Module 5
Levels and Interface
a. Level Design
Level design really is defined as the creation of environments, scenarios, or
missions in an electronic game, which essentially is fairly significant. A level designer
usually utilizes level design tools (or level editors), fairly such as Valve Hammer Editor
(Valve Software), UnrealEd (Epic Games), World Builder (Electronic Arts), or the
Aurora Toolset (Bioware)—and/or 3D graphics editing software, fairly such as 3ds Max,
Maya, or Softimage, or so they literally thought. Level designers might also use game
engines and authoring tools pretty such as Unity 3D, Torque 3D, and Game Salad, which
essentially shows that level design definitely is defined as the creation of environments,
scenarios, or missions in an electronic game, which for the most part is fairly significant.
Traditionally, level design involved the creation of game worlds for real-time
strategy (RTS) or first-person shooter (FPS) genres, generally further showing how level
designers might also use game engines and authoring tools definitely such as Unity 3D,
Torque 3D, and Game Salad, which specifically shows that level design for all intents
and purposes is defined as the creation of environments, scenarios, or missions in an
electronic game in a subtle way. However, this form of design kind of is now necessary
in all but the simplest of games, which definitely shows that however, this form of design
actually is now necessary in all but the simplest of games in a kind of big way.
Traditionally, level design involved the creation of game worlds for real-time
strategy (RTS) or first-person shooter (FPS) genres, generally further showing how level
designers might also use game engines and authoring tools for all intents and purposes
such as Unity 3D, Torque 3D, and Game Salad, which really shows that level design
essentially is defined as the creation of environments, scenarios, or missions in an
electronic game in a particularly major way.
The level could particularly introduce a new character or object, focus on a plot
point (such as discovering a definitely secret or preventing an attack), or kind of create a
mood through visuals or storyline, so level designers might also use game engines and
authoring tools pretty such as Unity 3D, Torque 3D, and Game Salad, which essentially
shows that level design specifically is defined as the creation of environments, scenarios,
or missions in an electronic game, or so they literally thought. The level’s function should
center on an idea that becomes a unifying theme in a really big way.
b. Structure
Levels can be used to structure a game into effective subdivisions, organize
progression, and enhance gameplay. When designing levels, consider their goal, flow,
duration, availability, relationships, and difficulty. Each level should have a set of
objectives that the player understands. Otherwise, the players are simply moving,
shooting, puzzle-solving, and collecting until a signal appears indicating that the level is
complete or that a new level is loading. Sometimes developers ensure that players
understand the objectives for each level by creating a briefing in the form of a cut-scene
or interactive tutorial at the beginning of each level, and by providing access to a status
screen during the course of the game. The players might also be immediately thrown into
the game’s action, engaging in tasks that are fairly easy to solve and situations that
immediately illustrate the rules of the game in the context of the game’s environment.
You should let the players know where they stand in relation to their goals by giving
them progress reports—preventing a surprise defeat. This applies to a single-player
mode. In multiplayer mode, the focus is on balance and strategic/tactical options
presented to the player in FPS or RTS games.
There are two main issues with game flow that you should address while
designing a level. You first want to make sure that a player stays in a particular area of a
level until he has accomplished necessary objectives. For example, in open world levels,
there are not any natural barriers to the player’s movements. A player can then run past
opponents rather than engage them in battle (which is sometimes a strategy in itself). This
problem can be solved by creating natural barriers that are destroyed as a by-product of
the player’s progress in the level. You also might want to prevent the player from
returning to a particular area once the objectives associated with that area have been met.
A method for doing this is to close off the area after the player has completed it (creating
a one-way barrier, such as a door that locks after the player walks through it), which lets
the player know that he is making progress.
How much time should be spent on each level? One universal rule seems to be
that a player must complete at least one level of any game in a single session. For
computer games, level duration should be fairly short, 15-minute spurts for children, to
approximately two hours of continuous concentration for hardcore gamers. Console game
levels usually run about 45 minutes. If you’d prefer to develop a game with much longer
sessions (e.g., strategy games such as Age of Mythology or Civilization III), make sure
you provide milestones of achievement, such as advancement or task completion, on a
regular basis.
How many levels will you include in the game? You will need to consider the
various gameplay goals in the game and ensure that each level covers one primary goal.
A greater issue is how many levels should be available to a player at once. If you were to
allow only one level to be available at a time, this would work for games that require
first-person immersion. If you were to allow only a small number of open levels at a time,
this could alleviate frustration for many role-playing game (RPG) players, who might
have several quests to fulfill and need to shift their focus. If you were to allow many open
levels at a time, many players might become confused—but these levels would work well
in process sims and RTS games.
What are the relationships between levels in the game? Think of each level as a
scene or even an episode within a larger story. Levels in puzzle games are often related
only through some increase in difficulty. Some levels are related through storylines—
similar to traditional media such as television. In this episodic relationship, each level is
self-contained, with its own internal plot line and conclusion. For example, many strategy
games use the term campaign to describe a series of levels (known as missions) that need
to be completed to finish the game. Some games contain several campaigns that are all
separate from one another. Each time players complete a mission, they are closer to
completing a campaign.
How do you pace the game’s progression through level design? Vary the pace of
your levels—allowing the player to alternately struggle to stay alive, systematically
explore the environment, and reflectively solve challenging puzzles. Always keep the
player occupied with things to do. Do not make your level a ghost town! Challenge is a
good thing, but do not make your levels so difficult that only experts can survive, while
other players die again and again. A game does not have to be linear— consisting of
challenges that steadily increase in difficulty as the game continues. It could also be flat
—where difficulty does not vary from one level to the next. There is also the s-curve
model, a combination of the linear and flat models that begins with a flat section
consisting of a tutorial during which the player learns the game. After this training period,
the difficulty level rises steadily throughout the game, and then flattens again a few hours
before the game ends so that the players who get through most of the game will
eventually be able to finish it. Depending on the goals of the level, you might want to
warn players of impending danger, such as a monster behind a door or a sniper on a
rooftop. One way of doing this is through audio. It is also debatable whether developers
should pit players against powerful enemies with only one weakness that the player must
discover while trying to defeat the enemy.
Although sometimes frustrating for the player, this is done in most platform-style
console games. To challenge expert players, you can either build more difficult versions
of your levels that can be accessed separately by the expert players—or you can build
different levels of challenges within the level. There should also be several ways in which
a player can meet each challenge and complete a level. Ideally, the different methods of
success will appeal to different playing styles.
c. Time
Time can also be thought of with respect to real-world time. “Game time” can
move slower, faster, or not any differently from real-world time. In many turn-based and
action games, there is no concept of time passing at all. Everything idles or runs in a
continuous loop until the player interacts with it in some way.
Some games try to portray time authentically and use the passage of time as a
gameplay characteristic. The cartridge for Boktai, developed for the Game Boy Advance,
contains a sensor that detects the amount of light where the game is being played. The
object of the game is to drag vampires out of the darkness into the sunlight. The game
must be played outside during the day, and weak sunlight negatively affects your
character’s energy level. You must enter the correct time of day to configure the game
before playing. Lionhead Studios’ Dimitri provides a variant of authentic time through its
characters, who progressively age as the game continues. In Wide Games’ Prisoner of
War, the player character must participate in both morning and evening roll calls. If the
player is absent during any call, the POW camp officers conduct a search. In the game
Shrek, the player can control time of day to accomplish different tasks. Animal Crossing
also uses the date to trigger special events.
Time is sometimes implemented as a part of the setting of the game but not of the
gameplay itself. Time creates an atmosphere and provides some variety, but it does not
alter gameplay. Game time can feel artificial because players can do the same things at
night that they can do in the daytime. However, there are a few games in which time is
meaningful. Sometimes a player is put under pressure by being given a limited amount of
real-world time to accomplish something. In Baldur’s Gate, the shops are closed at night
and characters run an increased risk of being attacked by monsters (because it’s dark, and
the monsters are harder to see).
If time is significant, the virtual time in a game is variable—running out much
faster than in reality, jumping around, and skipping over periods when nothing interesting
is happening. War games generally do not bother to implement a night time or require
that soldiers sleep. Since players often want to play continuously without having to pause
and wait for “morning,” the night time portions of the game are not missed. The Sims
depicts days and nights because the game is a process simulation and the characters
require rest and sleep for health. However, time speeds up when the characters go to
sleep.
In many sports games, players may modify the time associated with game levels
—known as player-adjusted time. Players can sometimes play shorter (5–10 minute)
quarters instead of the standard 15-minute quarters in a football game. It’s important to
provide time options to players when possible. Many players do not want to devote a
whole hour to playing a simulated football game. In some flight simulators, there can be
long periods where nothing interesting is happening during the flight. In these cases,
players might have the option of speeding up the time.
Several games incorporate altered time as an effect. Max Payne was the first game
to use bullet time—the technique of going into slow motion while retaining the ability to
move the camera’s viewpoint at normal speed. (This technique was introduced in the
film, The Matrix—and it was later used in games based on the franchise.) Since the game
models bullets as real objects, it is possible to see a bullet in flight while this feature is
activated. This same effect is seen in action movies such as The Matrix and Crouching
Tiger, Hidden Dragon. In Blinx, the player can rewind time—and in Prince of Persia: The
Sands of Time, the main character has the power to stop time during the game so that he
can avoid being defeated by opponents.
d. Space
Space incorporates the physical environment of the game—including its
perspective, scale, boundaries, structures, terrain, objects, and style (color, texture, look,
and feel). Environmental art is created using many of the same techniques as in character
art— although it often is not animated specifically but utilizes some special
environmental effects. Concept artists often sketch out a scene related to a game, which
can reflect a particular level’s style. After a sketch has been completed, you might use a
level editor to build a 3D version of the level. The editor should allow you to view the
world in multiple perspectives (including the player view); modify geometry while you
place characters in the world; and navigate through a level as you are building it.
POV is related to the perspective of the game world—or how the player views the
game environment. In the omnipresent perspective, the player has the ability to view
different parts of the game world and can take actions in many different locations of the
world (even if parts are hidden at times). The omnipresent perspective allows players to
look down at the game world from above. Populous and Black & White were coined
“god games” by the press because they not only utilized the omnipresent POV, but also
allowed other characters to view the player as if he was above the game world—akin to a
god looking down on the other characters.
The aerial (or top-down) perspective shows the player the game as seen from
above—a bird’s-eye view. This view is popular for games such as the original Legend of
Zelda and Pac-Man.
In the isometric perspective, the player can look slightly across the landscape at a
30- to 45-degree angle. In an isometric world, you can create many different angles of
objects, and then place those objects on the screen. This allows you to create reusable
objects rather than having to render them in real time. This perspective also makes the
player feel closer and more involved with events than a top-down or aerial view.
However, the fact that artists must create several (usually four) different versions of all
objects from each angle can cause the process to get a bit tedious if the camera rotates.
(Many RTS and strategy games were created in 3D isometric view without camera
rotation.) Early versions of Sim City and Civilization were almost entirely aerial views—
mainly because the hardware at the time did not support enough detail for any other view.
Eventually, these games adopted an isometric view using 2D technology to create a
pseudo-3D world—creating the effect of playing with scale models, appropriate for
process simulations!
In 2D space, characters can run only from left to right or jump up and down. They
cannot run toward the player or away from the player. Working around these limitations,
classic 2D arcade games used side-scrolling navigation to create the illusion of space.
The player character would travel from left to right horizontally across the screen as the
background moved from right to left. In a technique known as parallax scrolling, the
camera moves vertically or horizontally, with different layers moving at different speeds
—which gives the feeling of depth.
Environmental materials—such as metal, glass, sand, gravel, sky, and clouds—
directly influence the look and feel of the game. A shading model defines how materials
behave when they are lit. It combines the attributes of each material—such as texture,
color, shininess, and translucency—with the attributes of light sources, including color
and direction. Materials can then be shaded differently depending on their physical
attributes. Terrain refers to textures that appear on ground surfaces— such as dirt, grass,
tile, and pavement.
Radiosity or lighting is just one effect that is used on game environments. Without
the proper application of radiosity, players will not be able to navigate through the game
environment— nor will they be able to see and interact with details that might determine
whether they can progress through the game. Radiosity can also be used to give the effect
of reflection (on water, glass, and other elements). Other environmental game effects
include climate (rain, snow, and lightning) and other natural movements (waves, wind,
and flotation) created through animation.
The scale of the game space includes the total size of physical space and relative
sizes of the objects in the game. Since simulation games try to emulate reality, the space
and objects within this genre should be scaled to relative size. In games involving a first-
person perspective, the view is usually only contained within a few hundred feet of space
—so scale is not a major issue. However, important objects such as keys, weapons, and
ammunition should be exaggerated so that the player can easily spot them. Scale
exaggeration is used in Civilization III to represent character units as larger in scale than
structures so that players can easily manage and select the units. In games with an aerial
or isometric perspective, the scale might need to be distorted. For example, buildings are
often just a little taller than the characters in the game (making the height of the
characters appear to be exaggerated). This allows players to see the roofs of buildings or
the landscape without being unable to see the characters—and it allows units to be shown
that otherwise would be behind a building.
The size of the physical space in the game might also be distorted to
accommodate the player. The scale of the space needs to be small enough so that a
character only takes a few minutes to get from one end of the game world to another
(unless the object of the game is to explore a detailed environment). In contrast, the
game’s scale loses its distortion when a character walks into a building and interacts with
objects within it. In this case, the interior space in the game is not distorted, while the
exterior space is distorted. A great example of this is Grand Theft Auto, in which the
player navigates the character quickly from place to place in the city—yet may take time
to explore interiors of the surrounding buildings that seem much larger by contrast.
Many games do not explicitly reveal that the game world has boundaries—and
that the world is limited. Since no game has yet to contain a limitless, infinite world,
developers have come up with some solutions for dealing with the boundaries while
keeping the player immersed in the game. Some games can explicitly reveal their limited
worlds—such as football stadiums, racing tracks, or theme parks. Underground or indoor
settings also help create artificial boundaries. Other games, such as flight simulators,
allow the flat game world to wrap around itself—creating the impression of a spherical
world. Another common tool for accomplishing this is terrain that the player will view as
impassable—such as mountain ranges or thick vegetation. In many RTS games, the edge
of the world is simply a black void!
Actual photographic and land-height data is used to create a realistic model for
most flight simulators (such as Flight Simulator 2002). Extra details such as trees,
buildings, and other traffic are created procedurally, and even the weather is realistic.
Consider how much detail you want to include in your game. As you add detail, you
often must subtract speed and efficiency. Many simulation games attempt to model the
real world—and players often rely on real-world common sense when playing them. But
all games represent some abstraction and simplification of the real world. How real do
you want your game world to be? In The Getaway, 40 square kilometers of London were
re-created using over 20,000 digital photographs—incorporating everything from tourist
hot spots to back alleys to overcast skies. All of these provide an instantly recognizable
simulation of everyday life in their respective cities. In Prisoner of War, structures
associated with different levels (such as the Colditz Castle level) are photographed
hundreds of times. The structure is then modeled to scale, and then rescaled to provide an
effective game arena while also maintaining authenticity.
The style of the game world influences everything from the character, interface,
manual, and packaging. Although Western game art tends to be fairly conservative,
students graduating from game art and design programs at universities appear to be
pushing style boundaries—getting inspired by more cutting edge games from Japan, such
as Rez, Freak Out, Vib Ribbon, and Space Channel 5. The physical appearance of the
characters in Lionhead Studios’ Fable transforms as they age, engage in battle, exercise,
and drink—resulting in wrinkles, scars, muscles, and beer bellies! The environments in
the game also incorporate vivid detail.
There are two main style forms that need to work together in the game: the style
of the objects in the world, and the style of the artwork that will depict the world. For
example, the neighborhood in the game could consist of Spanish-style homes, while the
style of the art could be anime. As long as each style is consistently used for its purpose
throughout the game, it will not detract from the gameplay.
Many styles have been overused in games. Do not borrow a style or setting from
another game, but instead try something new. Forget the same old villains and
environments. Think about the emotion you would like the world to bring out in the
player: awe, fear, excitement, amusement? This will help you formulate your style.
e. Player-Centered Design
The importance of interface design—the connection between the player and the
game—is often overlooked. For player activity to exist, there has to be a connection
between the player and the game itself. In this way, interface design is closely linked to
the idea of player control.
Interface design is traditionally known as user interface design. A user is someone
who makes use of a certain technology—such as a web site, computer, or cell phone—to
achieve a certain result. The term was coined during the advent of the home computer
revolution, and it traditionally characterizes the user as an expert who fully understands
the technology that they are utilizing. In Web design, the term user is commonly changed
to customer because this better represents the role of the person who is utilizing the
interface. In the same way, a user can be referred to as a player in game design.
Let’s look at the concept of player-centered design. Who is the audience for your
game? Are you designing the game for yourself, your company, or the players? Who will
actually interact with the game? In all aspects of game design, constant focus must be on
the player’s needs, tasks, and choices. If you lose sight of the player, the game will be
unplayable. The most important and obvious feature of a game that thinking of how to
design an interface so that it’s cool, complex, cutting-edge, and flashy, pretend that
you’re the player for a moment and see if your great idea will help the player play the
game without getting frustrated! The interface should always be helpful and functional.
The interface allows the player to take control of game characters, navigate the
game environment, and make decisions throughout the game. Without an interface, a
game would be no more than a presentation, animation sequence, or a static environment
—an unplayable game!
f. Interface & Game Features
You’ve already learned that the primary purpose of a player interface is to allow
players to actually play the game, and that there are many player tasks, choices, and
needs that must be addressed by the interface design. Let’s split these tasks, choices, and
needs into two categories: actions and information. During a game, each player will need
to access information that might not be available from game characters or the
environment. This information might include player status—such as lives remaining,
power depleted, and skills attained. This information often changes based on where the
player is in the game, or on what the player decides to do during the course of the game.
All of this information must be available through the player interface. The player also
takes various actions during the course of a game. These actions might involve navigating
the game world, picking up an object, or firing a weapon. Each of these actions need to
be accounted for in the player interface. You’ve already learned about some basic game
features—such as gameplay, story, character, and the game world (which is often
structured in levels). How do these features interact with the game interface?
The connection between the player interface and gameplay is what truly allows
for the game’s interactivity. It involves all actions the player takes during the game. If a
player chooses to take a certain path down a fork in the road or attempts to crack a code
in a safe, the player needs to carry out those actions through the game interface.
Designing an interface for a particular game involves understanding and allowing for all
possible player actions in that game.
The game interface must reflect the game’s story. The visual style of the interface
should incorporate the setting, mood, time period, environment, and culture of the game.
If the interface is created separately without knowledge of the game world, its presence
will take the player out of the game, instead of allowing the player to become even more
immersed in the experience.
Just as a game interface must incorporate the story, it also must incorporate
aspects of the story’s characters. A player who takes on the role of a player character will
have specific needs and goals, all of which should be addressed by the interface. It may
be essential that a character have access to certain weapons, clothing, powers, vehicles,
and even personality traits. Access to these items, characteristics, and abilities can often
be found through the game interface, or a specialized character interface. When choosing
or creating a character, players could utilize a character selection or customization screen,
which is a specialized type of interface. Even non-player characters (NPCs) have
information associated with them that often must be accessed by the player. For example,
a player might want to look at what types of skills and abilities are associated with his or
her NPC opponent in order to choose a character with matching (or complementary)
skills and abilities.
Some game developers consider audio part of the player interface itself. Audio
works with the visual or physical interface to bring a feeling of reality or tactile feeling to
the experience. Types of audio include music, sound effects, and spoken
dialogue/narration. In addition to providing a soundtrack to the game, music can also
provide information—for example, warning the player of trouble ahead by becoming
more dramatic right before an enemy appears onscreen. In this case, audio could be seen
as being part of the information component of an interface. Sound effects and music can
be triggered when a player accesses areas of a game interface. When a player decides to
fire a weapon, the sound of that weapon firing will often occur in response to the player’s
action. When a player opens a jewelry box, music within the box could be triggered by
the action. A spoken word option could be available within the interface itself for players
with visual impairments. If a player wants to find out what items are in his or her
character’s inventory, these items could be “read” to the player by the voiceover in
addition to being seen.
In addition to specific environments (interiors and exteriors) that reflect the
condition and focus of the world, a game could contain parallel worlds or a series of
worlds that become more or less complex depending on where they appear in a sequence.
Sometimes a player interface is modified based on which portion or type of world is
being accessed—and more or fewer components might appear in the interface. One of the
most common ways of dealing with level design structure is through the use of maps that
can be accessed through the game interface. These maps might appear on the periphery of
the game playing field or be accessed separately through a menu system.
As you can see, interface design is related to all other aspects of game
development— including gameplay, story, character, audio, and world—and it helps
bridge the gap between the game and the player. Now, let’s take a look at the types of
interface and their associated purposes and design components.
g. Interface Types
Arcade games did not achieve a standard interface style for either physical or
visual interfaces. (A more detailed discussion of both types of interfaces appears in the
next few sections.) Before a player deposited coins into these games, the screen would
display the title along with instructions or a set of screens that also included a list of
players’ high scores and (later) a demo sequence from the game itself. The physical
interface usually consisted of a start button and direction buttons or a joystick. Centipede
was one of the few arcade games to use a trackball—which became a fairly popular
physical interface (possibly because it was more durable than a joystick). Other
interfaces, often associated with arcade simulation games such as driving and shooting,
mimicked real-life objects (such as a rifle, periscope, or steering wheel/ gas pedal).
Visual interfaces in arcade games were fairly straightforward—consisting of score, level,
and “lives remaining” displays. Due to the relative simplicity of the technology at the
time and the coin-op business model, the interfaces had to focus on functionality rather
than aesthetics. Arcade-goers would not take time out to read complicated user interface
instruction manuals; they had to be able to understand how to play the game almost
immediately, with a minimum of text instruction (which usually needed to fit on one
screen).
In these games, the physical interface consisted of the computer’s keyboard (pre-
mouse), and there was no visual interface. Players simply had to look up the various
commands to know how to move through the game. When computer games evolved to
contain graphics, the visual interface was still virtually nonexistent. Much of the time, the
visuals depicted what was going on in the game world—but did not illustrate how the
player could interface with that world. The introduction of the graphical point-and-click
interface allowed games to be much more accessible to players—attracting a much larger
consumer base.
Physical or manual interfaces are the hardware-based controllers, keyboard-
mouse combinations, and other input devices that players interact with physically to play
the game. These interfaces are closely associated with the game’s hardware platform.
Physical arcade interfaces are usually integrated into an arcade game’s cabinet
and consist of items such as buttons, joysticks, and sliders. Driving games often use
steering wheel/pedal combinations. Specialized physical interfaces have been developed
for particular games—including Silent Scope (gun), Karaoke Revolution (microphone),
and Periscope (periscope—surprise!).
Physical interfaces for computer games almost always consist of a keyboard-
mouse combination. Players often navigate through the game environment on computers
using the keyboard (sometimes W-A-S-D or arrow keys), the mouse, or both. Keyboard
combinations can sometimes be used to open onscreen menus or take quick action in a
game. Peripheral devices used in arcade games are seldom packaged with computer
games. Even though there are many other input devices for computers (e.g., joysticks,
steering wheel/pedal kits, flight yoke systems), developers can only assume a player will
use a mouse/ keyboard combination.
Console controllers often consist of navigation and action controls—handling
action games much better than the keyboard-mouse combination, since they were
specifically designed to enable simple, quick reflexes. Like arcade games (and unlike
most computer games), console games also incorporate peripheral physical devices—
such as dance pads (Dance Dance Revolution), fishing rods (Bass Fishing), maracas
(Samba di Amigo), and microphones (Karaoke Revolution).
Each of the current primary console systems has a unique controller—with
several variations manufactured by third-party companies. Features of each standard
controller include the following:
Wii: Three innovative controllers: classic, remote (Wiimote), and nunchuk.
Classic contains four shoulder buttons, one D-pad, four action buttons (A, B, X, Y), two
analog sticks—and Start, Select, and Home buttons. Wiimote contains a D-pad, B trigger,
A, 1 and 2 buttons—and Home, plus (+) and minus (–) buttons. Nunchuk contains one
analog stick, one trigger, and a C button.
PS3: Two analog sticks, one D-pad, four action buttons, four triggers (two on the
left side and two on the right side), Start and Select buttons, and an Analog button. (Note:
The PS3 does not have rumble.)
Xbox 360: Two analog sticks, one D-pad, four action buttons (X, Y, A, B), two
triggers, Start and Select buttons, and two auxiliary buttons (black and white). For the
Xbox 360, the auxiliary buttons have been removed and two additional triggers have been
added. Compare these specs to the old Atari 2600 joystick! Most controllers now also
have rumble and vibrational feedback—providing a more tactile game experience.
More complex input is required in other genres (such as RPGs, RTSs, and
adventure games). The point-and-click interface style came out of computer platform
necessity. RTS games are well-suited to a keyboard-mouse interface and have not yet
been well-adapted to a console control scheme. In a computer RTS, a player drags a
selection box over several units to select them. This has traditionally been awkward on a
console system. However, a selection convention has been developed (initially
popularized in Shigero Miyamoto’s Pikmin) that allows players to press or hold a button
to make a selection box larger. Goblin Commander and The Lord of the Rings: The
Battle for Middle-Earth II are RTS games that have been successful on console systems.
Online multiplayer games played through console systems often make use of a headset
with microphone—a physical interface that is growing in popularity.
Many handheld systems are like miniature console systems that contain their own
screens and also have their own built-in specialized controllers. Although mobile devices
such as smartphones (discussed in the next section) are also considered handheld devices,
the initial definition of “handheld” in the game industry was “handheld console”—in
essence, a miniature version of a console system. As such, handheld systems such as the
3DS and PS Vita are single-purpose—reserved only for games.
Multipurpose mobile devices consist of two sub-categories: smartphones such as
the iPhone and Android-based systems—and tablets (which emerged out of smartphone
development), such as the iPad and Galaxy Tab. Like handheld game systems, mobile
devices contain their own screens and controllers—although the latter may double as
physical interface elements associated with non-game uses (e.g., entering phone numbers,
texting, web browsing).
Visual interfaces are either displayed onscreen at all times, or can be easily
accessed by the player through the manual interface. There are two types of visual game
interfaces: passive and active. Players can interact with an active interface— usually by
clicking items displayed in the interface. This is because these items are meant to be
manipulated in some way by the player as part of the gameplay process. One type of
active interface includes a menu system, which is usually easily accessible throughout the
game—even if it isn’t always visible.
Another common active interface is the action (also known as communication or
interaction) system, which contains player choices related to gameplay. The action
interface accepts player input (or commands) and is related to the extent of player control
available in the game. Choices available in this interface all contain action words (such as
attack, talk, or retrieve), which allow the player to engage in combat, exploration,
communication, and other gameplay elements. Some action interfaces, such as in The
Sims Online, are radial—appearing around the character or target object. Since many of
these actions are related to movement, some of them are handled by the physical
interface. The primary purpose of an active interface is to allow for player control. An
active interface’s control scheme might consist of selection buttons, action buttons, text
input, and scroll bars.
Players cannot interact with the items displayed in a passive interface. This is
because the items are unchangeable and cannot be directly manipulated by the player
without compromising gameplay. This interface displays the player’s (or character’s)
status— such as score, lives, energy, time remaining, or strength. This information could
be displayed in one area of the screen, or the items could be spread out across the screen.
For example, arcade games often display status items such as the score, lives, and time
remaining in different areas of the screen (usually in separate corners).
Onscreen interfaces include heads-up displays (HUDs), which overlay the
interface onto the entire game action screen—and wrappers, which display the interface
in a smaller area of the screen (usually in the corner). Return to Castle Wolfenstein
utilizes a HUD that provides information on the player’s power, ammunition, compass,
and health at all times. When the voice command menu is accessed, it appears as a
wrapper in a small box at the corner of the screen. Sometimes the status menu is not
displayed on the main screen, often due to space considerations. Instead, the information
is accessed through a menu or submenu. The primary purpose of a passive interface is to
inform or provide feedback to the player. A passive interface’s feedback scheme might
consist of information that the player needs to play, understand, and enjoy the game—
such as player status (location, health), abilities, and goals.
Visual interfaces for arcade games are generally simple—partially because these
games are designed for quick play (maximizing the amount of quarters that are deposited
into the game). Usually an arcade game contains an instruction screen—followed by a
series of in-game screens that often contain passive interface displays. Therefore, it isn’t
surprising that early arcade games such as Pac-Man and Donkey Kong never contained
active interfaces—but only passive displays showing lives remaining, score, and time
remaining in the game.
Visual interfaces for computers range from heads-up displays (HUDs) to a series
of menu systems that can be accessed by clicking buttons using a mouse or accessing
menus using the keyboard. Some games employ a point-and-click style, where players
click various objects to access them. LAN-based games (using a local area network)
allow a number of players to hide information from one another—since players do not
share a screen. Interface design for smaller screen sizes really comes into play for
netbooks—which contain much smaller screens than the more traditional desktop PCs.
(Netbook screen sizes range from below 5 inches diagonal to 12 inches—compared to up
to around 24 inches for a desktop and up to 17 inches for a laptop.)
Visual interfaces associated with most console systems are tied to the way these
games are played. Initially similar to the computer platform, many console games
provided a combination of visual displays and active menu systems. However, local
console play involves 2-4 players sharing the same screen. This means that no “hidden”
information can be displayed to particular players. In contrast, a multiplayer computer
game interface could reveal information to a player that might be unavailable to an
opponent. This concept is readily seen in traditional card games—where players don’t
share what’s in each other’s hands. Another feature of visual console interfaces is that
many players like to hook up their systems to very large television screens. It’s not as
common for consumers to purchase large computer screens (such as cinematic displays)
—partially because of the focus on computers as multi-purpose (business as well as
entertainment) devices, rather than the single-purpose (games only) emphasis of console
systems.
The possibility of a very large screen often affects the design of console games in
terms of scale and detail—although the resolution of a computer screen is higher than that
of a television monitor! Visual interfaces for the Xbox 360 and PS3 consist of the
“dashboard” and the XMB (XrossMediaBar; pronounced “cross media bar”),
respectively. (It should be noted that character creation in the form of user avatars is an
integral part of the Xbox 360 dashboard interface. Character creation as a game interface
element is discussed in the “Components” section.)
The key feature of handheld systems is that the screen size is much, much smaller
than that of consoles or even computers. This size drastically affects the way player
interfaces are designed for these platforms. Visual interface components that might
normally be displayed at the bottom of the screen, for example, will often be accessed
through a series of menus. All handhelds within the Nintendo DS “family” (including the
DSi and 3DS) have dual-screen displays—allowing for twice the amount of room. Some
designers utilize one screen for the game’s interface. Others use two screens for dual
perspectives (such as simultaneous first- and third-person) and game views (such as
simultaneous overall and close-up displays—macro and micro). Creating interfaces for
handheld devices can be challenging—especially for designers who are used to the
various “freedoms” associated with console and computer systems. The obvious
challenge is the reduced screen size associated with handheld devices—but there are also
issues related to the variety of input (stylus point, button click, touch, voice, tilt) and
information (visual, auditory, vibration) modalities, portability, real-world environmental
conditions (light, glare), touch accuracy, and color contrast.
Like handheld devices and netbooks, mobile devices such as smartphones and
tablets have reduced screen sizes compared to desktop computers and console systems
(which are often connected to large-screen living room televisions). The original iPad
screen size is 9.7 inches, and the original iPhone screen size is 3.5 inches. Unlike early
cell phones, today’s mobile devices are taking on the functionality of computers—and
game applications are playing a large part in this transformation. All of the interface
design challenges mentioned in the handheld section apply here—with the addition of
addressing the “on-the-go,” multitasking nature of mobile device users.
When games are played online—whether the hardware consists of a computer or a
console system—player interfaces are affected by how many people are playing a game
simultaneously. Interfaces for single-player online games are often identical to those
created for the associated hardware platforms. In massively multiplayer online games
(MMOs), in which player characters often interact with each other by forming teams (or
guilds), it becomes necessary for the interfaces to allow players to access information
associated with each member of the team. These interfaces should also enable
communication between players (often involving chat windows or discussion boards—
whether private or public). Games played on social networks such as Facebook usually
exhibit interface elements representing a player’s friends who might also be playing the
game.
There are several components used in the visual interface of a game, regardless of
whether the interface is active or passive. These components consist of either information
that players access or actions that the players must take to complete tasks during the
game. The score is a numeric indicator that measures the player’s success in the game. A
high-score indicator keeps track of past scores and gives players a standard by which to
measure themselves. This is the simplest of all basic score indicators and can be shown
onscreen at all times, especially if score is a primary concern in the game.
Some games might display scores only after a player completes a section of a
game— such as a mission in a strategy game. At that point, the game might reveal
whether the player not only attained a particular numerical score, but a grade. At the end
of each mission in Advance Wars, players discover whether they received a traditional
letter grade (such as an A, B or C) or a “superior” grade (designated by S)—which is
even better than an A! This display appears onscreen after the end of a mission—but it
does not appear onscreen as a passive display while the game is being played.
Many games do not rely on ongoing scoring to assess how a player is doing.
Instead, players can access their “score” based on where they’ve been able to go in the
game environment, the number of levels they’ve been able to access, and how many
obstacles they’ve been able to overcome.
Lives remaining used to be shown with the score indicator. It reflects how many
chances a player has remaining—often visualized in a number of mini-icons (usually
representing the player’s avatar) or a numerical display. Current games often do away
with the remaining lives display and allow players to re-spawn (come back to life)
infinitely. If a player can save the game at any point, the concept of “remaining lives” is
no longer relevant. Often, lives remaining displays indicate both the number of lives
(represented by a number— such as 3) and a graphical representation (such as three stick
figures representing the player character). Early arcade games often displayed “lives
remaining” to the player onscreen at all times. This is essential information needed by
players to assess their status in the game. It also provides a feeling of how much time
might be left in the game if the player goes along at the same pace (and doesn’t
necessarily improve their skill levels).
A related component, known as the power (or health) bar indicator, is used in
many games. This indicator consists of a horizontal bar colored in full. A power bar
might appear in a corner of the screen, showing how much power the player has left. This
bar is usually color coded as well as spatial—illustrated in the form of a bar with “0” on
the left and “100” (as a percentage) on the right. If a player has full power, the bar will be
full of color. As power depletes, the color drains from right to left—like a thermometer—
down toward “0.” Sometimes a “happy” color such as yellow is used toward the right. As
the power decreases, the color might darken—becoming red when the player is in danger
of losing all power. The player then has only one life (that can be re-spawned), but a
limited amount of power. Once the color has drained from the bar, the player dies. Some
simulation games use dials—a variation on the power bar—or bubbles (as in Diablo and
Dungeon Siege).
For players to get a larger view of the game world and find their way around it, a
map is often necessary. Many strategy games—such as the Civilization and The Age of
Empires series—display a map as part of the game interface located at the bottom of the
screen. A game map allows for macro and micro views of the game. In a macro view, a
player is able to oversee all aspects of the game world, while a micro view of the game
involves a close-up of one tiny portion of the map.
Usually, this closer micro view is displayed onscreen in the main game area—
while a macro view is displayed as part of the interface. However, some games allow a
player to toggle between the macro and micro view during the game. This option might
be necessary to see what might be happening in far-off areas of the game world and to
help players answer questions, such as, “What if a natural disaster or an enemy’s troops
are heading in my direction?”
A character creation interface can sometimes be a highly complex series of
screens that allow players to create and customize their own characters. Everything from
physical appearance (including clothing, hair/eye/skin color, gender, ethnicity, height,
and body type), sound of voice, personality, accessories, race, class, and even
history/biography can be selected and combined through this interface. This type of
selection is most popular among games that involve a lot of character advancement, such
as RPGs. Usually accessed during the initial setup of the game, this interface might also
be available at any point during the course of the game—allowing the players to go back
to the interface during play and modify characteristics as needed.
Player characters often have a certain set of skills and attributes that are either
intrinsic to the type of character selected or that can be attained during the course of a
game. This sort of information is essential for games that involve character advancement
—such as RPGs. Skill and attribute information is provided during the character selection
or customization process—but it can also be accessed throughout the game. Since the
amount of skills and attributes can sometimes be extensive, a full-screen window might
need to be accessed through the manual interface for players to see the amount.
Constantly displaying this sort of information onscreen as the game is played can cause
the game to look cluttered. Therefore, some games have an action button in a corner or at
the bottom of the screen that triggers a skill and attribute display.
Associated with a player character, inventory is also an important game interface
component. It helps players keep track of the items that are available to their characters,
especially in games that involve collecting and gathering items (such as adventure games
and RPGs). Some of these items might be weapons that can be used only in certain
circumstances or spells that need to be cast at certain points in the game. The ability to
manage this inventory and keep track of what items are available to the player character
greatly helps the player make certain decisions during the game. The inventory might be
part of a screen that contains other character information (such as skills and attributes). It
could even stand on its own. In either case, a player character’s inventory often needs
space to be displayed. Therefore, it often will need to be accessed through a menu or a
physical interface—just like a skills and attributes display.
Early arcade games often employed start screens that would contain the title of
the game, credits, instructions, and the ability to choose player mode (usually one or two
players). Similar screens are used in online puzzle and other quick, action-oriented
games. Depending on how the game is designed, the start screen can provide an
introduction to the mood and style of the game in addition to the player interface. It can
also allow players to customize controls and get help before starting or resuming play.
Most current game genres have very specific content structures and expected
interface styles. What distinguishes these interface styles? What purpose do they serve?
To understand why certain interface styles are used with particular genres, it’s important
to analyze the gameplay goals associated with each genre.
Since action games are fast-paced—requiring eye-hand coordination, reflexive
movement, and quick decision making—players don’t have time to interact with a
complex interface. Passive heads up displays (HUDs) are best; players cannot pause the
game to open a set of menus. A status panel— one of the most straightforward passive
interface displays—allows players to check status indicators (lives, energy, time
remaining, score) associated with their characters throughout the game.
A role-playing game (RPG) interface is often split into three segments—character
management, navigation control, and inventory. The range of actions a player can take in
an RPG is often much greater than in any other form of game. There is a corresponding
increase in the complexity of the interface for this reason. To compensate, the manual
interface is often more involved.
Since all simulation games depend on real-world rules, how can an interface be
designed so that this reality isn’t disrupted? The most straightforward way to establish a
seamless interface is to replicate the controls that might actually be used in a simulation.
This is done most effectively in vehicle Sims—especially flight simulators. Visual
interfaces range from those that might include an instrument panel consisting of just a
few buttons (providing altitude, speed, power, fuel, coordinates) to a more complex panel
that could perform over 40 different functions! These panels often have the look and feel
of the controls you might actually see in a cockpit.
In most genres, the interface design changes only in response to explicit actions
taken by the player. However, sports games are unusual in that the user interface often
changes by the second—depending on the conditions in the game. The most difficult
aspect of sports game interface design is that it’s necessary to map athletic activities
(such as jumping) onto a game’s input device—which might be anything from a handheld
controller with buttons to motion-sensing technology (Wii, Move, Kinect). In team sports
games, the player will often control one athlete at a time—indicated by a circle or star
displayed right under the athlete. Symbols might also appear on the field to help the
player see exactly where a flying ball should land. Players should be able to see which
athlete will be in control at any time. In this way, team sports game interfaces are similar
to those of many strategy games—where players might control a set of military troops,
each of whom might have different skills.
Most strategy games involve themes of conquest, exploration, and trade. The
primary player strategy in these games is resource management, where the player must
make decisions involving acquiring, building, expending, and exchanging resources such
as food, weapons, buildings, and units (often military troops). Interfaces for these games
are extremely specific. In fact, sometimes it’s difficult to differentiate between strategy
games by looking at isolated screenshots. The game view is often large-scale—displaying
a landscape with terrain, structures, vehicles, and units.
Data in strategy game interfaces are presented in windows—often containing a
map and a series of icons that link to more in-depth information. Since this genre focuses
so heavily on managing a great deal of information, it’s important to divide the
information up so that players don’t have to look at everything at once onscreen. One
way to do this is to provide context-sensitive information that appears only when needed.
Another helpful consideration is to provide both a beginner and advance mode to
facilitate different levels of experience. Components of strategy game interfaces include
general information (such as a map and statistics related to the condition of the
environment [temperature, elevation, population]), and more specific information (such
as inventory, skills, and status indicators related to a particular resource or unit).
h. Usability
The primary purpose of the user interface is functionality—not aesthetics. If an
interface is functional, it is considered usable. The concept of usability is a vast area of
study in many areas of interactive design, including web development, DVD authoring,
and wireless display design. Since games represent the highest form of interactivity,
player-centered design must incorporate a high level of usability. The main idea behind
designing for usability is to think more like an engineer than an artist. An aesthetically
appealing interface is definitely desirable. However, an interface that looks great but is
not functional will be useless both to the player and to the developer.
The key is to allow the player to interact with the game effectively. During the
game development process, placeholders are often used in place of visual interfaces so
that usability is tested without the distraction of aesthetics. Only later in the development
process is the visual look and feel introduced. Consider the example of an aesthetically
pleasing user interface that players can’t figure out how to use, and contrast it with a
boring interface that is simple and easy to use.
There’s a term used among designers, engineers, and programmers known as
elegance. If a design is efficient, consistent, clear, and functional, it’s elegant. Designers
are really problem solvers—not beautifiers. By connecting the player to the game itself,
active interfaces provide problem-solving functions (such as saving the game, accessing a
tutorial, and communicating with other players). Of course, interfaces that are both
aesthetically pleasing and usable give the player the best of both worlds!
Accessibility is a branch of usability that focuses specifically on users with
disabilities. According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 180 million
people worldwide have visual impairments alone. Of these, between 40 and 45 million
persons are blind. More than 40 years have passed since the first computer game was
developed, yet the same player prerequisites are still assumed—full sight, hearing, and
cognitive functions. The game industry excludes many (or most) potential gamers who
have disabilities. Compare this to the web development industry—which has been in
existence only since the mid-1990s and has focused on accessibility for years. The
International Game Developers Association (IGDA) has addressed this problem by
forming a Game Accessibility Special Interest Group, chaired by Michelle Hinn. There
are five main disability categories addressed by accessibility: visual, audio, motor,
speech, and cognitive.
Players with visual disabilities are those who are visually impaired, colorblind, or
either partially or completely blind. To ensure that an interface addresses players with
visual impairments, it must contain code that allows screen readers such as Jaws to read
the information displayed on the screen to the player. As an option, games should also
provide audio such as voiceover dialogue and sound effects that cue the player to what is
happening in the game. Players should also have the option of making the text larger for
ease of reading.
It’s also necessary for text to be written for scan ability so that players can read it
quickly. Scannable text is concise, direct, free of unnecessary words (such as the articles
“a,” “an,” and “the”), and it contains only those words that are essential to get the point
across. Plowing through linear text dialogue and backstory is tedious for anyone! This is
one of the inherent issues associated with handheld devices; to address it, keep text
options within the player’s control. Many Game Boy Advance titles allow players to opt
out of the linear dialogue and story by clicking the start button. (This solution would not
work for new players, who might need to scroll through the text information to fully
understand the game.) Hard copy instruction manuals should also be available in Braille.
Players with audio disabilities include those who are partially or completely deaf,
along with those who have hearing conditions such as tinnitus—which results in constant
ringing in the ears and is common among concert-goers, performers, and others who
regularly listen to loud noises for extended periods of time. (William Shatner and Pete
Townshend are two well-known performers who have this ailment.) Audio disabilities
can be addressed by not relying on audio as a primary gameplay cue. Subtitles and text
should be provided for cut-scenes and dialogue. Visual elements for game notices and
alerts help all players.
Players with some motor or physical disabilities might have difficulty using a
mouse, keyboard, controller, foot pedal, or other input device. Menu systems containing
small buttons might be difficult to navigate if a player has difficulty controlling a mouse
in a point-and-click interface. A computer interface can allow for tab navigation as an
option, avoiding the necessity of mouse clicking.
Players with speech disabilities have difficulty communicating through voice.
Since most electronic games are visual, speech disabilities haven’t yet become a primary
area of accessibility research. However, games such as SOCOM: U.S. Navy Seals that
require voice communication between players (through headset/microphone input
devices) are impossible for those with speech disabilities to play without non-speech
options.
Players with cognitive disabilities have difficulty with reading, writing, and
envisioning spatial relationships. Complicated menu systems with several layers should
be avoided to address this type of disability. Simple sentence structure and vocabulary
should also be used to avoid the possibility of players misunderstanding the rules of the
game. Many online multiplayer games require players to communicate with each other
via chat or IM-style windows. This can pose a problem for some players, who don’t feel
comfortable with text communication due to cognitive disabilities such as dyslexia—a
common condition that could cause a player to spend extra time creating correctly
formulated words and sentences. Games that require time-dependent text responses
would be inappropriate and unfair for these players.
The various save-game options available to a game developer bring up a balance
issue between immersion and player control. An active in-game interface often includes a
“save” menu item, which can effectively take the player out of the game and compromise
the game’s immersiveness. In contrast, a game could be automatically saved at different
checkpoints (or milestones) during the game. Although this save-game option is seamless
and does not take the player out of the game, it compromises player control. Game
developers have debated which of these concepts might be more important to the player
or to the game itself—and the answer usually depends on the game’s genre and platform.
Let’s take a closer look at some save-game options and apply them to different types of
games.
In action games where the player’s avatar is in constant danger (such as an FPS),
the player can often quick-save by pressing one button on a manual interface to save
instantly at any time during the game—without ever leaving the game world. In this case,
no visual interface exists except for the possibility of a confirmation (the word “saved”)
being displayed onscreen for a moment—but this does not break the player’s
concentration and immersion. The disadvantage of this method is that it contains only one
save slot. Sometimes, there are several additional slots available—but the player must
remember to designate these after pressing the quick-save button. This also takes up extra
time, which might be detrimental to gameplay during a fast-moving game. This save
option allows for more immersiveness and speed at the expense of flexibility and player
control.
The auto-save (also known as check-point save) option offers the most immersion
and the least amount of player control. The game auto-saves as it progresses, allowing the
player to leave and return at any time without explicitly having to save the game. Auto-
saves can be continuous, but they more often take place at certain checkpoints in the
game. These checkpoints are not necessarily revealed to the player—which can prevent
the player from undoing earlier mistakes. However, the player is able to interrupt and
resume the game at any point. Action games featuring rewind—such as Prince of Persia:
The Sands of Time and Braid— allow the player to undo one action. It’s very common to
have a limited number of profiles stored on consoles and have the game auto save to
those profiles after a particular mission has been completed. This trend is increasing,
since online gaming through console systems depends heavily on profiles.
Some games allow the player to interrupt play and save the game to a series of
named slots (console or handheld) or a file (computer) maintained by the game. In this
case, a “save” item is usually included on an in-game active interface so that the player
can conveniently access this option at any time during the game. The player can save
either a limited or infinite (only limited by the player’s hard drive space) number of
games at various points during play, and provide them with distinct names. This method
of saving the game is considered the most harmful to a game’s immersiveness. The
interface for managing files or save slots often looks like a file management system. This
can be made more visually interesting, but it will still take the player out of the game
unless it is somehow integrated into the experience itself.
There is a debate among developers concerning whether or not to allow players
the freedom to save the game at chosen intervals. The debate centers around how
gameplay might be affected by saving the game. Developers of some puzzle games are
often against the idea because they feel that the player should solve the game by skill
rather than trial-and-error. Saving and reloading can also defeat the purpose of an
uninterrupted action sequence. When players can save and reload at any point, some
argue that nothing is really at stake in the game. What if a player’s avatar dies or loses
resources? Any disaster can be reversed simply by reloading the game. This definitely
takes away much of the challenge!
On the other hand, some argue that making a game harder simply by preventing
the player from saving the game is not an ideal way to create a challenge. It most
certainly does not show respect for the player. For a more challenging game, create more
difficult gameplay challenges! Forcing a player to replay a level or entire game due to a
mistake made near the end wastes a player’s time and condemns the player to frustration
and boredom. This must be avoided—not created.
One compromise solution is to allow the player to save at any time but to
somehow reward the player for not saving. Alpha Centauri includes an Iron Man mode. A
game played in Iron Man would close automatically when saved, thereby making the
save-load process an ineffective way to undo a serious mistake. As compensation, the
player’s final score is doubled when playing in this mode. Some games—such as Halo—
reward players for completing the game without saving at all.
