the weakest

effect.

(2) Fluid regulation

Gastrointestinal hormones that promote secretion: gastrin,

secretin, cholecystokinin

Bile salts: promote bile secretion through the entero-

hepatic circulation

Regulatory characteristics: (1) Bile salts that enter the liver

through the enterohepatic circulation are the main stimulators

that cause the liver to secrete bile

(2) Gastrin (gastrin) has the strongest effect in humoral

regulation

(3) Secretin promotes the increase of water and HCO3-

secretion in bile, but does not increase the secretion of bile

salt.

3. The nature and composition of the small intestinal fluid

A WEAKLY ALKALINE FLUID WITH A PH OF APPROXIMATELY 7.6 AND AN OSMOLALITY EQUAL TO THAT OF

PLASMA, WITH A SECRETION OF 1 TO 3 L/DAY

It is mainly secreted by the duodenal and small intestinal glands

Small intestinal fluid contains a large amount of water and inorganic ions, mucins and enzymes

(mainly intestinal activating enzymes and intestinal amylases)

The role of small intestinal fluid: (1) Dilution: A large amount of small intestinal fluid can dilute

the intestinal contents and reduce their osmotic pressure, which is conducive to the absorption of

digestive products.

(2) Protective effect: the small intestinal fluid containing mucin has

lubrication, which plays a role in weakening mechanical

stimulation on the surface of the mucosa; The alkalinity of

the small intestinal fluid makes the intestinal wall resistant

to the erosion of gastric acid; IgA secreted by intestinal

mucosal epithelial cells is immunoprotective.

(3) Digestion: There are two enzymes in the small intestinal fluid, and intestinal

activating enzyme can activate trypsinogen and turn it into active trypsin. Intestines

Amylase helps in the digestion of sugary foods and breaks down

starch into maltose and glucose.

Forms of small intestinal movement: (1) Tonic contraction: The smooth muscle of the small

intestine is in a state of continuous tension contraction, exerting a certain pressure on the intestinal

contents, which is a segmented movement

and the basis of peristalsis.

(2) Segmented movement: rhythmic movement based on alternating contraction

of annular muscles, which is a unique form of movement of the small intestine.

Physiological significance of segmented exercise:(1) Mix chyme with digestive juices to

facilitate chemical digestion

(2) Make chyme in close contact with the intestinal wall to create good regulation

for absorption

(3) Squeezing the intestinal wall helps the return of blood and lymph and creates

good conditions for absorption.

(3) Small intestinal peristalsis: It is the movement of contraction and relaxation

of the small intestine from top to bottom, and the function is to push the chyme to

the end of the small intestine.

Special way of small intestinal peristalsis: peristaltic impulse: peristaltic movement with fast

peristaltic speed and long propagation distance

Counterperistalsis: A movement at the end of the duodenum and ileum that

moves in the opposite direction of peristalsis

Regulation of small intestinal motility: (1) The role of the intramural plexus: mechanical

stimulation and chemical stimulation act on the intestinal wall receptors, causing smooth muscle of

the small intestine through local reflexes

Motion.

(2) The role of foreign nerves: the excitatory ability of the parasympathetic nerve

(vagus nerve) strengthens the movement of the small intestine, while the excitability

of the sympathetic nerve inhibits little

Bowel motility.

(3) Fluid regulation: The humoral factors that promote the movement of the small

intestine are: Ach, 5-HT, P substance, gastrin, cholecystokin, enkephalin, etc

The humoral factors that inhibit the movement of the small intestine

are: secretin, glucagon, adrenaline, etc

Physiological functions of the large intestine: absorption of water and electrolytes; microbial digestion

and absorption; Feces are formed and stored temporarily

The main components of colon fluid: mucus and bicarbonate

The function of colon fluid: to protect the intestinal mucosa and lubricate the stool

Absorption capacity of various parts of the digestive tract: oral: absorbs some drugs (such as

nitroglycerin, morphine).

Stomach: absorbs alcohol and a small amount of water, some drugs

Small intestine: the strongest absorption capacity and the most variety, it is

the main absorption site

Structural features of the small intestine: annular folds of the mucosa; small

intestinal villi; Longitudinal striae at the apex of epithelial cells (microvilli)

Absorption area of the small intestine: about 200m2

Large intestine: absorbs water and inorganic salts, but also glucose and

some medications

Absorption of key nutrients:1. Absorption of sugar Starch in food maltosemonosaccharide

Absorption mechanism: secondary active transport against

concentration differences

Lumen side: transporters on the intestinal mucosal epithelial cell

cavity membrane bind to Na+ and glucose at the same time

A Na+-transporter-glucose complex is formed, which transports

glucose and Na+ into the cell in the same direction.

Bottom of the tube: Na+ is pumped out of the cell by a sodium

pump, and glucose is facilitated and diffused into the bloodstream

by the carrier.

2. Protein

absorption

After the protein is digested and broken

down into amino acids, dipeptides, and

tripeptides, almost all of them are

absorbed by the small intestine

The absorption of amino acids is a secondary active transport

process, similar to that of glucose

Newborns can also absorb polypeptides and proteins through

endocytosis, so they can absorb antibodies from breast milk

and give birth

Passive immunity.

Undigested and complete protein can also be absorbed in small amounts, but it has no nutritional

effect and, on the contrary, can act as an antigen to cause allergic reactions.

3. Fat

absorption

Mechanism: Passive absorption

Pathway: The lymphatic route is the predominant, followed by

the vascular route

Absorption of 4.Na+ and water: The absorption of Na+ diffuses into the

cell through the paraelectro-chemical gradient of the Na+

carrier and Na+ channel in the intestinal lumen, and the

Na+ that enters the cell is transported to the intercellular

space by the Na+ pump on the basement membrane of

the cell, and then diffuses into the bloodstream.

Water is passively absorbed under the action of osmotic

pressure.

5. Iron

absorption

Absorption site: upper small intestine

Absorption: about 1mg/day, which is

related to the body's need for iron

Absorption mechanism: active absorption process

Intestinal epithelial cells release transferrin

Transferrin vs. Fe2+ combined into a

complex Complex

with turn

Ferritin receptor binding Fe after the complex enters the cell2+ free

6. Calcium

absorption

Site of absorption: small intestine, mainly

in the duodenum

State of absorption: soluble calcium

Absorption mechanism: active transport

Calcium-binding protein (Ca-BP) on the

microvilli of intestinal mucosal cells binds

to Ca2+, and Ca2+ enters the cell;

On the serous side of the cell, Ca2+ is transported out of the

cell via Na+-Ca2+ exchange.

Influencing factors of calcium absorption: (1) Fatty acids and acidic environment promote calcium

absorption

(2) calcium salts that combine with calcium to form precipitates cannot be

absorbed;

(3) Vitamin D3 can promote the synthesis of calcium-

binding protein by intestinal mucosal cells and

promote the absorption of Ca2+, and (4) the amount

of calcium absorption is affected by the body's needs

7. Absorption of vitaminsWater-soluble vitamins are mainly absorbed in the

upper part of the small intestine by facilitating diffusion.

VB12 must bind to intrinsic factor to form a complex

for absorption in the ileum

Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K are absorbed by a

mechanism similar to that of fats.

Chapter 7 Energy Metabolism and Thermoregulation (5

points)

Energy metabolism and body temperature 1.Energy metabolism (1)Basal metabolism and resting

energy metabolism 5

2. Body temperature (1) The main way for animals to dissipate heat

(2) The basic regulation mode of

maintaining a relatively constant

body temperature in animals is basal

metabolism and resting energy

metabolism

1. Basal metabolism: The body's energy metabolism in the basal state is called basal

metabolism.

Conditions for the base state:

(1) Fasting in the morning, that is, fasting for 12~14h, the day before should be light and not

To be too full of food.

(2) Lie flat and relax the muscles of the whole body.

(3) Sober and emotionally relaxed.

(4) Room temperature 18-25°C.

2. Basal metabolism rate (BMR): basal metabolism per unit of time in the basal state. X

3. Resting energy metabolism: animals are required to be fasted and in a resting state (usually in a

lying state) as a standard state.

The ambient temperature is moderate, and it is obtained by indirect calorimetry.

In livestock, resting energy metabolism is used to replace basal metabolism.

Condition:

(1) Require the animal to fast.

(2) Animals are required to rest quietly (lying down) before early feeding in the ordinary

Measurements are carried out in the barn or laboratory.

(3) The ambient temperature is moderate.

(4) Determined by indirect calorimetry.

Evidence of actual measurement results of resting energy metabolism and basal metabolism

Ming, the difference is not big.

2. Body temperature

The maintenance of normal body temperature depends on the dynamic balance of the body's heat

production process and heat dissipation process.

Within the appropriate range of ambient temperature, the metabolic intensity and caloric

production of animals can be kept at the lowest physiological level, while the body temperature

can still remain constant, this ambient temperature is called

Isothermal range or metabolically stable zone of the animal.

Major Thermogenic Organs and Forms of Thermogenesis: Thermogenic Organs: Quiet State: Internal

Organs (Liver); Active state: skeletal muscle.

Forms of thermogenesis: (1) Shivering thermogenesis: involuntary rhythmic

contraction of skeletal muscle, with a rhythm of 9-11 beats/minute.

(2) Non-shivering thermogenesis: also known as metabolic

thermogenesis, all tissues and organs of the body can carry out

metabolic thermogenesis.

In particular, BFT has the largest caloric yield.

Heat dissipation process: Animals dissipate heat by conduction, radiation, convection, evaporation,

and other physical means.

Heat dissipation mode: When the outside air temperature < lower than the body temperature, the

body heat dissipation methods are as follows:

Radiative heat dissipation: Bulk heat is transmitted in the form of infrared rays to objects

with lower outside temperatures.

Conduction heat dissipation: The body's heat is transferred directly to the cooler objects that

come into contact with it.

Convection heat dissipation: The flow of gases or liquids in contact with the body surface to

exchange and dissipate heat.

Evaporative heat dissipation: evaporation of water from the body surface.

When the temperature is close to or above body temperature, evaporative heat dissipation becomes

the only effective way to dissipate heat.

3. Constant regulation of body temperature:

Autonomic thermoregulation: The thermoregulatory center of the hypothalamus maintains a constant

body temperature by regulating thermogenesis and heat dissipation. Reflex activity

Behavioral thermoregulation: refers to the change of animal behavior to control the degree of heat

dissipation and heat production, and maintain a constant body temperature.

(1) Thermoreceptors

1. Peripheral temperature receptors

(1) Distribution: the skin of the

whole body, some mucous

membranes and abdominal viscera.

(2) Type: thermoreceptor and cold

receptor

When the skin temperature ≈ 30°C→ cold receptor + → cold sensation

At ≈ 35°C, the temperature receptor + → temperature sensor is →

(3) Function: After the thermoreceptor afferent impulse reaches the center, in addition to

generating temperature sensation, it can also cause a thermoregulatory response.

2. Central thermoreceptors

(1) Classification: heat-sensitive neurons and cold-sensitive neurons

(2) Distribution: hypothalamus, brainstem reticular structure and spinal cord

There are more heat-sensitive neurons and a small number of cold-sensitive neurons in the

preoptic region-anterior hypothalamus (PO/AH). Studies using PO/AH warming or cooling (local

brain temperature variation of 0.1°C) have found that:

Heating PO/AH → Thermal N element of PO/AH + → heat dissipation reaction ↑ Heat production

reaction ↓

Cooling PO/AH → Cold-sensitive N-yuan of PO/AH + → heat dissipation reaction ↓ Heat production

reaction ↑

DESCRIPTION: Some temperature-sensitive N-

elements in PO/AH can sense changes in local

brain temperature. (2) Thermoregulatory

center

The basic center that regulates body temperature is located in the hypothalamus.

Some temperature-sensitive N-elements in the preoptic region-anterior hypothalamus (PO/AH) can

sense changes in local brain temperature; Further studies have also proved that PO/AH can also

respond to incoming temperature information in the midbrain, medulla, spinal cord, skin, etc., and can

directly respond to thermogenic substances, 5-HT, NE and other substances, indicating that PO/AH is a

key part of the thermoregulatory center.

(3) Thermoregulatory mechanisms

Based on the above, the mechanism of automatic regulation of body temperature proposes the

theory of "setting point": that is, the regulation of body temperature is similar to that of a

thermostat; The temperature-sensitive N-element in the preoptic region-anterior hypothalamus

PO/AH may play a role as a "setting point"; The temperature value specified in the "setting point"

determines the level of body temperature.

Chapter 8 Urology

Urine production and excretion 1.Glomerular filtration function (1) The concept of effective filtration

pressure

(2) The basic principle and main influencing factors of protourine formation 10

2. Transport function of renal tubule and collecting duct (1) Transport function of each segment of

renal tubule

3. Regulation of urine production (1) The regulation of urine production by antidiuretic hormone

(2) The regulatory function of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system on urine production

4. Urine excretion (1) Concentration and dilution of urine

(2) Voiding reflex

Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. Nephrons work together with

collecting ducts to complete urinary function.

Nephrons: Each nephron consists of two parts, the renal corpuscle and the renal tubule. The renal

corpuscle consists of two parts: glomeruli and renal balloon. Nephrons, cortical nephrons, and

proximal medullary kidneys

Unit.

Conduits: work together to complete urinary function.

The paraglomerular apparatus (proximal glomerular bodies) is composed of three special cell

populations, namely paraglomerular cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells (mesenchymal cells), and

dense plaques. balls

Paracells contain secretory granules, and sympathetic nerve

excitation can cause renin secretion.

Paraglomerular cells: Paraglomerular cells are specialized smooth muscle cells in the glomerular

entry arterioles that synthesize and secrete renin.

The cells themselves are stretch receptors, and the stimuli they feel are changes in the

volume and pressure of the affinating arterioles. When blood pressure in the affinating

arterioles is low,

When flow is reduced, proximal globular cells secrete increased

renin.

Dense plaque: When the distal convoluted tubule is close to the glomerulus and adjacent to the

parabulbar cells, the arrangement of the tubular epithelial cells becomes dense and columnar,

forming a plaque into the lumen

The bulge, called the dense plaque, is a chemoreceptor.

When the concentration of Na+ in the tubular fluid decreases and the flow rate of the

tubular fluid decreases, the dense plaques transmit the sensory information to the

parabulbar cells, which secrete renin

Increase.

Characteristics of renal blood supply: (1) Large blood flow

(2) Blood flows through two arterioles and two sets of capillary networks (renal

artery - two sets of capillary networks - renal veins:)

Introbular arterioles - glomerular capillary network (first capillary network) -

outflow arterioles - surround the renal tubules and collecting casts

into a second set of capillary networks

The vast majority of the blood in the kidneys flows through the glomerular

capillary network and the renal tubular capillary network.

The incoming arterioles of the glomeruli are short and thick, with low resistance

to blood flow; On the other hand, the efferent arterioles are thin and long, and the

blood flow resistance is high. This feature,

It makes the glomerular capillary blood pressure higher, which is conducive to

the filtration of plasma components.

The peritubular capillary network lowers blood pressure and facilitates tubular

reabsorption.

(3) Paramedullary nephron efferent arterioles into the posterior branch of the

medulla:

formation of elongated U-shaped straight small blood vessels, parallel to the

medullary stumbling and collecting ducts; A network of capillaries surrounding

the renal tubules

Regulation of renal blood flow: (1) Self-regulation (myogenic theory)

Blood pressure Smooth muscle tonic

(contractile) resistance to blood flow in the wall of renal entry arterioles Renal blood

flow remains stable (does not increase)

Blood pressure Smooth muscle tone

(diastolic) resistance to blood flow in the renal entry arteriole wall Renal blood flow

remains stable (not reduced)

(2) Nervous and

humoral

regulation (1)

Sympathetic

Renal vasoconstriction

Renal blood flow

(2) A Letter to the Editor of the Gazette Renal vasoconstriction Renal blood flow

1. Glomerular filtration function

(1) Filtration membrane and its permeability

A capillary endothelial cells; window holes, blocking blood cells

B Base membrane: a microfiber network composed of hydrated gel, with the smallest voids, plays

the main role of mechanical barrier.

C The "foot process" of podocytes in the visceral layer of the renal sac: "filtering through the

slit membrane"

The layers of the filtration membrane contain many negatively charged

substances (glycoproteins) that act as an electrical barrier. The ability of a

substance to pass through the glomerular membrane is determined by the

molecular size of the substance and the charge it carries.

Substances with an effective radius of less than 1.8nm can be completely

filtered, and macromolecules larger than 3.6nm can be filtered almost

completely. Although plasma albumin has an effective radius of 3.5 nm, it is

difficult to pass through the membrane due to its negative charge.

(2) Effective filter pressure

Effective filtration pressure = capillary

blood pressure - (intracapsular pressure +

plasma colloidal osmolality) (2) Factors

affecting glomerular filtration

1. Permeability of the filtration membrane (the amount and composition of the original

urine) The mechanical barrier or electrical barrier is damaged - proteinuria

2. Effective filtration area (urine output) Acute glomerulonephritis - oliguria or anuria

3. Effective filtration pressure (urine output)

Micropuncture experiments have proved that the filtrate of glomeruli is the ultrafiltrate of

plasma (raw urine).

There are three links in urine production: (1) glomerular filtration

(2) Reabsorption of

renal tubules and

collecting ducts (3)

Secretion of renal

tubules and collecting

ducts

Glomerular filtration: As blood flows through the glomeruli, a portion of the water and small

solutes in the plasma (including small amounts of protein with a smaller molecular weight) are

removed from the kidney

The process by which the capillaries of the ball are filtered into

the sac cavity of the renal sac.

Glomerular filtration: refers to the process in which some components of the plasma

are filtered into the renal sacs through the membrane to form protourine when blood flows

through the glomerular capillaries. Filtration membranes and their permeability

Effective filter pressure

Composition of the filtration membrane: It is composed of endothelial cells (inner

layer), basal membrane (middle layer) and visceral layer cells (outer layer) of renal sac

capillaries. Effective filtration pressure: The driving force that prompts plasma filtration

from the glomerular capillaries is the effective filtration pressure.

Effective filtration pressure = (glomerular capillary blood pressure + intracapsular fluid colloidal

osmolality) - (plasma colloidal osmolality + intracapsular pressure)

Factors affecting glomerular filtration: (1) The area of glomerular filtration membrane and

its permeability

Filtration area: Normally, all glomeruli are active in both kidneys. The

total filtration area of the two kidneys is 1.5m2

Filtration area Glomerular filtration concerns Urine output

(Acute nephritis）

Filtration membrane permeability: mechanical barrier action (thickening

of the filtration membrane) Oliguria

Electrostatic barrier effect (glycoprotein reduction)

proteinuria

(acute glomerulonephritis).

(2) Glomerular effective filtration pressure: glomerular capillary blood

pressure, intracapsular pressure, plasma colloidal osmolality

(3) Renal blood flow: increased renal blood flow, increased glomerular

filtration, and increased progenituria; Conversely, the production of

protourine decreases

2. Selective reabsorption of the renal tubules - about 99% of the water in the glomerular filtrate is

reabsorbed by the renal tubules and collecting ducts, and only about 1% is excreted.

(1) Reabsorption method

Passive reabsorption: The process of transporting water

and solutes from the tubule fluid to the interstitial fluid along

an electrochemical gradient. Active reabsorption: primary

active transport (Na+ pump, H+ pump, Ca2+ pump).

Secondary active transport (glucose, amino acids)

The process by which substances in tubular fluid are transported against the electrochemical gradient

to extracellular interstitial fluid.

Reabsorption and secretion of renal tubules and collecting ducts: Reabsorption: refers to the

process by which renal tubular cells retake certain components of the original urine back into the

bloodstream.

Secretion: Refers to the process by which tubular cells drain certain

substances into the lumen of the renal tubules.

The raw urine that enters the tubules from the renal sacs is called tubular fluid.

When tubular fluid flows through the renal tubules and collecting ducts, the process in

which water and various solutes are returned to the bloodstream through the epithelial

cells on the wall of the tubular fluid is called reabsorption. Raw urine is produced at

125ml per minute and 180L per day

The production of final urine per minute is only about 1ml, and the production volume is 1.5-1.8L per day

The final urine volume is only 1% of the original urine output, which means that 99% of the water in the

tubular fluid is reabsorbed

Methods of reabsorption: (1) Passive reabsorption: simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

(2) Active reabsorption: primary active transport (ion pump) and secondary active

transport (co-transport)

Characteristics of reabsorption: (1) The reabsorption of renal tubules and collecting ducts is

selective reabsorption

(2) All reabsorbed (100%):

glucose, amino acids (3) Most of

them are reabsorbed (99%):

water, NaCl, etc. (4) A small part

is reabsorbed: urea

(5) Not reabsorbed at all: creatinine, uric acid

(2) Reabsorption of various substances

1. Glucose: Location: proximal convoluted tubule (almost all reabsorption)

Mechanism: Active reabsorption (Na+ secondary active co-transport, requires carrier

protein to complete)

2. Amino acids: Location: proximal convoluted tubule (all reabsorption)

Mechanism: Identical to glucose, active co-directional transport coupled to Na+, but the

transporter may be different;

The reabsorption of various amino acids is in competition with each other;

A small amount of protein that enters the tubular fluid is reabsorbed by endocytosis by

tubular epithelial cells.

3. Reabsorption of Na+: Location: Proximal convoluted tubule 65-70%

Medullary tripping ascending branch 20-30%

The rest are in the collecting tubes, distantly convoluted tubules

MECHANISM: Proximal convoluted tubule: active reabsorption

Medullary ascending branch: passive diffusion

Other: Active transshipment

Reabsorption of 4.Cl-: Location: proximal convoluted tubule, medullary loop

MECHANISM: Mostly with passive reabsorption of Na+;

The thick segment of the ascending loop of the medullary loop is secondary

active reabsorption.

5. Reabsorption of K+: Location: Most of them are in the proximal convoluted tubules and medullary

stumbling

About 67% of the potassium ions filtered by the glomeruli are reabsorbed into

the bloodstream in the proximal convoluted tubules, while the potassium ions in

the urine are collected by the distal convoluted tubules

Secreted by the tube.

Mechanism: Active reabsorption (mechanism unknown)

6. Reabsorption of HCO3-: Location: Proximal convoluted tubule (80-85%)

Mechanism: Absorption in the form of CO2

Coupling with sodium-hydrogen exchange

For every 1 hydrogen ion secreted, one carbonate ion and one sodium ion are

reabsorbed

7. Reabsorption of H2O: Location: Proximal convoluted tubule (70%); Medullary stumbling, distal

convoluted tubules, collecting ducts (about 10% each).

Mechanism: Proximal convoluted tubule: passive transport with osmotic gradient

resulting from Na+ isoreabsorption

Distal convoluted tubules, collecting tubes: ADH-dependent

Reabsorption of glucose and amino acids: site of reabsorption: limited to the proximal tubule

(especially the first half).

Mechanism of reabsorption: secondary active transport associated with Na+

reabsorption

Lumen membrane: Glucose and Na+ bind to the transporter of the lumen

membrane and transport them into the cell in the same direction

Peritubular: The glucose concentration difference enters the interstitial fluid

through the peritubulars membrane through the facilitated diffusion of the

carrier

Na+ is pumped out by a peritubular sodium pump Intracellular [Na+] The

concentration of Na+ in the official cavity is higher than that in the cell, which is

the official cavity membrane

Glucose-Na+ co-transport provides potential energy.

It can be seen that the activity of the peritubular membrane Na+ pump is

primary active transport; The co-transport of glucose in the official

membrane is secondary active

Transhipment.

The mechanism of reabsorption of amino acids in tubular fluid is the same as

that of glucose.

Characteristics of glucose reabsorption: saturation

There is a limit to glucose reabsorption by proximal tubular

cells. When the blood glucose concentration

exceeds 9.0 to 10.0 mmol/L (1.6 to 1.8 g/L), some

tubular cells have reached their limit of glucose

absorption, and glucose can appear in the urine,

which is called glycosuria.

Renal glucose threshold: The concentration of blood sugar when glucose

begins to appear in the urine. Normal: 9.0 to 10.0 mmol/L (1.6 to 1.8 g/L).

Na+ reabsorption: (1) Na+ reabsorption by the proximal tubule

Reabsorption of 70% of filtration

Method: Active reabsorption

Lumen membrane: (1) Na+ is reabsorbed in the same direction as glucose,

amino acids, and HCO3-PO43-, respectively;

②Na+ + Reverse conjugated transport is reabsorbed (H+-Na+ exchange).

Peritubular: Sodium pumps consume ATP to pump Na+ into the intercellular space

and (2) Na+ reabsorption by distal tubules and collecting ducts

Reabsorption mode: active reabsorption

Peritubular and lateral membranes: Sodium pumps consume energy to transport

Na+ out of the cell

Reabsorption of Cl-: (1) Reabsorption of Cl- in the proximal convoluted tubule

MECHANISM: Passive reabsorption

Since Na+, glucose, amino acids, etc. have been actively reabsorbed in the first half

of the proximal convoluted tubule, the Cl- inside and outside the tube in the second

half of the proximal convoluted tubule

potential difference (about 20-40% higher) The Cl-

parapotential difference passes through tight junctions (called

paracellular

pathway) into the intercellular space.

Hint: Except for the coarse CL- of the ascending branch of the medullary loop,

which is actively resorption, all other sites are passively reabsorbed.

(2) Reabsorption of Cl- in the thick segment of the ascending branch of the medullary

loop

The luminal membrane is transported by Na+:2Cl-:K+ co-transporters Na+, Cl-

paraelectro-chemical gradients, and K+ inverse-chemical gradients

into the cell

The Na+ entering the cell is pumped out by the peritubular membrane Na+ pump, Cl-

is facilitated and diffuses out of the cell through the peritubular membrane Cl- channel,

and K+ is translucidated through the luminal membrane K+ channel

It is facilitated by concentration gradient and diffuses into the

official cavity.

K+ reabsorption: the vast majority (about 70%) of K+ in the original urine is reabsorbed into the

bloodstream in the proximal tubule, and K+ in the terminal urine is mainly secreted by the distal

convoluted tubules and collecting ducts

(K+-Na+ swap)

Mechanism of reabsorption: active process

Reabsorption of HCO3-: Reabsorption form of HCO3-: Reabsorption in the form of CO2

HCO3-Reabsorption is positively correlated with H+-Na+ exchange, i.e., H+ secretion

HCO3-Increased reabsorption

For every 1 HCO3- reabsorption, there is 1 Na+ reabsorption

Reabsorption of water: Mechanism of reabsorption: passive process (osmosis).

Reabsorption rate: Proximal tubule: 65%-70%

Loop descending artery segment: 10%

Distal convoluted tubule: 10%

Manifold: Rest

3. Secretion and excretion of renal tubules and collecting ducts

Secretion: Tubule epithelial cells secrete the substances they produce into the tubular fluid through

metabolism.

Excretion: Epithelial cells excrete certain substances from the blood into the tubular fluid.

1. Secretion of H+: proximal convoluted tubule: secretion of 1 hydrogen ion, reabsorption of 1

carbonate ion and 1 sodium ion

2. Secretion and excretion of NH3 NH4+: location: distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

3. Secretion of K+: location: distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

Mechanism: Na+—K+ exchange

The reabsorption of sodium ions creates a potential difference between the two

sides of the tubule, which promotes the passive diffusion of potassium ions from

the interstitial fluid into the tubule fluid.

Hypotonic urine: When the body is more hydrated, less water is reabsorbed in the renal

tubular fluid, and the body excretes urine with a lower osmolality than the plasma, known as

hypotonic urine. - Dilution of hypertonic urine: When the body is dehydrated, the water in the

original urine is reabsorbed by a large number of renal tubules, and the final urine osmolality

will be higher than that of plasma, which is hypertonic urine. - Concentration

The osmotic concentration of urine in a normal person can fluctuate between about 50-1200

mOsm/L. The plasma osmotic concentration is approximately 300 mOsm/L.

Dilution of urine:

(1) The solute in the ascending branch of the medullary loop is reabsorbed, but the water is not easy

to be reabsorbed—the tubular fluid at the end of the coarse segment of the ascending branch of the

medullary loop is hypotonic

(2) When there is a surplus of water in the body and the release of antidiuretic hormone is inhibited -

resulting in dilution of urine.

If antidiuretic hormone is completely deficient, as in patients with severe diabetes insipidus,

up to 20 litres of hypotonic urine per day, equivalent to 10% of the glomerular filtration

rate, can be excreted. Concentration of urine: site: distal convoluted tubules and

collecting ducts

Structure: medullary loops, which form an important structure for the medullary

permeability gradient.

Conditions: (1) Permeability to water (ADH) and (2) renal medulla osmotic pressure

gradient

The longer the loop, the stronger the condensation ability.

(1) The mechanism of

urine concentration -

countercurrent theory:

"countercurrent exchange".

Counterflow system:

(1) Two pipes in parallel

(2) The liquid flows in the opposite direction

(3) The lower end of the two pipes is connected

(4) The diaphragm allows solute exchange

In the flow of liquids, solutes or heat are exchanged between the two tubes.

Conditio

ns for

"Counter

current

Multiplic

ation":

1. The M1 membrane actively pumps Na+ from pipe B to pipe A

2. M1 is impermeable to water

3. M2 is permeable to

water and

impermeable to

soluteResult:

1. The countercurrent multiplies to form a permeability gradient

2. The water enters pipe B and pipe C is concentrated.

Reverse flow multiplication of renal tubular loops: Outer medulla: Active reabsorption of Na+ and CI-

by the thick segment of the ascending branch of the loop

Inner medulla: NaCl diffused at the fine ends of the ascending ramus of the

medullary loop and urea diffused by the collecting ducts

The role of urea in the formation of osmotic pressure gradients

Contribution of urea to medullary hyperosmolality: 40-50% (concentrated urine), 10% (dilute urine)

The significance of urea recirculation: the excretion of high concentrations of urea (up to 750mOsm)

without taking away large amounts of water.

Countercurrent exchange of straight small blood vessels in the medulla: through countercurrent

exchange, the solutes in the medulla are not taken away in large quantities; Reabsorbed water is

drained into the blood circulation.

4. Regulation of urine production

(1) Renal self-regulation

1. The concentration of solutes in the tubular fluid

Polyuria in diabetic patients with "osmotic diuretic" - the renal tubules cannot completely reabsorb

glucose into the bloodstream, the glucose content in the tubular fluid increases, and the osmolality

of the tubular fluid increases

High.

2. Bulb-tube balance: constant specific gravity absorption: glomerular blood flow (GFR) increases, and

the reabsorption rate of solute and water in the proximal tubule is also increased accordingly, and the

reabsorption rate = 65-70% GFR (2) neurohumoral regulation

1. The role of renal sympathetic nerve: (1) It directly innervates or stimulates the release of NE

and E from the adrenal medulla, acting on the incoming and outgoing arterioles, and the renal blood

flow decreases.

(2) Stimulate the release of renin from paraglomerular cells and increase the

reabsorption of NaCl and water in the renal tubules.

(3) Increase the reabsorption of Na+, Cl-, and water in the proximal tubule and

medullary loop.

2.（antidiuretic hormone ，ADH）

Synthesis: hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus, paraventricular nucleus neurons

Release: Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)

Function:

Acts on the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, increases permeability

to water, and concentrates urine;

Increase the active reabsorption of Na+ and CI- in the thick segment of the ascending medullary loop

and the permeability of urea in the collecting duct, increase the medullary osmotic concentration, and

facilitate urine concentration.

The main factors regulating ADH secretion: plasma crystal osmolality; Circulating blood volume

3. Renin-

angiotensin-

aldosterone system

secretion: renin-

paraglomerous

cells

Angiotensin-liver

Aldosterone—globular band of adrenal cortex

Purpose: Renin—catalyzes angiotensinogen production of angiotensin I

Angiotensininogen - angiotensin I - angiotensin II

Aldosterone—acts on distal convoluted tubules, collecting ducts, and preserves Na+ and discharges

K+

Mechanism of action of aldosterone:(1) Na+ channel protein of the luminal membrane

(2) An enzyme of ATP synthesized in the mitochondria that powers the sodium pump

(3) The Na+ pump of the basal membrane promotes the return of Na+ to the blood and

K+ into the cells, which is conducive to the secretion of K+

The main factors regulating aldosterone secretion: (1) R-A-A system

Decreased blood pressure or blood volume R-A-A system Blood pressure

and blood volume are restored

② K+ Na +[K+]

[Na+] The globular band of the adrenal cortex aldosterone

protects Na+ and ranks K+

(3) Cardiac natriuretic

Atrial myocytes synthesize and release cardiac natriuretic, inhibit the

release of aldosterone and ADH, and promote sodium excretion and

drainage.

Voiding reflex: When urine fills the bladder to a certain extent, intravesical pressure increases,

stimulating the stretch receptors of the smooth muscles of the bladder, and impulses are

afferent along the pelvic nerve into the spinal cord voiding reflex center. Urination is regulated

by the cerebral cortex, which makes it easy to form conditioned reflexes.

Chapter 9: The Nervous System (10 points)

1. Laws of neuronal activity (1) Characteristics of nerve fiber conduction excitation

(2) Types of synapses and basic characteristics of synaptic transmission

(3) Neurotransmitters, adrenergic receptors, cholinergic receptors 10

2. Nerve reflexes (1) The concept and characteristics of unconditioned reflexes and conditioned

reflexes

3. Sensory function of the nervous system (1) The concept of receptors

and (2) the role of the spinal cord, thalamus, and cerebral cortex in the process of sensory

formation

(3) The formation of sight, hearing, taste, and smell

4. Regulation of somatic movements by the nervous system (1) Spinal cord reflex

(2) Muscle tension, tendon reflex and stretch reflex of skeletal muscle

and (3) the characteristics of the motor area of the cerebral cortex

5. Regulation of visceral activity by the nervous system (1) Basic

characteristics of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

regulating visceral activity I. The law of neuronal activity

(1) Neurons and glial cells

1. Neurons

(1) Basic structure

(2) Main function: to feel various stimuli inside and outside the body to cause excitation or

inhibition; analysis and synthesis of excitation or inhibition from different sources; secretion of

hormones, etc

2. Glia: Schwann cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, etc

3. Characteristics of nerve fiber (NF) conduction excitation: physiological integrity,

insulation, bidirectionality, non-attenuation, and relative non-fatigue

Factors influencing NF conduction velocity: diameter, myelin, temperature, status

4. The role of nerves on innervated tissues

Functional effects: synapses release neurotransmitters that alter the functional activity of innervated

tissues

Trophic effects: nerve endings release certain substances on a regular basis, which continuously

adjust the metabolic activities within the innervated tissues, affecting their continuous structural

and physiological and biochemical changes, and this effect is not related to nerve impulses.

(2) Modes of information transmission between neurons – synaptic transmission and non-synaptic

transmission

1. Classification of synapses:

Delivery method: Chemical synapsesElectrical synapses

Contact parts:

Shaft

- Tree

shaft

Body

shaft

Shaft

type

Function: Excitatory synapses Inhibitory synapses

2. Synaptic structure: presynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane

兴奋性突触后电位（excitatory postsynaptic potential ，EPSP ）

The presynaptic membrane excites the release of excitatory chemical transmitters, which diffuse

through the synaptic cleft to the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane, causing changes in the

ion permeability of the postsynaptic membrane, Na+ influx,

Causes a postsynaptic potential to be formed by local depolarization of the postsynaptic

membrane. Increases the excitability of postsynaptic neurogens to other stimuli, making

them predisposed to AP. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

The presynaptic membrane releases inhibitory chemical transmitters after excitation, and

after binding to the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane, it changes its ionic permeability,

K+ efflux or Cl- influx, and makes the synapsis

Potential changes due to hyperpolarization of the post-touch membrane. Reduces the excitability of

postsynaptic neurogens to other stimuli, making them less susceptible to AP.

When the EPSP reaches about 52 mV at the

beginning of the axon (axonal thalamus), it can

trigger the action potential IPSP to spread along the

cell and cause cell inhibition

The activity of the whole cell depends on the

combined effect of EPSP with IPSP during the

period☆characteristics of synaptic

transmission

1. One-way transmission: Presynaptic neurons synapse Postsynaptic neurons

2. Sum effect

3. Synaptic delay: The release of transmitters diffusion on the postsynaptic membrane

4. Sensitivity to internal and external environments: Hypoxia acid-base

5. Sensitivity to certain chemical substances: Caffeine, theobromine, strychnine

Electrical synapses (gap junctions): synaptic cleft< 5 nm; lack of synaptic vesicles in synaptic

vesicles; The gap resistance is small, creating a low-resistance channel, and the AP passes directly

through the intersynaptic space

The gap acts on the postsynaptic membrane. The speed of transmission is fast, the resistance is low,

there is almost no incubation period, and the transmission is bidirectional

Nonsynaptic transmission: Neurogonal axon terminals form numerous bead-like varicose bodies

with numerous transmitter-containing vesicles inside. Nerve impulses reach the varicose bodies

when the transmitter

It is released from it and reaches nearby or slightly distant target cells through diffusion to bind to its

receptors and exert physiological effects

Features: (1) No specialized synaptic structure, long information transmission

time; (2) the distance between the varicose body and the rake cell is

long; (3) it is not a one-to-one domination relationship; (4) Whether the

effect is produced or not is related to whether the effector has a

corresponding receptor

(4) Neurotransmitters and their receptors

神经递质（neurotransmitter）：

Synthesized by presynaptic neurons and released by their nerve endings, it diffuses through the

synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane, and acts specifically on receptors on postsynaptic

neurons or effector cells, enabling the transmission of information from presynaptic to

postsynaptic chemicals.

Neuromodulator:

It refers to another class of chemicals produced by neurons, which also act on specific

receptors, but they do not play a role in the direct transmission of information between

neurons, but regulate the efficiency of information transmission, and play a role in enhancing

or weakening the transmitter.

1. Peripheral transmitters and receptors

A. Acetylcholine ACH Cholinergic nerve fibers are widely distributed

Motor NF, preganglionic fibers of vegetative N, and

the vast majority of parasympathetic N-

postganglionic fibers innervate the vasodilatory

sympathetic N-postganglionic fibers of sweat

glands and skeletal muscle

b. ( NA or NE )

Adrenergic nerve fibers

Sympathetic postganglionic fibers other than the vasodilators innervating sweat glands and skeletal

muscles

c. Purines or peptides Purinergic or peptidergic nerve fibers

Some fibers in the intramural plexus of the gastrointestinal tract release ATP, vasoactive

intestinal peptides, gastrin, somatostatin, and others.

receptor

Cholinergic receptors: predominantly excited

Muscarinic M-type:

M1/M2/M3/M4/M5

nicotine N-type:

N1/N2

Adrenergic receptors: predominantly excited:

1 Receptor: 1A/ 1B/ 1D

2 : 2A/ 2B/ 2C

Mainly inhibited: 1, 2, 3

2. Central transmitters and receptors

Acetylcholine: Sensation, Movement, Learning, Memory

Monoamines: (nore)epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin.

Mood, wakefulness, sleep amino acids: cereal,

asparagus, sweet, GABA

Peptides: opioid peptides (enkephalins, dynorpins) are associated with pain sensation and analgesia;

Cerebroenteric peptides (substance P, vasoactive intestinal peptides, etc.)

Regulatory polypeptides released by the hypothalamus

all have corresponding receptors

3. Connections and activities of central neurons

1. Contact of central neurons: divergent: diffusion of excitability or inhibition; Aggregated: Sum or

Integrate

Chained: spatially strengthened range of action; Annular shape: Late release or

timely termination

2. Central excitation and central inhibition - the two basic processes of central activity

Features of intra-central excitability

a. One-way delivery

b. Central delay: synaptic delay

Transmitter release, diffusion, and interaction with receptors, etc., a synaptic transmission

takes about 0.5ms

c. Sum: A single EPSP is not enough to cause an AP, the sum of time and space

d. Alteration of excitatory rhythms

e. Rear release: (Figure)

f. Limitation and diffusion

g. Sensitivity to changes in the internal environment and fatigue: transmitters and receptors

3. Characteristics of the central inhibition process

Presynaptic inhibition: a decrease in the release of excitatory transmitters, with inhibition

occurring in the presynaptic membrane and associated with Ca++ influx

Structural basis: axon-axonal synapse, axono-body synapse

Postsynaptic inhibition: caused by inhibitory interneurons, the action of inhibitory transmitters.

Afferent collateral inhibition (reciprocal inhibition), regression inhibition

4. Reflection and reflection arc

Reflex: The response of the organism to internal and external environmental

stimuli with the participation of the central NS. The basic mode of function of

the nervous system: the reflex arc: the structure that achieves reflex activity.

The reflex center is multi-staged

Unconditioned reflexes: reflexes that animals build and consolidate during the evolution of a race

and can be passed on to their offspring.

Conditioned reflexes: Reflexes that are built on the basis of

unconditioned reflexes that an individual animal has been

trained to build in the course of life. The advanced functions of

the Hub NS have greater flexibility and are more suitable for

complex and changeable living environments.

Formation of conditioned reflexes: On the basis of unconditioned reflexes, irrelevant stimuli are

combined with unconditioned stimuli several times, so that the excitatory foci of irrelevant stimuli in

the central NS are not barred

Pieces of stimulated excitatory foci establish new functional associations.

4. Sensory analysis function of the nervous system

Sensation: Receptors are effectively stimulated to produce N impulses, which enter the central NS

through nerve conduction pathways, producing a response that is appropriate to the stimulus.

Sensation is a special high-level function of the nervous system that reflects changes in the

body's internal and external environment.

A biotransducer consisting of a specially differentiated afferent NF terminal and its appendages

General physiological characteristics: a. Appropriate stimuli b. transducer c. adaptive phenomena

Fast adaptation (olfactory receptors) Slow

adaptation (nociceptors)

d. Contrasting phenomena and after-effects: stimuli – receptors – nerve impulses –

spinal cord – thalamus – cerebral cortex – sensation

sensory conduction function of the spinal cord; the thalamus and its sensory projection system;

Sensory analysis function in the cerebral cortex

The thalamus: a commutation replacement station for sensory conduction

Nuclei of the thalamus: sensory succession nuclei, liaison nuclei, non-specific nuclei group

Specific projection system: The thalamic sensory replacement nucleus receives nerve impulses

from various specific sensory pathways in the body, and then projects them into the cerebral cortex

through NF

Define the area and produce a specific feeling. Thalamic liaison nucleus Point-to-point,

generating a specific sensation

Non-specific projection system: When specific sensory conduction fibers pass through the

brainstem, they send out collateral branches to synapse with neurons in the reticular structure

of the brainstem, and move forward multiple times in the reticular structure to reach the non-

specific nuclear group of the thalamus (medullary lamina nuclear group), and finally diffusely

project to a wide area of the cerebral cortex. Improves cerebral cortex excitability and maintains

arousal

Regulation of somatic movement by the nervous system: somatic movement is the main activity of

the animal's response to the external environment, which is coordinated by many skeletal muscles

under the regulation of various parts of NS

Harmony and coordination of movement to achieve

Spinal cord-brainstem-cerebellum-cortex

Spinal cord regulation of somatic movements: flexor reflexes, tendon reflexes, stretch reflexes, muscle

tension

Mechanism of the stretch reflex: muscle spindle: receptor of the stretch reflex

Tendon organs: distributed in tendon collagen fibers, the most stimulated during

isometric contraction, are muscle tone change receptors

Hormone: A high-potency substance secreted by the endocrine glands

or endocrine system, which is transmitted and regulated by diffusion

through blood tissues. Classification of hormones: 1. Nitrogenous

hormones. Such as insulin, thyroid hormones

2. Steroids. Such as glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids

3. Unsaturated fatty acid derivatives. Such as leukotrienes and prostaglandins

Incretion:

Paracrine: Some hormones are not transported through the bloodstream and are only diffused by

the interstitial fluid to act on nearby cells

Autocrine: Hormones secreted by endocrine cells that

diffuse locally and then return to act on the endocrine cells

neuroendocrine

Types of hypothalamic hormones and their main functions: thyrotropin-releasing hormone –

promotes TSH and PRL release

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone –

promotes LH versus FSH release,

and growth hormone-releasing

hormone – promotes GH release

Corticotropin-releasing hormone -

promotes ACTH release of

melanchotropin-releasing factor -

promotes MSH release of prolactin-

releasing factor - promotes PRL

release

Ghrelin release inhibitory hormone/somatostatin – inhibits GH release

Melanas (trophin) hormone release inhibitor – inhibits MSH release

Prolactin release inhibitor – inhibits PRL release

Types of adenohypophysis hormones and their physiological functions :

Growth hormone (GH) – growth-promoting effect; Boosts metabolism

Prolactin (PRL) – promotes the development of the mammary glands and the production of milk, as

well as growth, water and salt metabolism and gonadal function

Nootropic hormones (including TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH) – TSH promotes the growth and synthesis of the

thyroid gland and releases thyroid hormones

ACTH promotes adrenal hyperplasia and the

synthesis and release of adrenocorticotropic

hormones, and FSH and LH are collectively

referred to as gonadotropins

Melanotropic hormone (MSH) – Causes melanocytes to produce melanin

Hormonal and physiological functions of the pituitary gland:

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) –

antidiuretic effect; Oxytocin-inducing effect; Milk

removal effect

The main physiological functions of thyroxine are:

(1) Metabolic effect: thermogenic effect - promote the catabolism of sugars and lipids, and improve

the basal metabolic rate

Effects on protein, sugar and fat metabolism – promotes fatty acid oxidation;

Promote the absorption of sugar by the small intestinal mucosa, enhance the

decomposition of hepatic glycogen, inhibit glycogen synthesis, and enhance

the glycemic effect of adrenaline, glucagon, cortisol and GH; Physiological

doses of thyroid hormones promote protein synthesis

Effect on water and electrolytes - regulates the maintenance of normal capillary

permeability and the renewal of intracellular fluid

(2) Influence on growth and development - it is an important factor in the growth, development and

maturation of the body, especially the development of the brain and bones

(3) Effects on the nervous system

Basic regulation of thyroid hormone secretion:

Hypothalamic-

pituitary regulation

of the thyroid gland

and feedback

regulation of thyroid

hormones

Self-regulation

The role of parathyroid hormone and the regulation of its secretion : mainly regulated by

changes in plasma calcium concentrations

The effect of calcitonin: the effect on bone - inhibits the activity of osteoclasts, enhances the

osteogenic process, inhibits the absorption of bone calcium

Effect on the kidneys - inhibition of renal

tubular reabsorption of calcium,

phosphorus, sodium and chloride on the

small intestine - indirect inhibition of

calcium absorption in the small intestine

Regulation of calcitonin secretion: mainly regulated by blood calcium concentration

The main functions of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and the regulation of their secretion:

The role of insulin and glucagon

and the regulation of their

secretion : hormones secreted by

the pineal gland and their main

functions :

Classification of prostaglandins and their main functions :

9. Placental hormones (1) The secretion of placental hormones and their main functions

11. Reproduction and lactation 1.Male reproductive physiology (1) The main functions of the

testes

(2) The source of androgens and their physiological functions

(3) Regulation of androgen secretion 5

2. Female reproductive physiology (1) The main functions of the ovaries

(2) The source and physiological function of estrogen and progesterone

(3) Regulation of estrogen and progesterone secretion

3. Lactation (1) The production process of milk and its regulation

(2) Milk

Removal

and Its

RegulationP

art III: Basic

Question

Types

1. Ranking explanation; 2. Fill in the blanks; 3. Short-answer questions; 4. Analyze essay

questions

Sichuan Agricultural University 1998 Admission Examination Questions for Master's Degree Graduate

Students

Course Title: Animal Physiology and Biochemistry (Total score: 100 points)Applicable majors: animal

majors

Animal Physiology Section

(50 points)

1. Multiple choice questions: (21 points in

total)

1. The so-called transmembrane

potential refers to (), it ().

A. Potential difference between the

inner and outer sides of the cell membrane

B. Potential difference between different parts of the cell

membrane

C. Refers only to resting potentials D. Refers to action potentials only

E includes resting potential and action potential

2. Facilitated diffusion mainly refers to (). () With the help of cell membrane channel proteins, yes ()

A. Transmembrane transport of non-fat-soluble substances B. Transmembrane transport of fat-

soluble substances

C. Yes D. No, you don't

E. A form of passive transit F. A form of active transshipment

3. The difference between fast and slow reactive cells is mainly based on (). The level of self-

discipline depends mainly on (). Sinus node cells () are very slow, but () are fast, so they belong

to slow-reacting cells with high automaticity.

A.Phase 0 depolarization rate B.4 The speed of automatic slow depolarization

C. Diastolic potential level D. Threshold potential level

1. The plasma proteins that make up the body's immune antibodies are ().

A albumin B. α—globulin c β—globulin D. γ-globulin

2. The endogenous coagulation system and the exogenous coagulation system () are divided

according to the different processes by which blood clotting occurs in or outside the blood vessels.

A. Yes B. No

3. Among the various cardiomyocytes, the action potential of () lasts the longest.

A. Purkinje cells B. Atrial myocytes C. Ventricular myocytes D. Atrioventricular

junction cells

4. When K+ in the extracellular fluid is significantly reduced, the absolute value of the resting potential of

cardiomyocytes (), the permeability of the cell membrane to K+ (), the excitability () and conductivity ().

A. Enlarge B. Decrease C. Elevated D. Lowered E. Enhancements F.

Weakening

5. In a cardiac cycle, semilunar valve opening occurs in () and closure occurs in (); Atrioventricular valve

opening occurs in () and closure occurs in ().

A. End of isochoric systole B. Isochoric diastolic onset C. Ventricular muscle

diastolic begins

D. Isochoric diastolic endE. Isochoric systole begins

6. Sudden decrease in arterial blood pressure, carotid sinus afferent impulse (), thereby inhibiting the

sympathetic center and sympathetic constriction center (), thus blood pressure can be restored

Litre.

A. Increase B. Reduction C. Enhancement D. Weakening

7. Sympathetic stimulation causes an increase in gastric juice secretion, which is achieved by ().

A. Direct action of nerves B. The role of gastrin

C. Dual mechanisms of direct action of nerves and action of gastrin

8. The main factor that inhibits gastric juice secretion during the digestive period is chamber (), (), ().

A. Hydrochloric acid B. Protein C. Fat D. Hypertonic solution E. Amino acids F

Sympathetic excitation

12. Absent in pancreatic secretions ().

A. Proteases B. Elastase C. Carboxypeptidase D. Amylase E. Enterokinase

13. The most effective stimulant that causes secretion of secretion is at high concentrations ().

A. Pepsin B.HCl C. Fat

14. CCK-PZ is a polypeptide hormone released by (), and the strongest factor causing its release is

().

A. Gastric pyloric mucosa B. Small intestinal mucosa C. Fat D. Monosaccharides

E. Protein breakdown products F. Hydrochloric acid G. gastrin

15. The secretion of the large intestine is mainly a () liquid, which is (), and it has a () effect.

A. Mucous B. Serous C. Acidic D. Alkaline

E. Digestion F. Protection

16. The two processes of lung ventilation and pulmonary ventilation are collectively referred to as ().

A. Internal respiration B. Tissue respiration C. External respiration

17. When the ventilation/blood flow ratio decreases, it means that part of the capillary blood flows

through the unventilated alveoli, increasing ( ); Ventilation/flow ratio increases,

This means that some alveoli do not receive adequate blood perfusion, increasing ( )。

A. Functionally invalid cavity B. Functional arteriovenous short circuit

18. Due to the filtration of glomeruli, the plasma colloidal osmotic pressure of glomerular capillaries

from the incoming to the out-of-glomerular end can be ()

A. Markedly elevated B. Significantly reduced

19. Increased urine output caused by drinking a lot of water, which is mainly due to ().

A. Increased glomerular filtration rate B. Decreased ADH secretion C.

Decreased aldosterone secretion

20. In body acidosis, renal tubular H+ secretion (), HCO3- reabsorption (), H+—Na+ exchange (), serum

potassium ().

A. Additions B. Reduction C. Enhancement D. Weakening

E. Elevated concentrations F. Reduced concentration

2. Explanation of terms (20 points in total)

1. Isothermal range

2. Critical fusion frequency

Receptor

potential

4. Nerve

secretion

5. First

love

period

1. Questions and Answers (9 marks)

The role of the endocrine system in maintaining a relatively constant environment is discussed.

Sichuan Agricultural University 1999 Admission Examination Questions for Master's Degree Graduate

Students

Course Title: Animal Physiology and Biochemistry (Total score: 100 points)Applicable majors: animal

majors

Animal Physiology Section (50 points)

1. Fill-in-the-blank questions: (0.5 points per blank, 16 points in total)

1. The ability of a cell to generate an action potential when stimulated is called _____.

2. There are three ways to regulate the body's functions, namely _____, _____ and _____.

3. The forms of material transport through the cell membrane mainly include: (1) passive transport,

including _____ and _____; (2) _____ and (3) _____.

4. The main buffer pairs within red blood cells, there are _____ and _____.

5. The basic steps of blood clotting can be divided into (1) _____; ②_____ ③；_____。

6. The first heart sound marks the beginning of _____ contractions, which are mainly caused by the

rapid impact of blood flow during the contraction of the _____ muscles _____ the _____ caused by the

reflexion of the valve

Move.

7. Pancreatic juice contains a variety of digestive enzymes, among which tryptic enzymes mainly

include _____, _____ and _____.

8. Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland, including _____, _____, _____, _____, _____; The

hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are _____ and _____. 9. The hormones secreted by

the testicles are _____; Hormones secreted by the ovaries include _____, _____, small

amounts of _____, and _____.

1. Multiple choice questions: (0.5 points for each choice, 20 points in total)

1．In the resting state, the cell membrane has the greatest permeability to () and the

least permeability to (), and is organic to () charged macromolecules

Things are barely transparent.

A.K+ B.Na+ C. Positive D. Negative

2. The function of the sodium pump is to move the () in the extracellular fluid into the membrane

and the intracellular () to the extramembrane by the concentration gradient.

A. Shun B. Inverse C. K+ D.Na+

3. The plasma proteins that make up the body's immune antibodies are ( ).

A albumin B. α—globulin c β—globulin D. γ-globulin

4. The permeability of the myocardial membrane to () gradually decreases during the diastolic

period, and the cell membrane still maintains a small and stable () influx.

As a result, the membrane potential gradually approaches (), resulting in diastolic automatic

depolarization.

A.Na + B.K+ C. Maximum diastolic potential D. Threshold potential

5 The role of vitamin K is ( )。

A. Promotes blood clotting B. Prevent blood clotting

6. Sudden decrease in arterial blood pressure, carotid sinus afferent impulse (), thereby inhibiting the

sympathetic center and sympathetic constriction center (), thus increasing blood pressure ().

A. IncreaseB. Decrease C. Enhancement D. Decrease

7. An increase in the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood can cause an oxygen dissociation curve ().

A. Shift left B. Shift to the right

8. When the ventilation/blood flow ratio decreases, it means that some

capillary blood flows through the unventilated alveoli, increasing ( ) ；Ventilation/flow ratio

increases,

This means that some alveoli do not receive adequate blood perfusion, increasing ( )。

A. Functionally invalid cavity B. Functional arteriovenous short circuit

9. During the gastric phase of gastric juice secretion, the stimulant (hydrochloric acid) that causes

the release of gastrin is triggered.

A Yes B. No

10. The main factors that inhibit gastric juice secretion during digestion are (), () and ().

A. Hydrochloric acid B. Protein C. Fat D. Hypertonic solution E. Amino acids F

Sympathetic excitation

11. The most effective stimulant to cause secretion of secretion is at high concentrations ().

A. Pepsin B.HCl C. Fat

12. Bile salts are soluble in ( ), which does ().

A. Water B. Water and fat C. Fat D. Activation of pancreatic lipase

E. Emulsifies fats and promotes the absorption of their digestive products

13. After severing the bilateral vagus nerve in the neck of experimental animals, respiration is often

made (), which is mainly due to the result of () being eliminated.

A Gets faster and deeper B. Becoming steamed and deepening C. Slower and shallower D.

Stretch reflex

E Respiration, skin, body, sensory reflex

14. Water ( ) passes through the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct epithelial cells,

and the reabsorption of water in this part is mainly regulated by ().

A. Easy B. Not easy C. Osmotic pressure D. ADH secretion

15. Presynaptic inhibition is achieved by the activity of (), that is, the transmitters released by

certain nerve endings keep the presynaptic neuronal terminals of the excitatory axes in a state

of ().

A. Axon-axonal synapses B. Axonial-body synapse C. Axis—dendritic synapses D.

Depolarization E. Hyperpolarization

16. An important rule of excitatory transmission between neuromuscular is that nerve charging and

myocyte action potentials are transmitted in the mode of ().

A. 1：1 B. All or None

17. The adaptive changes that occur in the life of animals for a short period of time (e.g., several

months) in an extraordinary ambient temperature (cold or hot) are called ().

A.惯习(acclimation) B. 风土驯化（acclimatization）

18. Spermatogenesis in the testicles of breeding boars.

A. All year round B. Only available during the breeding season

19. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which reaches the pituitary gland through the pituitary portal

system and promotes its secretion (), () acts on (), and promotes sperm production; () acts on ()

Boosts testosterone secretion.

A.FSH B. LH C. Leydig cells D. Testicular flexure fine tubes

20. Mammalian blastocyst implantation is completed by () playing the main role under the synergy

of ().

A. Estrogen B. Progestogens

3. Questions and Answers (14 points)

The role of the kidneys in maintaining the body's acid-

base balance is described.

Sichuan Agricultural University 2000 Enrollment for

Master's Degree Graduate Entrance Examination

Subject Name: Animal Physiology

and Biochemistry (Total Score: 100

points)

Applicable majors: animal majors

Animal Physiology Section (50 points)

1. Fill-in-the-blank questions: (0.5×20=10 points)

1. The information sent back by the control part strengthens the activity of the control part to the

controlled part is called ______, which is the form of feedback of the body's ______ (more/less).

2. During blood coagulation, the composition of the thrombinase complex is coagulation factors

______, ______, ______, and ______.

3. According to the bioelectric characteristics of various

cardiomyocytes, Purkinje fibers can be classified as ______ reaction ______ cells.

4. The physiological significance of cardiomyocytes without tonic

contraction includes favoring the heart's own ______ and blood ______. 5.

The amount of fresh air inhaled into the lungs per minute is called ______

and is equal to the difference between the tidal volume and the ______

multiplied by the respiratory rate.

1．Some bacteria in the large intestine can synthesize vitamins - and - from simple substances.

2．The mechanisms by which the small intestine of animals absorb glucose and water are - and -,

respectively.

3．The stretch reflex of skeletal muscles is divided into two types: - and - .

4．The functional connection between the hypothalamus and the neurohypophysis and the

adenohypophysis is achieved through - and - respectively.

2. True/False Questions:

1 The cell membrane is polarized while the cell is at rest. （）

2. Erythrocytosis in animals caused by hypoxia is due to increased androgens. （）

3. The magnitude of red blood cell suspension stability depends on the plasma, not on the red blood

cells themselves. （）

4 The stretch reflex of the lungs ensures sufficient depth for multiple breaths.（）

5. The gastrointestinal reflex is caused by afferent impulses in the duodenum, which has an excitatory

effect on pyloric activity. （）

6. Body temperature refers to the rectal temperature of the livestock. （）

7. Changes in osmotic pressure of plasma crystals do not affect the process of urine production. （）

8. It is theoretically assumed that when the resistance of the extracellular fluid increases, the

conduction velocity of the action potential slows down. （）

9 Insulin promotes the storage and utilization of sugar, which lowers blood sugar levels. （）

10 Adding auxin to the cartilage culture of pituitary animals stimulates cartilage growth. （）

3. Multiple choice questions: (choose

the one that best suits the topic,

1×l0=10 points) 1. The index that can

comprehensively measure the

excitability of the organization is ().

A. Intensity threshold B. Time threshold c. Threshold stimulus D time E. Intensity-one-to-one

time curve

2. When there is no standard serum, which blood type is the most convenient to identify various

blood types? （）

A ．Type A B . Type B C. AB 型D. O 型E. No difference

3. The most important factors affecting venous blood return are ()

A. Cardiac ejection function B. Venous system pressure difference C. Suction of negative chest

pressure

D. Squeezing of skeletal muscles E. Tension of venous vessels

4. Among the components of microcirculation, the highest innervation density is ().

A. Arterioles B. Posterior arterioles C. Precapillary sphincter D. True capillary E. Venules

5. Which of the following conditions causes the oxygen to shift to the right on the curve? （）

A. pH↑PCO2↓T↑ B. pH↓PCO2↑T↑ C. pH↓PCO2↓T↑

D. pH↓PCO2↓T↓ E. pH↑PCO2↑T↓

6. The contractions of the ruminant forestomach associated with regurgitation are ()

A. Rumen A wave B. Rumen B wave C. Reticulogastric additional contraction

D. First contraction of the reticulated stomach E. Second phase contraction of the reticulogastric

stomach

7. The digestive juice containing the most types of digestive enzymes is ()

A. Saliva B. Gastric juice C. Pancreatic juice D. Bile E. Colon fluid

8. The most important factor affecting energy metabolism is ().

A. Mental tension B. Ambient temperature C. Special motility of food D. Muscle activity E. Gender

and age

9. The mechanism of renal tubulosecretory NH3 is ()

A NH3 is pumped into the lumen by active transport ().

B. NH3 passively diffuses into the lumen and then binds to H+ to form NH4+.

C. NH4+ and OH in the lumen—combine to form NH4OH

D. NH4+ and HCO3—combined in

the lumen to form NH4HCO3 E. NH3

is exchanged with Na+ for NH3-

Na+

10 The most important hormones that affect the development of the nervous system are ().

A . GH B ．T4 (T3) C. Glucocorticoids D. Epinephrine E. Insulin

4. Explanation of

terms (2×5=10

points)1. Buck

reflex

2. Bile

3. NE

4. The

Second

Messen

ger

nidatio

5. Questions and Answers (10 points in total)

1. Briefly describe the main

physiological roles of gastrointestinal

hormones. (2 points)2. How is urine

concentrated and diluted? (3 points)

3. Talk about your understanding of the concept of "homeostasis" in physiology and its physiological

significance. (5 points)

Sichuan Agricultural University 2001 Admission Examination Questions for Master's Degree Graduate

Students

Course Title: Animal Physiology and Biochemistry (Total score: 100 points)Applicable majors: animal

majors

Animal Physiology Section (50 points)

1. Multiple Choice True/False Questions (22 points in total)

1. When the cell is not stimulated, its cell membrane is in (1) polarized state, (2) depolarized

state).

2. When several stimuli of different properties are used separately, and the stimulus

intensity reaches the threshold, the action potential waveform ((1) is not the same, (2) is the

same), and the magnitude ((3) is the same, (4) is not the same) in the same cell.

3. In the transmembrane information transfer system, in addition to cAMP, cGMP, and Ca+, the

chemicals that act as second messengers include (1) adenylyl cyclase, (2) phosphoric acid

esterases, (3) phosphatidylinositol, (4) inositol triphosphate, (5) diacylglycerol).

4. After anticoagulant-treated blood, the upper layer of fluid is plasma, the lower layer is red blood

cells and white blood cells, and between the two layers is platelets. ((1) Correct,

(2) Error).

5. The key to the speed of ESR is not determined by the red blood cells themselves, but mainly

by the plasma composition ((1) correct, (2) false).

6. Under normal circumstances, the plasma concentration of anti-plasmin is higher and lower

than that of plasmin ((1) and (2)), making plasmin ((3) easy and (4) not easy).

volatile activity, which helps to prevent local [(5) bleeding, (6) coagulation].

7. When the concentration of extracellular fluid K+ decreases significantly, the absolute value

of the resting potential of cardiomyocytes ((1) increases, (2) decreases), and the permeability

of the cell membrane to K+ ((3) increases, (4) decreases), so that the excitability ((5) increases,

(6) decreases) and conductivity ((7) increases, (8) decreases).

8. The elasticity of the aortic wall decreases, which can increase systolic blood pressure ((1) and

decrease (2), diastolic blood pressure ((3) increase and (4) decrease), resulting in pulse pressure

((5) increase and (6) decrease).

9. When renal blood flow ((1) increases, (2) decreases), the kidneys can be stimulated to produce a

((3) hormone, (4) enzyme), that is, ((5) vascular tension

(6) renin), this active substance can ((7) directly, (8) indirectly) cause peripheral

resistance ((9) increase, (10) decrease), so that blood pressure ((11) rise, (12)

decrease).

10. When the ventilation/blood flow ratio decreases, it means that part of the capillary blood flows

through the alveoli of ((1) hypoventilation, (2) hyperventilation), making ((3) functional ineffective

cavities,

(4) Functional arteriovenous short circuit) increases.

11. The stimulating effect of H+ on respiration is by stimulating (1) central chemoreceptors, (2)

peripheral chemoreceptors, (3) central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors

device). The sensitivity of central chemoreceptors to H+ ((4) high, (5) low), H+ ((6) easy,

(7) It is not easy to pass through the blood-brain barrier, thereby

(8) enhancing and (9) limiting) the role of central chemoreceptors.

12. After gastric acid enters the small intestine, it stimulates the duodenal mucosa to produce

((1) secretin, (2) CCK-PZ, (3) gastric inhibitory peptide), which can ((4) excite and (6) inhibit)

gastrin-induced gastric acid secretion.

13. The contractions associated with belching in the ruminant forestomach are (1) the first

contraction of the reticulum stomach, (2) the second contraction of the reticulum stomach, (2) the

first contraction of the ruminum, and (4) the second contraction of the ruminum

shrinkage).

14. The main products of triglycerides formed by long-chain fatty acids after digestion are ((1)

fatty acids, (2) glycerol and fatty acids, (2) glycerol, fatty acids and monoglycerides), and the fat

digestion products can be incorporated into bile salt micromicelles to form ((4) chylomicrons, (9)

mixed micromicelles), which are transported into intestinal epithelial cells through the intestinal

wall, and released into the intercellular space in the form of ((8) chylomicrons and (7) mixed

micromicelles), and then diffuse into lymph.

15. In acidosis, renal tubular H+ secretion ((1) increases, (2) decreases),

HCO3--reabsorption ((2) increases, (4) decreases), H+-Na+ exchange ((5)

increases, (6) decreases), distal convoluted tubule K+_Na+ exchange ((7)

enhanced, (8) decreased), so the serum potassium concentration ((9)

increases, (8) decreases).

16. The ratio of the respiratory quotient ((1) O2 consumption/CO2 production, (2) CO2 production/O2

consumption).

17. Horses have well-developed sweat glands, and heat stress mainly relies on sweating to dissipate

heat: buffalo sweat glands are underdeveloped, and the main response to heat stress is ((1) hot

panting, (7) water bath).

((2) radiation, (4) convection, (3) conduction, (8) evaporation) heat dissipation.

18. In the excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal muscle, the function of the transverse

duct system is (1) to transmit the excitation generated by the muscle membrane to the inside

of the cell, and (2) to couple the electrical changes on the muscle membrane with the

contraction process of the muscle cells), among which (1) Na+, (2) K+, (2) Ca2+ play the role

of coupling factors.

2. Explanation of terms (3×6=18 points)

Excitab

ility 2.

Facilita

ted

diffusio

3. Mucus-HCO3-barrier

4. Power shaping

5. Neuro-endocrine function

6. Pregnancy identification

3. Questions and Answers (10 points)

Give examples to illustrate the functional connections between the various parts of the digestive

organs.

Sichuan Agricultural University 2002 Admission Examination Questions for Master's Degree Graduate

Students

Course Title: 404 Animal Physiology (Total: 100 marks) Applicable majors: animal majors

1. Fill-in-the-blank questions (1 point for each blank, 20 points in total)

1. Animal physiology is an experimental science, and its research methods can be divided into

two categories: ( ) and ( ), and the latter can be divided into two methods: () and ().

2. The peak potential represents the () process of the cell, and the posterior potential represents the

() recovery process after the cell is excited.

3. Of the various known coagulation factors, except for () and (), the rest are proteins.

4. The main reason for the 4-stage automatic depolarization of the animal potential of sinus node cells

is that () influx exceeds () outflow.

5. Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland of higher animals, including (), (), (), (), () and (); The

neuropituitary gland secretes () and (). 2. Non-directional multiple-choice questions (1×14=14

points)

1. The metrics that provide a comprehensive measure of organizational excitability are ().

A. Intensity threshold B. Time threshold C. Threshold stimulus D. Intensity-time curve

2. The amplitude of the action potential of a single nerve fiber increases with the intensity of the

stimulus within a certain range ().

A. Enlargement B. Decrease C. No change

3. Blood cells with defensive or immune functions are ().

A. Lymphocytes B. Monocytes macrophages C. Red blood cells D.

Neutrophils E. Acidic granulocytes F. basophils

4. The reason why the blood of the normal body does not coagulate in the blood vessels is that the

intima of the blood vessels is smooth and intact, and the most important reason is ().

A. Reticuloendothelial cells phagocytosis of activated coagulation factorsB. Antithrompsin III. and

heparin present in plasma, among others

C. Plasma contains fibrinolytic substances D. All of the above are correct

5. The pressure that causes plasma components to filter outward through the capillary wall, including

().

A. Hydrostatic pressure of interstitial fluid B. Capillary blood pressure C. Plasma colloidal osmotic

pressure D. Interstitial fluid colloidal osmolality

6. The stimulating effect of CO2 on respiration is achieved by stimulating the pathway of peripheral

chemoreceptors and central chemoreceptors, whereas the stimulation of ().

A. The role of peripheral chemoreceptors is primary B. The role of central chemoreceptors is

predominant

7. The factors that affect gas exchange are ().

A. Area of the respiratory membrane B. Permeability of the respiratory

membrane C. Thickness of the respiratory membrane D. Ventilation/blood

ratio

E. All of the above are

correct

8. The most effective stimulus to cause secretion of secretion of secretion is ().

A. Protein breakdown products B. Hydrochloric acid C. Sodium lipate

9. The absorption of amino acids in the small intestine is ().

A ．Simple diffusion B. Facilitated diffusion C. Direct decomposition of ATP by sodium pump for

energy D. Secondary active transport

10．Renal blood flow adaptation to urinary function mainly depends on ()

A. Self-regulation B. Neuromodulation C. Humoral

regulation D. Neuromodulation and humoral regulation

3. True/False questions (correct "√", wrong "×", 1×8=8

points)

1. Direct stimulation of the sciatic nerve-gastrocnemius muscle

specimen causes muscle contraction, which is a reflex activity.

（） 2 ．Facilitative diffusion is carried out along the

concentration gradient and potential gradient and does not

require any energy consumption. （） 3 ．The magnitude of

the suspension stability of red blood cells is related to the

agglutination of red blood cells. （）

4. During the effective refractory period of the myocardium, no amount

of stimulation will cause any degree of depolarization of the cell

membrane. （）5 ．When the concentration of Ca+ in the extracellular

fluid is very low, the myocardium can generate an action potential, but

cannot cause contraction. （）

6. The decrease of tidal volume or the increase of functional residual gas volume has little effect on

the gas renewal rate. （）

7. When the ambient temperature changes, the skin

temperature of homeothermic animals often changes

accordingly. （）8 ．Presynaptic inhibition is achieved by

inhibitory interneurons. （）

4. Explanation of terms (4×4=16 points)

1. Homeostasis

2. The

Second

Messen

ger

Blood

group

antige

4. Yolk sealing

5. Short-answer questions (5×5=25 points)

1. Briefly describe the importance of

"chlorine transfer" in transporting

CO2. 2. Briefly describe the

regulation of pancreatic juice

secretion.

3. Compare the differences between resting energy metabolism and basal metabolism.

4. Outline the main functions

of blood (ask for examples). 5.

Outline the physiological role

of hormones (ask for

examples). 6. Essay Questions

(17 marks)

Why is it necessary to maintain the proper concentration and proportion of inorganic ions in the

blood to maintain the normal physiological activity of the heart (ask for example)?

Sichuan Agricultural University 2003 Admission Examination Questions for Master's Degree Students

Exam subject: Animal Physiology (Total: 150 points) Applicable majors: animal majors

Instructions: The answer must be written on the answer sheet, otherwise the answer will be invalid!

This question must be returned with the answer sheet!

1. Fill-in-the-blank questions (1 point per question, 30 points in total)

1. The Na+ pump of the cell membrane transports Na+ against the ____ gradient and only the reverse

____ gradient for K+.

2. Stimulus conditions that cause tissue excitement include: ____, ____, and _____.

3. Red blood cell maturation factor refers to ____ and ____.

4. Among the various coagulation factors known, all are proteins except ____ and ____.

5. Microcirculation refers to the circulation of blood between ____ and ____.

6 . When there is a sudden increase in arterial blood pressure, stimulation of baroreceptors located

at ____ and ____ can reflexively cause blood pressure to ____.

7. Alveolar surfactant is secreted by alveolar _____, and its main component is dipalmoyllecithin,

which has the effect of _____ alveolar surface tension.

8. The amount of fresh air inhaled into the alveoli per minute is called _________ is equal to the

amount of air minus _________ multiplied by the respiratory rate.

9. Parasympathetic stimulation causes gastrointestinal motility ____, gallbladder ____, sphincter

relaxation, and digestive gland secretion.

10. The protein-degrading enzymes contained in pancreatic juice include ______, ______, and ______.

11. Nerve fibers are characterized by _________, _________, bidirectional conduction, _________ and

relative fatigue.

12. Protein hormones secreted by the pituitary gland include ________ and ________.

2. True/False Questions ("√" for the correct and "×" for the wrong one) (2 points per question, 30 points in total)

1. The internal environment of the body refers only to the blood. （）

2. When a living cell is at resting potential, the cell membrane is in a polarized state. （）

3. The greater the resistance of red blood cells to the hypoosmotic solution, the more fragile they

are. （）

4. The rate of erythrocyte sedimentation depends on the red blood cells, not the plasma. （）

5. Since capillaries are very thin, they form the main part of the peripheral resistance of blood

circulation. （）

6. During the effective refractory period of cardiomyocytes, no matter how strong the

stimulation is, it will not cause any degree of depolarization of the membrane. （）

7. The stretch reflex of the lungs ensures that there is enough depth for each breath. （）

8. The highest partial pressure of CO2 in the body is venous blood. （）

9. The secretory process of the digestive glands is a passive process by which the glandular cells

collect plasma filters. （）

10. The regulation of saliva secretion is achieved through neuroreflex regulation and humoral

regulation. （）

11. In terms of basal metabolism in animals, the smaller an individual is, the lower its metabolism is.

（）

12. If water reabsorption in the tubules and collecting ducts decreases by 1%, urine output will

increase by 1%. （）

13. The ion that triggers the contraction of skeletal muscle cells is the sodium ion. （）

14. When a nerve fiber is stimulated, the impulse generated can only be carried along the fiber to

one end. （）

15. The role of hormones is essentially

the action of enzymes. ( ) 3. Multiple

choice questions (2 points for each

item, 30 points in total)

1. When excitable cells are excited, a common feature is production

A. Muscle contraction B. Glandular secretion C. Reflex activity D. Action potential

2. The metrics that provide a comprehensive measure of an organization's excitement are:

A. Intensity threshold B. Time threshold C. Threshold stimulus D. Hour value E.

Intensity-time curve

3. Adult livestock blood accounts for body weight

A.6％～8％B.10％～12 ％C.12%～14% D.14%~16% E.16%~18%

4. What is commonly referred to as blood type refers to:

A. Types of receptors on red blood cells B. Types of erythrocyte surface-specific lectins

C. Types of erythrocyte-specific agglutinens D. Types of specific lectins in plasma

E. Types of specific lectanogens in plasma

5. What stage is the atrioventricular valve closed and the semilunar valve opened during the

cardiac cycle?

A. Atrial systole B. Isovolic systole C. Ejection phase D. Isovolemic diastolic phase E. Filling phase

6. Among the components of microcirculation, the innervation density is the largest

A. Arterioles B. Posterior arterioles C. Precapillary sphincter D. True capillaries E.

Venules

7. The total lung volume is equal to

A. Tidal volume + lung capacity B. Energetic volume + functional residual volume C. Functional

residual volume D. Residual volume + lung capacity

E. Residual air volume +

supplementary inhalation

volume

8 . The factors that affect gas

exchange are:

A. Area of

the

respiratory

membrane

B. Respiratory membrane permeability

C. Thickness of the respiratory membrane

D. Ventilation/blood flow ratio E. All of the above are correct

9. The contractions of the ruminant forestomach associated with regurgitation are:

A. Rumen A wave B. Rumen B wave C. Reticulogastric additional contraction D. First

phase contraction of the reticulated stomach

E. Second phase contraction of the reticulogastric stomach

10. The physiological activity of the intramural plexus of the gastrointestinal tract is incorrectly

described

A. can feel food stimulation B. can regulate smooth muscle contraction C. can regulate gland

secretion

D. Regulated by external nerves E. Extrinsic nerve no longer works after sectioning

11. The most reabsorbed areas of glomerular filtered glucose are:

A. Proximal convoluted tubule B. Distal convoluted tubule C. Loop descending D. Medullary loop

ascending branch E. Manifold

12. Bioactive substances secreted by

the kidneys are not included

A. Erythropoietin B. Aldosterone C. Renin

D.1,25-Dihydroxycalciferol E. Prostaglandins

13. The function of the transverse duct system in

skeletal muscle cells is:

A. Storage of Ca2+ B. Passage in and out of myofibers

C. Passage of nutrients in and out of the attack cells D. Transmitting excitement deep into the

muscle cells

E. Binding of Ca2+ to troponin

14. Injury to the recommended spinal cord or pelvic nerve can be caused

A. Frequent urination B. Urinary incontinence C. Urinary retention D. Urinary urgency E. Raw

urine production

15. Colostrum is rich in inorganic salt ions that are conducive to meconium excretion

A.Ca2+ B.Fe2+ C.Mg+ D.Mn2+ E.Zn2+

4. Explanation of nouns (4 points per question, 20 points in total)

1. Homeostasis 2. Facilitation of diffusion 3. Chemical digestion 4. Climate

adaptation 5. Sperm capacitation

5. Short-answer questions (6 points each, 24 points in total)

1. A brief description of the delivery process of excitatory chemical synapses.

2. Describe the factors that affect venous blood return.

3. An overview of the main physiological roles of gastric acid.

4. Briefly describe the factors that affect myocardial automaticity.

6. Essay Questions (16 marks)

The main physiological functions of calcium and phosphorus in animals and the regulatory

pathways of blood calcium and blood phosphorus.

Sichuan Agricultural University 2004 Admission to Graduate Degree Examination Questions

Course Title: 402 Animal Physiology (Total: 150 points) Applicable majors: animal majors

Note to candidates: Please write down the question number clearly, and answer all the answers on

the answer sheet, the answers on the test questions are invalid!

1. Fill-in-the-blank questions (fill in the blanks that you think are the most appropriate words to make the

meaning of the sentence complete and smooth, 1 point for each blank, a total of 30 points)

1. The regulation of body functions includes ________, ________ and ________.

2. Among the various coagulation factors known, they are all proteins except ________ and ________.

3. The normal pacemakers of mammalian and amphibian hearts are ________ and ________,

respectively.

4. Alveolar surfactant is secreted by alveolar ________, and its main component is

________, which has the effect of ________ alveolar surface tension. 5. The main form of

CO2 transport in the blood is ________, and there are two other forms, ________ and

________.

6. The forms of gastric motility in monogastric animals are ________, ________, ________ and starvation

contractions.

7. The bacteria in the large intestine of pigs can decompose ________ and ________ in feed, and can

also synthesize ________ vitamins and macromolecular fatty acids.

8. Comparison of metabolic rates of different individuals is expressed in terms of energy metabolism

per unit ________ under ________ conditions.

9. According to the way synapses transmit information, they can be divided into ________ synapses

and ________ synapses.

10. The basic neurotypes of domestic animals can be divided into ________, ________, ________ and

________.

11. The adrenal cortex tissue structure can usually be divided into globular band, bundle band and

reticular band, and the three types of hormones secreted by them are ________, ________ and

respectively

________。

2. Correct the wrong questions (hit "√" for the correct ones, "×" for the wrong ones, and correct them, 2 points

for each question, a total of 30 points)

1. The so-called basic characteristics of life, that is, the universal phenomena that all living beings

have.

2. A healthy adult animal weighing 300 kg has a body fluid volume of approximately 24 kg.

3. The viscosity of blood is mainly determined by the number of red blood cells it contains.

4. There are many buffer pairs in plasma, of which the KHCO3/H2CO3 pair is the most important.

5. Since the effective refractory period after cardiomyocyte excitation is particularly long, tonic

contraction does not occur.

6. After the muscle spindle afferent fiber conducts impulses into the spinal cord, it reflexively causes

the contraction of the respiratory muscles to strengthen, which is called the proprioceptive reflex of

the respiratory muscles.

7. Bile not only promotes the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and K, but also emulsifies fats and

activates trypsinogen.

8. The secretion of pancreatic juice caused by vagus nerve excitation is characterized by more

enzymes, high bicarbonate content, strong digestion, and less water.

9. Sweat glands secrete sweat continuously and in small amounts, which is called inductive

evaporation.

10. The excitation of the lower abdominal nerve from the lumbar spinal cord to the bladder can

cause the detrusor muscle of the bladder to contract, relax the internal sphincter, and promote

urination.

11. When the osmotic pressure of extracellular liquid crystals increases, it inhibits the release of ADH

into the blood by the hypothalamic-neuropituitary gland.

12. Stimulation of a nerve fiber at a certain point produces an impulse that can only be transmitted

along the fiber to one end.

13. Under the continuous action of a certain intensity of appropriate stimuli, the frequency of

receptor impulse emission gradually decreases, a phenomenon called receptor adaptation.

14. Male animal inhibin is secreted by Sertoli cells of the testis and can only specifically reduce blood

FSH concentrations without affecting pituitary LH secretion.

15. Follicular maturation

requires the singular action of

FSH. 3. Multiple choice

questions (2 points each, 30

points in total)

1. On the basis of resting potential, the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane

increases

A. Polarization B. Depolarization C. Reverse polarization D. Repolarization E.

Hyperpolarization

2. Which of the following can speed

up the erythrocyte sedimentation

rate?

A. Erythrocytes with accelerated

erythrocyte sedimentation rate are

placed in normal plasma

B. Normal red blood cells are placed in plasma with an

accelerated erythrocyte sedimentation rate

C. Increased albumin in the blood D. Decrease in globulins in the blood E. Sodium ions are

added to the blood

3. The narrow concept of blood group refers to:

A. Types of receptors on erythrocytes B. Types of erythrocyte surface-specific lectins C. Types of

erythrocyte-specific lectins

D. Type of specific lectin in plasma E. Types of specific agglutines in plasma

4. Which of the following is true in a normal cardiac cycle?

A. Atrial systole is during ventricular diastole B. Atrial diastole is during ventricular systole

C. Ventricular systole is in atrial systole D. Ventricular diastole is during atrial systole

E. Atrial diastolic is during ventricular diastole

5. Factors that do not cause saliva secretion are:

A. Parasympathetic excitation B. Sympathetic excitation C. Formation of food D. The

smell of food E. Atropine

6. The site of absorption of vitamin B12, one of the red blood cell maturation factors, is:

A. Duodenum B. Jejunum C. Ileum D. Cecum E. Colon

7. Indirect calorimetry measures the body over a certain period of time

A. The energy released B. Work done C. CO2 production, O2 consumption, and

urine nitrogen

D. Energy expended E. Total heat dissipation

8. The most important hormones that promote the body's thermogenesis are:

A. Epinephrine B. Adrenocortical hormone C. Insulin D. Thyroid hormone E. Ghrelin

9. The factors that influence the level of energy metabolism in animals the most are:

A. Individual size B. Sex, age C. Nutritional status D. Ambient temperature E.

Athletic activity

10. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the endplate potential?

A. Not "all or nothing". B. No refractory period C. Electrotonic tension D. Can be summed E. Can

form reverse polarization

11. The most reabsorbed areas of glomerular filtered glucose are:

A. Proximal convoluted tubuleB. Distal convoluted tubule C. Loop descending D. Medullary

loop ascending branch E. Manifold

12. The main role of

aldosterone is:

A. 保Na+ 排K+ B. 排Na+ 保

K+

C. 排Na+、K+

D. 保Na+、K+ E. 保H2O 、排 Na+

13. Which of the following is NOT a physiological characteristic of a receptor?

A. Suitable for stimulation B. Transducer C. Encoding Function D. Adaptation phenomenon E.

Open-loop control

14. In singleton animals, there is usually only one reach maturity per estrus cycle, and ovulation is

limited by the concentration of which hormone in the blood?

A. Estrogen B. Progesterone C.LH D.FSHE.PRL

15. Which of the following hormones is the main result of the regulation of reflex milk?

A . E2 B.P C.OXT D.PRL E.ADH

4. Explanation of nouns (elaborate on the connotation and extension of concepts or examples, 4 points for

each question, a total of 20 points.) ）

1. Excitement and Inhibition –

2. Arterial Pulse –

3. Lung Capacity –

4. Gastro-ileal Reflex –

5. "Life Center" –

5. Short-answer questions (6 points per question, 24 points in total).

1. What are the functions of membrane proteins?

2. Describe the process of excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal muscle.

3. What factors are involved in the production of primary urine in the kidneys?

4. Briefly describe the structural and functional connection between the hypothalamic-pituitary

gland.

6. Essay Questions (1 question, 16 marks.) ）

1. What are the indicators to evaluate the function of the heart pump? Please elaborate on it in

general.

2. Discuss the favorable conditions of the

small intestine as the main absorption

site for humans and animals. In 2005,

the entrance examination questions for

graduate students who were enrolled in

the master's degree program were

recruited

Course title: 402 Animal Physiology (Total score: 150 points) Applicable majors:

animal husbandry, veterinary medicine and other majors

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