World’s Religions Engagement: Native American Religions
Kavon Cuffie
APOL 525: Pluralism and World Religions
February 28, 2024
Contents
Stereotypes surrounding Native American Religions...............................................................1
An Introduction to Early Native American Religions................................................................3
Shamanism and Totemism......................................................................................................6
Ministering to a Native American..........................................................................................10
Conclusion............................................................................................................................12
Bibliography..............................................................................................................................
...14
1
Religion has existed in the world for thousands of years. There have been thousands of
different religions that have appeared throughout various places across the world. Many of
these religions have many unique aspects about them while also sharing some similarities to
other religions as well. This is especially true when looking at Native American Religions. This
paper will look at the various Native American Religions as practiced by North American Indians.
While depictions of Native Americans and their various religions and beliefs have been distorted
throughout the years due to negative depictions in books, films and television; Native American
Religions give wonderful and unique insight into the cultures, beliefs, practices and history of
the North American Indians. This insight into Native American culture and history is important
for any Christian Missionary to understand for them to successfully share the Gospel of Jesus
Christ.
Stereotypes surrounding Native American Religions
It is important to remember that much of the information we have on Native American
culture is somewhat inaccurate due to a variety of different reasons. According to Corduan
“accurate information concerning Native American religion has not always been easy to come
by.”1 This is due to a variety of different factors. One of the main reasons is that many Native
American traditions have been lost to time due to the genocidal actions of European settlers
that took place when North America was largely unknown.2 Another reason is that some tribes
have not shared their traditions and beliefs with outsiders and for these reasons, some beliefs
and practices remain hidden from the outside world. A third reason is that there is a great
amount of diversity regarding the beliefs and practices of North American Natives which means
1 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 236.
2 Ibid.
2
that somewhat reliable generalizations about them are difficult to maintain are true.3 A fourth
and final reason is that the information given to outsiders is sometimes skewed in favor of a
particular preconception. Corduan notes that this is done “either by the one who investigates
and reports the information or by the Native practitioners who may state what they believe the
investigator wants to hear or maybe even deliberately mislead the investigator in order to
protect the sacred nature of the religion.”4
It is important to keep in mind that throughout the years, perceptions surrounding Native
Americans and their cultures and beliefs, have often been due to negative stereotypes in
different forms of media. R. Phillip Loy gives us a unique summary of five stereotypes of Native
Americans in early western films: “the savage raider, the helpless Indian who needs white
people to solve his or her problems, the beautiful Indian maiden who wants to prevent
bloodshed, the wise old chief who knows that violence against white people will only hurt his
own people, and his hot-blooded son who believes that fighting is a sacred duty regardless of
the outcome.”5 Do you recall seeing any of these stereotypes in any type of television show or
movie that you have watched? Chances are that you do. These harmful stereotypes have
existed for many years and in some cases, are still portrayed in the media today. Keeping this in
mind, with such pervasive stereotypes regarding the culture and identity of Native Americans,
perceptions about their religion will often be just as stereotyped if not worse than that. It is
important for anyone attempting to understand Native American Religion, that one must not
have any pre-conceived notions about the subject which so many people have done in the past.
3 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 237.
4 Ibid.
5 R. Philip Loy, Westerns and American Cultures, (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2001), 224.
3
An Introduction to Early Native American Religions
Native Americans, at their core, feel a deep sense of connectedness to the natural world
around them. The world is filled with deep spiritual forces and is also shaped by them in a
variety of ways. Many Native American men and women seek out how to express their spiritual
and religious visions in a variety of methods.6 In many different tribes, spirituality can affect how
a person does a multitude of things such as how they eat, dance, cook, paint, mold pottery,
decorate their bodies, organize their villages, design their homes, bury their dead, marry, dress,
cut their hair and so on.7 Spirituality plays a very large role in the community of Native
Americans. It is not simply a one day a week experience like it is for other people who attend
church once a week. In order to gain wisdom and understanding, one must pay attention to the
living world while being able to discern the spiritual dimensions within it while attempting to
figure out its significance with others inside of the community/tribe. Even everyday activities
such as agriculture and hunting can be considered holy.8 For many spiritually attuned Native
Americans, spirituality and their connection to nature and the world around them is as essential
to their well-being as food and water.
The religions tied to the hunter-gather way of life were among the first religions to appear
among early Native American tribes.9 Those who partook in the hunter-gatherer way of life
became attuned to the natural world through activities such as fishing, hunting game, gathering
6 Joel Martin, The land looks after us: a history of Native American religion (Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2001), 5.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid., 6.
9 Ibid., 13.
4
roots, nuts, berries, wild rice, and other foods provided by the landscape.10 If one was able to
attune themselves to the natural rhythms of nature, they were considered a good person by the
tribe. A wise shaman or spirit-traveler (man or woman) who could discern weather patterns and
the unpredictable movements of game animals could lead a successful band of their tribe in the
wilds. These shamans and spirit-travelers could also discern the causes of sickness and would
also be able to restore the spiritual balance that had become disturbed by human malice or
neglect.11 There were many religious practices that hunter-gatherers did within the community.
They sang songs, organized hunts, danced to celebrate the return of spring and passed down
sacred stories through oral traditions. As within many other communities, they also marked on
the onset of adulthood, mourned the dead, and celebrated the births of kin. Within some
tribes, they would bury their dogs, ceremonial goods, and tools with their dead as well.12
Huntergatherers were very careful not to damage the land that they considered sacred. In some
cases, they were able to build impressively large mounds thousands of years ago in what is
present-day Monroe Louisianna. This mound consisted of eleven mounds which were
connected by ridges which formed an oval-like structure which spanned about three football
fields wide in length. While the exact purpose of the structure is not known, it is assumed that it
was constructed for religious and/or ceremonial purposes.13 Hunter-gatherers were not simple
savages, they lived complex and fulfilling lives and in some unique cases, they did altar the
world around them in significant ways. On some unique occasions, they would set certain fields
on fire as an annual tradition. This was done primarily to keep fields free of trees while also
10 Joel Martin, The land looks after us: a history of Native American religion (Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2001), 13.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid., 14.
13 Ibid.
5
helping the growth of shrubby plants which were a heavily preferred substance by deer within
the various regions in which they were hunted. The early Hunter-gatherer religions were not
one-dimensional. They taught the men and women to respect the earth as well as the living
spirits within the earth. These religions were successful in promoting dynamic ways of life that
had proven sustainable and successful for thousands of years for Native Americans.14
Native American Religions have continued to change throughout the years. Like virtually any
other type of religion. Practices and beliefs tend to change over time due to a variety of
different factors such as shifts in cultural attitude. The same is true for Native American
Religions and the practices and beliefs associated with them. Remember the fact that there are
several hundred if not thousands of different religious practices that have formed throughout
the history of the multitude of different tribes in North America. In some cases, many Native
American Religions have been impacted by European settlers exploring and settling into the
continent. Despite centuries of opposition from settlers and social change, tribes such as the
Crow, Yurok, Creek, Lakota, Navajo, Apache, Tlingit, and Inuit have all managed to maintain
many of their religious and spiritual traditions.15 It is important to keep in mind that this was
certainly no easy feat. Decades of genocide and disastrous social changes wiped out many
traditions and cultures for a variety of different tribes. Many pieces of Native American history
and culture were wiped out because of these horrendous genocides that took place over
hundreds of years. The relationship between historical change and religious integrity is a very
complicated relationship that has generally favored historical change in many ways. Many
Native American
14 Joel Martin, The land looks after us: a history of Native American religion (Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2001), 14.
15 Brett Rushforth, Spirit Wars: Native North American Religions in the Age of Nation Building; Native
Religions and Cultures of North America Ethnohistory: the bulletin of the Ohio Valley Historic Indian Conference.
49, no. 2 (2002): 414–417.
6
Religions have incorporated some practices from Europeans settlers into their own culture.
While some people would see this as “progress,” others would see it as a desecration of sacred
culture that dates back in some cases, thousands of years.
Shamanism and Totemism
When discussing Native American Religions along with the beliefs and practices associated
with them, it is important to understand the concept of Shamanism as well as Totemism when
discussing these topics. The term “shaman” did not originate in North America, instead it
originated from the language of the Tungus (Evenki), which were one of the many indigenous
Siberian groups.16 Eventually, this term would start to be applied for all kinds of Native spiritual
users of any kind.17 In Native American culture, a shaman is someone who has the ability to heal
people and animals through contact with the spirits around them. As a spirit begins to take
possession of a person, a human being will become the medium through which the spirit works.
18 Shamanism and what it entails varies based on different tribes. There have been male and
female shamans in many cases. Not just anyone within a tribe can wake up one day and decide
that they want to become a shaman, instead a person must have a supernatural calling which in
some cases, will manifest itself through an illness.19 If this occurs, that person who becomes sick
will make a vow to successfully recover from the illness. Corduan notes that this pattern is
16 Andrei Znamenski, The beauty of the primitive: shamanism and the Western imagination (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2007), 3.
17 Ibid.
18 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 246.
19 Ibid.
7
nearly identical to what is seen within Japanese religion.20 As mentioned earlier, shamanism is
practiced very differently when discussing different tribes located throughout North America.
When it comes to the Northeast, the Algonquian tribe have a unique shamanistic rite known as
the shaking tent ceremony. This ritual is generally done in service for clients of the tribe. The
shaman will first purify himself in a sacred ritual using a sweat lodge. A sweat lodge is a very
small and tight hut or tent where water is poured on very hot stones to create steam, which is
very similar to a sauna. After spending a certain amount of time in the sweat lodge, the shaman
will then enter the sacred tent by him/herself. After this, the shaman will begin to commune
with the spirits. As this takes place, the spirits begin to take hold of the shaman. As this
happens, the spirits can manifest themselves in some unique ways such as different grunts and
noises and after some time, the shaman will eventually shake the entire tent. Once this is over,
the shaman will emerge and announce what was revealed to them. This information varies on
what was asked to the shaman originally; it could be information on how to find love, how to
cure an illness, or even how to find a lost person or object.21 It is evident that shamans play an
important role in religious and spiritual matters no matter where they are. Shamanism is unique
in that the same type is not practiced everywhere, but with many differentiations across North
America. Off the Alaskan coast, the Tlingit tribe designate shamans from birth. Only males are
designated from birth to be shamans. Male shamans are not allowed to do anything major to
their hair. This includes cutting or combing it. It is believed that if a shaman ever cuts his hair for
any reason, his power will be lost, possible forever.22 This is somewhat similar to the story of
Samson in the Old Testament who would later lose his great strength after having his haircut by
20 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 246.
21 Ibid., 247.
22 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 247.
8
Delilah. Exposing witches is also a duty of the shaman within the Tlingit tribe. Serious problems
that affect the
tribe is usually attributed to witches (which can be male or female). A shaman is tasked with
identifying the witch and their word is normally taken very seriously within the tribe. Being
accused of being a witch by a shaman essentially meant death as the word of a shaman was
highly valuable. A person accused of being a witch is normally killed by drowning.23 There was
generally no way one could defend themselves from this accusation. This meant that if the
shaman did not like someone in the tribe, they could accuse them of being a witch and the
accused could virtually do nothing about it. In some unique cases, shamans can accuse other
shamans of being witches themselves or frauds. If decent enough proof is presented and the
accusation stick, the accused shaman is normally killed as a result.24 Because of this large
amount of power and influence, shamans were greatly feared among normal people with the
tribe. One wrong accusation could lead a regular person to their death, regardless of if they
were innocent. One can only imagine how many innocent people were killed due to incorrect
accusations. This is one of the negative aspects of shamanism within Native American Religions.
Totemism is a very widespread practice among North American Natives. While the notion of
writing a book regarding Totemism and its practices only originated in the late 1970s from an
academic perspective24,totemism as it relates to Native American culture and tradition has
existed for centuries. Totemism entails the practice of diving society into distinct groups which
usually beat the names of plants and/or animals. Totemism is practiced in many different places
in many unique ways. It can be found among the Hopi of the Southwest, the Iroquois and
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
24 Robert Jones, The Secret of the Totem Religion and Society from McLennan to Freud (New York:
Columbia University Press, 2005), 1.
9
Algonquian tribes of the Northeast, the Creek and Cherokee of the Southeast and the Haida and
Tlingit of the Northwest coast.25 All of these tribes practice Totemism with some distinct features
depending on where you look. For the Tlingit of Alaska, they consist of two “moieties” which are
also known as major divisions. These two divisions are the Ravens and the non-Ravens,
although the latter are known as Eagles, but they can also be described as Wolves. Every
member of the Tlingit tribe belongs to one group or the other. There are numerous clans
associated with these groups. Tribes can differentiate between animals and can decide which
one is higher among the social order as well. It is very interchangeable depending on where you
are.
Spirits are one of the most important aspects of Native American Religions. Spirits are
considered very sacred to Native American Religion. The world itself is inhabited by many
different types of spirits. These types include Nature spirits, Agricultural spirits and Ancestor
spirits. Nature spirits can inhabit different objects such as plants, animals, rocks and even bodies
of water.26 Agricultural spirits are essential as Native Americans are agricultural and have been
for thousands of years. When Horses were introduced by the Spanish, many tribes abandoned
agriculture in favor of hunting. This helped them establish dominance over those tribes who
continued with agriculture.27 Ancestor spirits are somewhat of a vague concept as many tribes
don’t have an elaborate belief system when it comes to deceased human beings. Some
northern tribes have referred to the aurora borealis as the “dead dancing” but there are usually
25 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 248.
26 Ibid,. 244.
27 Ibid.
10
no other beliefs associated with this.28 Spirits are very important to Native Americans even to
this day as they have been important to Native American religion for thousands of years.
Ministering to a Native American
Relating the gospel to a Native American can be a somewhat difficult task considering the
broad historical circumstances surrounding forced conversion of Christianity on Native
Americans. As stated earlier, there have been many genocidal actions that have been done to
many Native American communities throughout the nineteenth century.29 A person of European
descent (generally, any Caucasian) must tread carefully when attempting to talk to any Native
American about the gospel. While intentions can be pure and free of any ulterior motives from
a
Christian missionary, the underlying pain from previous actions of early Christian settlers in
North America is still felt today in some cases. As Corduan notes “present-day people on both
sides need to learn to surmount the past.”30
It is important to keep in mind that Native Americans (like many others) consider their
ancient practices and traditions as legitimate forms of religion that are on the same level as
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and other world religions.31 Native Americans do not feel as
though their practices and traditions are small in comparison to that of other popular religions.
Christian missionaries must be careful not to sound condescending or rude when talking to
Native Americans about the gospel of Jesus. Doing so will only push them away further from
wanting to explore the gospel which is the exact opposite of what you would want as a
28 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 245.
29 Ibid., 263.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
11
missionary. While one who ministers the gospel must be careful of the words they use, they
must also be mindful of the tone used in conversation as well.
It must be noted that there are deeply rooted suspicions from Native Americans when it
comes to Christian evangelistic efforts. This is because of some Native Americans seeing these
efforts
at attempts at permanently eradicating elements of Native American culture.32 It is certainly not
surprising that many Native tribes share these sentiments after decades of suffering at the
hands of Europeans settlers. Keeping all of this in mind, it is important to remember that efforts
should always continue to share the gospel with people around the world, regardless of political
or social boundaries and barriers. To truly evangelize within the Native American community,
one must show that real and genuine biblical Christianity opposes brutal actions such as
genocide and exploitation of any kind. Doing this will allow a missionary to show that these
terrible actions are not in line with Christianity at all but instead go against the direct teachings
of Jesus Christ.33 As Corduan notes “the key word is contextualization.” Someone who is seeking
to share the gospel must do the necessary work in a manner that makes the gospel both
credible and accessible.34 One can put this into practice by putting the teachings of Jesus Christ
into use when it comes to Native American reservations. Poverty is a real concern for many
Native Americans who live on some reservations. A true Christian missionary will come to help
those in need without expecting any type of reward or recognition as it relates to these
reservations. Jesus told his disciples that “if anyone desired to be first, he shall be last of all and
servant of all (Mark 9:35).” Being a servant to Native Americans in need without the desire for
32 Winfried Corduan, Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions, 2nd ed. (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press Academic, 2012), 263.
33 Ibid., 264.
34 Ibid.
12
recognition or reward is a fantastic way to share the gospel of Christ. Christians are not called to
go and make political statements, instead we are all called to go and make disciples of all
nations, including that of Native Americans. Sharing the gospel does not always have to be oral
but instead can be done through actions and deeds as well.
Conclusion
Native American Religions have existed for thousands of years and continue to this day.
They have changed in a multitude of ways but at the same time have also managed to retain
core historical aspects of their culture and tradition through hundreds of years. The first of the
Native American Religions was that of the Hunter-gatherer thousands of years ago. Through this
lifestyle, Native Americans become more attuned to the earth around them. They treated their
land and animals as sacred and did whatever was necessary to maintain balance among the
spirits. Shamanism and Totemism have been key aspects of Native American Religions for
centuries and continue to impact tribes to this day. Despite multiple acts of genocide and forced
conversion among many tribes, Native Americans still take pride in their ancient customs and
traditions and have been very resilient in the face of forced conversion. While many Native
Americans are weary of Christian missionaries due to past genocides, it is still possible to relate
the gospel to a Native American who wants to know more about Jesus. A person must
remember and understand the brutal history that Native Americans have endured while also
having the right motives when sharing the gospel. Showing Native Americans the compassion,
humility and servanthood (without reward or recognition) that Jesus showed to his disciples
here one earth is one of the ways to effectively evangelize to them.
13
Bibliography
Corduan, Winfried. Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions. 2nd ed.
Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2012.
Jones, Robert Alun. The Secret of the Totem Religion and Society from McLennan to Freud.
New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
Loy, R. Philip. Westerns and American Culture, 1930-1955. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2001.
Martin, Joel W. The Land Looks after Us : A History of Native American Religion. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Netland, Harold A. Christianity & Religious Diversity: Clarifying Christian Commitments in a
Globalizing Age. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015.
Rushforth, Brett. “Spirit Wars: Native North American Religions in the Age of Nation Building;
Native Religions and Cultures of North America.” Ethnohistory: the bulletin of the Ohio
Valley Historic Indian Conference. 49, no. 2 (2002): 414–417.
Znamenski, Andrei A. The Beauty of the Primitive : Shamanism and the Western Imagination.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
