Outline
I. Introduction and Thesis
A. Description of the Argument
a. Philosophical
b. Scientific
c. Experiential Skepticism
II. Miracle Definitions
A. Multiple Natures That May Exist
a. Naturalist
b. Supernaturalist
III. Is C. S. Lewis's Miracles Apologetics Argument Still Valid?
IV. Conclusion
V. Bibliography
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Introduction and Thesis
This paper proposes an epistemological argument of miracles and divine action in the
world to show the possibility and means of divine action in the world still exist. I will argue that
Craig S. Keener’s apologetic argument for modern-day divine intervention through miracles is
still applicable in our contemporary context as much as it was in the Old and New Testament
Scriptural times.
Description of the Argument
The definition of a miracle is an unexplainable positive event that happens without any
apparent cause by nature or science. According to Timothy McGrew, "A miracle is an
extraordinary event that is not explicable by natural causes alone as it is divine intervention in
human affairs.”1 Miracles are evident throughout Old Testament scripture. From the beginning of
time when God spoke the world into existence, with just one word, this alone is miraculous,
(English standard version, Genesis 1:1). There are multiple arguments Craig S. Keener makes on
the topic of modern-day miracles and their relevance which include philosophical, scientific, and
experimental skepticism.
According to Keener, scholars have debated the evidence and credibility of the existence
of miracles, while simultaneously believing and not believing in a divine entity.2 However,
according to Tim Stafford, Craig S. Keener proposes that If a person is looking at miracles
1 Timothy McGrew, "Miracles," ed. Edward N. Zalta, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Metaphysics
Research Lab, Stanford University, 2019).
2 Smith, Bill. C.S. Lewis on Miracles: Why They Are Possible and Significant. (Atlanta: C.S.
Lewis Institute, 2019).
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through a biblical worldview lens, then the evidence is overwhelming.3 God reveals himself
through divine intervention time, and time again. There are over 83 miracles that are presented in
the Old Testament, some of these miracles include Moses' encounter with the burning bush that
did not burn. Moses writes the account, “And Moses said, “I will turn aside to see this great
sight, why the bush is not burned.” When theDLORDDsaw that he turned aside to see, God called to
him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” And he said, “Here I am.” Then he said, “Do not come
near; take your sandals off your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground”D
(ESV. Exodus 3:1-22). This was a private account that was between Moses and God. Keener
believes in the value of first-hand eyewitness accounts but relegates the importance of multiple
witnesses. Thus, God later miraculously revealed Himself to the Israelites on their journey to
freedom from Egypt. The parting of the Red Sea was not only witnessed by an entire people, but
they participated in the miracle by walking through the parted waters.
“Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and theDLORDDdrove the sea back by a strong
east wind all night and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided” (ESV. Exodus
14:21).
Keener's ideals of multiple witnesses diluting doubt is supported by the Bible’s account
of miracles that had multiple witnesses. From fire from Heaven, consuming Elijah’s altar
defeating the Prophets of Baal (ESV. 1 Kings 18:20-40), to the sun in the moon standing still,
according to Joshua, “The sun stopped in the midst of heaven and did not hurry to set for about a
whole day” (ESV. Joshua 10:12-14).
3 Stafford, Tim. "It's okay to expect a miracle: scholar Craig Keener rediscovers the reality of divine
intervention." Christianity Today, December 2011, 34+. Gale In Context: Biography (accessed December 8, 2023).
Page 4 of 9
The king healed of leprosy by dipping in the river Jordan ??
Mana from Heaven in the wilderness, Exodus 16 versus 14 through 35.
Replenishing the oil and meal at Zarephath 1 17:14-16
Raising the dead widows son 1 king 17:17-24
Jonah and the whale, Jonah two versus one through 10
Daniel and the lions den Daniel 6:16 through 23
Shadrach, Meshach and a Bendigo in the fiery furnace Daniel three versus 19 through 27
Philosophical
Scientific
Experiential Skepticism
According to Craig S. Keener the idea of divine interference commonly known as miracles, goes
against scientific and philosophical reasoning. Keener's argument for the existence of miracles is
applicable not just within the Christian faith, but with the purpose of growing the kingdom of
God for the following reasons:
1. A miracle is not always rational or understood. Belief in miracles requires faith. According to
The Apostle Paul, “Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not
seen” (English Standard Version, Hebrews 11:1).
2. Believing in miracles can produce miracles. According to the gospel of Mark, “Have faith in
God. Truly, I say to you, whoever says to this mountain, ‘Be taken up and thrown into the sea,’
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and does not doubt in his heart, but believes that what he says will come to pass, it will be done
for him” (ESV. Mark 11:22-24).
3. A believer should not need a miracle to stand strong in faith since they already believe God
exists, however, a non-believer may require a miracle to encounter God and grow faith.
According to The Apostle Paul, one must have faith to be in favor with God, “And without faith,
it is impossible to please him, for whoever would draw near to God must believe that he exists
and that he rewards those who seek him” (ESV. Hebrews 11:6).
Kenner addresses David Hume's argument against supernatural intervention and activity showing
that many of the foundations of Hume’s argument have ceased to coincide with the
contemporary scientific context (Keener, 2011, p.clx).
3. Final outline of the paper
The outline of the paper must support the demonstration of the thesis. It must be structured in
such a way that the main arguments you will be deploying in support of your thesis are allowed
to unfold. The outline must be inclusive of all headings and sub-headings.
Insert outline here:
1. Introduction
2. Keener believes it must be addressed that the doubt and skepticism of miracles do not just
relate to the validity of the biblical accounts, but rather the probability of postbiblical miracles in
modern times.
3. According to Keener, Claims of miracles are not all valid, and in as much cause additional
doubt when their falsehood is unveiled. However, eyewitness accounts, regardless of
interpretation, remain in existence and must be considered.
4. Keener's miracles apologetic and arguments against Humes still stand valid today as a rational,
yet is also culturally determined.
5. Conclusion.
Page 6 of 9
Bibliography
Basinger, David. Miracles. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).
Dulles, Avery Cardinal. A History of Apologetics. (Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1999).
Edwards, Bruce. C. S. Lewis Life, Works, and Legacy Volume 3: Apologist, Philosopher, and
Theologian. (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2007).
English Standard Bible. (2016). https://esv.literalword.com/Links to an external site. (Original
work published 2001)
Forrest, Benjamin K, Joshua D Chatraw, and Alister E. McGrath. The History of Apologetics.
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020).
Keener, Craig S. Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts. (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Baker Academic, 2011).
Keener, Craig S. “Miracle Reports and the Argument from Analogy.”DBulletin for Biblical
Research /D25, no. 4 (2015): 475–495.
Keener, Craig S.DMiracles Today: The Supernatural Work of God in the Modern World. (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2021).
Keener, Craig S., and Amos. Young.DSpirit Hermeneutics: Reading Scripture in Light of
Pentecost / Craig S. Keener. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2016).
Khaldoun A. Sweis, Chad V. Meister, and J. P. Moreland. Debating Christian Theism. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2013).
Lewis, C. S. (Clive Staples). Miracles: A Preliminary Study. (San Francisco: Harper San
Francisco, 1996).
Lewis, C.S. Miracles. (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000).
Lindsley, Art. Ph.D. C.S. Lewis on Miracles. (Springfield: C.S. Lewis Institute, 2004).
McCoy, Colton. Miracles, Divine Action, and the Christian Perspective. (Abilene: Abilene
Christian University, 2014).
Timothy McGrew, "Miracles," ed. Edward N. Zalta, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2019).
Meister, Khaldoun S. Sweis, and Chad V. Christian Apologetics. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
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2012).
Oliphint, William Edgar and K. Scott. Christian Apologetics Past and Present: Volume 1, To
1500. (Wheaton: Crossway Books, 2009).
Oliphint, William Edgar and K. Scott. Christian Apologetics Past and Present: Volume 2, From
1500. (Wheaton: Crossway, 2011).
Stafford, Tim. "It's okay to expect a miracle: scholar Craig Keener rediscovers the reality of
divine intervention." Christianity Today, December 2011, 34+. Gale In Context:
Biography (accessed December 8, 2023).
Smith, Bill. C.S. Lewis on Miracles: Why They Are Possible and Significant. (Atlanta: C.S.
Lewis Institute, 2019).
Zwier, Karen R., David L. (David Leroy) Weddle, and Timothy D. Knepper, eds. Miracles: an
Exercise in Comparative Philosophy of Religion. (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2022).
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