Attitudes are evaluative statements-either favorable or
unfavorable-about objects, people, or events (Robbins &
Judge, 2013:70).
(Attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or
unfavorable about objects, people, or events).
Attitude is a positive or negative feeling or mental state
of readiness, learned and organized through experience,
ATTITUDE AND PERCEPTION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
SOC 324 - SOCIOLOGY OF WORK AND ORGANIZATIONS
SPRING 2024
Introduction:
Attitudes and perceptions are very complex psychological variables to study, but our
goal is to provide managers with information about these variables so that they can use them
to solve workplace behavior and performance problems. Managers must understand how
individuals interpret reality in the work environment and the differences between what is
interpreted and what actually happens. Failure to address these differences when individuals
perceive work negatively will result in work behaviors that do not support organizational
effectiveness. Evidence suggests that what individuals perceive of their work situation will
affect their productivity more than the situation itself.
Attitude is a determinant of behavior because attitude is related to perception,
personality, feelings, and motivation. Attitudes and perceptions are important in studying
organizational behavior because individuals' behavior is based on their perception of reality.
The attitudes to be discussed here focus on work-related attitudes, which include job
satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support,
and employee engagement. This chapter discusses the definition of attitude, components of
attitude, types of work attitudes, definition of perception, factors affecting perception, and
misperception.
Definition Attitude
Components of Attitude
There are three components of attitude, namely cognition, affect, and behavior. The
cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or awareness segment of an attitude. The
affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. The
behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towards
someone or something.
Viewing attitudes as composed of these three components helps us understand the
complexity of attitudes and the potential relationship between attitudes and behavior. Figure
5.1 shows the relationship of the three attitude components. In Figure 5.1 the three
components of attitude are interrelated, where in the example an employee did not get the
promotion he thought he deserved, but instead a coworker did. The employee's attitude
towards his supervisor is illustrated by as follows: awareness (the employee thinks they
deserve the promotion), feelings (the employee strongly dislikes their supervision), and
behavior (the employee looks for another job). As we noted earlier although we often think
that awareness gives rise to feelings which then result in behavior, in reality these
components are often difficult to separate.
Attitude Types Work
Work attitudes contain positive or negative evaluations held by employees about
aspects of their work environment. Most research in organizational behavior deals with
attitudes such as job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, perceived
organizational support, and employee engagement (Robbins & Judge 2013: 70).
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction is a positive feeling about one's job as a result of
evaluating its characteristics. Someone with a level of satisfaction
that exerts a specific influence on a person's response to
people, objects, and situations (Gibson et.al, 2012: 99).
(Attitude is a positive or negative feeling or mental state
that is always prepared, learned, a n d regulated through
experience, which exerts a specific influence on a
person's response to people, o b j e c t s , an d
situations).
A person with high job satisfaction has positive feelings about his or her job, while someone
who is dissatisfied has negative feelings about his or her job. Every job requires interaction
with co-workers and superiors, following organizational rules and policies, meeting
performance standards, accepting working conditions that are often not ideal, and so on. This
means that an employee's assessment of how satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with a job is
a complex matter of a number of different job elements.
How to measure job satisfaction? Two approaches are often used: (1) a general single
assessment, and (2) an assessment of a number of aspects or dimensions of the job. In a
general single assessment, simply asking respondents to respond to a single question; for
example, how satisfied are you with your job? Then the respondent answers by choosing
from prepared alternative answers from "very satisfied" to "very dissatisfied". Appraisal
based on job dimensions, identifies the elements of the job important elements in a job and
ask employees how they feel about each element and then rate them on a standardized scale
and then add them up to get an overall job satisfaction score. The dimensions of work consist
of the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision, coworkers (Luthans, 2011:
141). The work itself, in terms of work provides interesting tasks, opportunities to learn, and
opportunities to accept responsibility. Salary is the amount of wages received and the level at
which this can be seen as appropriate compared to others in the organization. Promotion
opportunities, which are opportunities to advance in the organization. Supervision, the ability
of supervision to provide technical assistance and behavioral support. Coworkers, the degree
to which coworkers are socially resourceful and supportive.
Job Involvement. Job involvement measures the degree to which individuals
psychologically favor their jobs and attach importance to the level of performance achieved
as a form of self-esteem. Employees who have high levels of job involvement are highly engaged and
genuinely care about the work they do. The concept of psychological empowerment, which is
employees' beliefs about the extent to which they have a work environment, competence, job
meaning, and autonomy at work, is also strongly related to work attitudes. For example, leaders
empower employees by involving them in decisions, making them feel that their work is important,
and giving them the freedom to do what they believe in. High levels of job involvement and authority
are positively associated with organizational citizenship and performance. In addition, high job
involvement is associated with less absenteeism and lower resignation rates.
Organizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the level of The degree
to which an employee favors a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain
membership in the organization. So, high job involvement means siding with an individual's particular
job, while high organizational commitment means siding with the recruiting organization and feeling
that he is working for himself and not someone else. Organizational commitment as an attitude
reflects a strong desire to remain as a member of a particular organization, and a desire to strive
according to organizational goals. In relation to the psychological characteristics of individuals in
organizations where individuals work, Meyer and Allen (1991), developed three dimensions of
organizational commitment, namely affective, normative and continuance commitment.
Affective commitment is an emotional feeling towards the organization and a belief in
its values. Continuance commitment, is a commitment based on the losses associated with an
employee leaving the organization. This may be due to a loss of seniority over promotion or
benefits. Normative commitment relates to a feeling of obligation to remain in the
organization because one has to, an action based on moral reasons. What is common to these
three forms of commitment is the view that commitment is a psychological condition that
defines the relationship between employees and the organization and has implications for
individual decisions to stay or leave the organization. Every employee has a different basis
and behavior based on their organizational commitment. Employees with high affective
commitment have a close emotional attachment to the organization. This means that
individuals will have the motivation and desire to contribute meaningfully to the
organization. Employees with high continuance commitment will stay in the organization not
for emotional reasons but because of the awareness in individuals of the huge losses
experienced if they leave the organization. Employees forced to become members will avoid
financial and other losses, thus allowing him to make efforts that are not optimal. Employees
with high normative commitment will stay in the organization because they feel an obligation
or duty that should be done for the benefits the organization has provided.
Perceived organizational support (POS) is the degree to which employees believe the
organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. It shows that
commitment from the organization to its employees can be very beneficial. High levels of
perceived organizational support lead to high job satisfaction and lower turnover. POS
shows that good treatment from the organization creates a general obligation, based on the
norm of reciprocity from employees to care about their organization and treat their
organization well in return. Employees' obligations will be demonstrated through work-
related behaviors that will support organizational goals. POS then POS responds to how
much employees feel the organization that employs them intends to provide fair
compensation for their efforts, help them in certain needs (such as illness, work problems),
make their work interesting and enthusiastic and provide them with adequate working
conditions. Based on this definition, it can be concluded that POS is how much organizational
support employees feel for their contribution and the organization's concern for their welfare
which will have an impact on employee support for the organization. In principle, the support
provided by the organization to employees shows the company's commitment to them. The
support is reciprocated by employees in the form of employee commitment to the
organization. More specifically, organizational support such as promotions, salary increases,
training, organizational assistance will be interpreted by employees as a sign of respect and
concern for employees. So that organizational support is returned by employees in the form
of trust and quality their relationship with the organization by trying to develop various
positive behaviors towards the organization. Employees will also become more hardworking
because they want the organization to succeed.
Engagement Employee Engagement (Employee engagement, is an individual's
involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work she does (Robbins & Judge,
2013: 76). (Employee engagement is an individual's involvement, satisfaction, and
enthusiasm with the work they do). Employee engagement as the attachment of
organizational members to the organization itself is not only physically, cognitively but even
emotionally in terms of its performance. Although the definition of employee engagement
still overlaps with other concepts, there is one common thread agreed that employee
engagement is very important in organizations and is closely related to performance.
Therefore, there are several factors that encourage employees or workers to be more engaged
with the organization, namely:
• Employees' perception of the importance of their work. Every member of the organization
needs to feel that what he or she does is important. No matter how low their position is in
the organizational structure. They want to feel that what they do has an impact on other
parts. Of course, this is inseparable from the basic human instinct of wanting to be
considered important. Management should appreciate the success of all members of the
organization at all levels.
• Employee clarity regarding expectations of work. Every employee when entering a
company or organization certainly has certain expectations. Likewise, organizational
members who have just occupied a new position in the organization certainly have certain
expectations of their work. Expectations can vary, perhaps in the form of expectations
regarding the financial benefits they receive, the authority they will exercise, or even the
contribution they can make to organizational change. Stress levels or disappointment will be
directly proportional to the size of the gap between their expectations and the reality that occurs.
Management needs to manage the level of this gap so that it does not go too far.
• Career advancement. A clear career path gives all members of the organization a clearer
picture of their career plans. When will they have the opportunity to move up, become a
manager, or so on. How many years will it take them to reach a certain position. What
skills they need to improve to reach a certain position. What achievements they need to
achieve for the position. Clarity about all of this is very important for employees. Several
studies have shown that the clarity of a person's career path in the organization is closely
related to their engagement.
• Regular feedback and dialog with superiors. In the work environment, the relationship
between superiors and subordinates is a very hierarchical relationship. There are very clear
boundaries between superiors and subordinates.
This culture is certainly not good in terms of communication between superiors and
subordinates. It is not uncommon for subordinates to feel awkward with superiors. When
there are work obstacles, they 'vent' more with friends and even with outsiders. It's even
worse if the constraints at work are discussed behind the boss' back. What happens? Over
time, problems accumulate and explode at one time. Of course this is not good. What
management should do is to facilitate regular dialog between superiors and subordinates.
Each subordinate is given a special time where they can directly and openly discuss what
obstacles they face at work.
• Quality relationships between coworkers, superiors and subordinates. The relationship
between members of the organization has a very important role in determining whether
someone will stay in the organization or not.
• Perception of organizational ethos and values. How employees perceive the values and work
ethic in the organization is very important to increase employee engagement. Employees are
not only looking for financial benefits, organizations that are able to inspire their employees
to continue to progress, increase their capacity will cause employees to become engaged. Not
a few employees who stay because they see examples of excellent leadership of the
organization's leaders. They feel that there is an example that they should emulate to be
better.
• Effective communication between organizational members. Some organizations do not have
clear standard operating procedures. This leaves employees confused about what to do and
how to proceed. Each member of the organization has his or her own interpretation of how to
do things, how to report and does not know clearly the coordination channels. Overlapping
Perception is a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment (Robbins & Judge, 2013:
166).
(Perception is the process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning
to their environment).
Perceptions are defined as the cognitive process by
which an individual selects, organizes, and gives
meaning to environmental stimuli (Ivancevich et.al,
2005: 110).
(Perception is defined as the cognitive process by which
an individual selects, organizes, and gives meaning to
environmental stimuli).
lines of coordination also lead to ineffective communication. This kind of situation is
certainly not good in the organization because certain people will have a very dominant role
while others only feel complementary. It is even worse if there is already mutual blame between
members of the organization. Ineffective communication leads to low employee engagement.
Definition Perception
Based on this definition that each person gives their own meaning to the stimulus of
their environment, different individuals can see the same thing but understand it differently,
so that they are able to understand it differently have different perceptions. For example, if all
employees in a company perceive it as a good place, pleasant working conditions, interesting
work, adequate salary, understanding management, and so on, but as most of us know, it is
very difficult to find such a match.
Factors that Influence Perception
How do we explain individuals seeing the same thing, but perceiving it differently?
Several factors shape and sometimes alter perceptions. These factors may lie within the
perceiver, in the object or target being perceived, or in the context of the situation in which
the perception is made. This is shown in Figure 5.2.
In Figure 5.2 when an individual sees a target and tries to interpret what is seen.
Interpretation is strongly influenced by various personal characteristics of the perceiver
which include attitudes, motives, interests, experiences, and expectations. The target factors
observed can influence what is interpreted. Individuals with loud voices are more likely to be
noticed in a group than those with loud voices gentle individuals. The same goes for
attractive or unattractive individuals. Since targets are not seen in isolation, the relationship
of a target to its background also affects perception, as does our tendency to group things that
are close and things that are similar. The context in which we see objects or events is also
important. The time at which an object or event is viewed can affect attention, as can
location, light, heat, or any number of other situational factors. For example, at an evening
party you might not notice a woman wearing a nice dress. But the same woman coming to
your class in the morning and wearing the same dress at the party, will definitely get your
attention and even that of your entire class. So, neither the perceiver nor the target changes at
the party and in class, but the situations are different.
Error Perception
There are a number of misperceptions that often occur in perceiving others. By
Robbins Judge (2013: 179) calls them shortcuts in judging others, namely selective
perception, halo effect, contrast effects, and stereotyping. These perceptual errors can lead to
poor decision-making.
Selective perception. Selective perception is selectively interpreting what one sees
based on one's interests, background, experiences and attitudes. Selective perception allows
us to 'read' other individuals quickly, but there is a risk that we get an inaccurate picture.
Because we see what we want to see, we can draw unwarranted conclusions from ambiguous
situations.
Halo effects. Halo effects is the tendency to judge a person based on only one of their
traits. For example, someone who smiles easily and looks neat is considered more honest than
someone who looks scary. Halo effects often occur when conducting assessments through
interviews. Interviewers often assess only one trait of a person that stands out during the
interview done, even though one of these traits does not reflect their true nature. This halo
effect is prevalent and has a very strong effect on how we judge people. When we are very
impressed by someone, because of their leadership or expertise in a field, we tend to extend
our initial impression. If he is good at one thing, then it is as if he is good at other things as
well.
Contrast effects. Contrast effects are evaluations about a person's traits or
characteristics that are influenced by comparisons with other people we have just met, who
score higher or lower for the same characteristics. We do not evaluate people in isolation, so
our reactions to an individual are influenced by other individuals we have just met. For
example, in an interview situation where an interviewer sees a group of job applicants.
Deviations in the evaluation of any candidate can arise as a result of the interview schedule.
A candidate is likely to receive a more favorable evaluation when preceded by applicants
with intermediate abilities, and unfavorable evaluations when preceded by superior
applicants.
Stereotyping. Stereotyping is judging someone based on perceptions of the group they
belong to. Stereotypes are often based on gender, ancestry, age, religion, and position. For
example, a manager has a perception that mothers, especially those with babies at home, do
not like working overtime and think that working overtime is a burden. While this perception
may be true in general, it is not necessarily true for certain mothers.
Relationship between Perception and Decision Making
How individuals in organizations make decisions and the quality of their final choices
are strongly influenced by their perceptions. Decision-making arises as a reaction to a
problem. That is, there is a mismatch between the current state of affairs and a desired state
of affairs that requires consideration to make some decisions. alternative courses of action.
Decision-making in organizations includes; rational decision-making, bounded rationality,
and intuition.
Rational decisions, rely on a number of assumptions, including that the decision
maker has complete information, is able to identify all relevant options in an unbiased
manner, and chooses the option with the highest utility. But in the real world most decisions
do not use rational models. Steps in rational decision-making,
a. Defining the problem
b. Identifying decision criteria
c. Allocate weighted criteria
d. Creating alternatives
e. Evaluating alternatives
f. Choosing the best alternative
Bounded rationality, because the human brain cannot process and solve complex
problems with full rationality, then we use bounded rationality, which is a process in decision
making using A simple model is then distilled so that later it becomes easy to understand.
Intuition, a subconscious process derived from filtered experience, is not always
independent of rational analysis. Both complement each other and most importantly intuition
can be a very powerful force in decision making.
Enhance creativity in Decision Making
Rational decision-making also requires creativity, the ability to come up with useful
ideas. This creativity allows a decision-maker to better recognize and understand problems
that others may not even understand.
Creativity is possessed by almost everyone, in which case one needs to get out of the
way of many people's thoughts and start learning to think about problems in different ways.
The advantage of a creative person is that they have self-confidence, risk-taking, good
internal locus of control, good tolerance for ambiguity.
The three main components of creativity are:
1. Expertise is the basis of all creative work. The potential to make something creative
can happen if a person has the ability, knowledge, and expertise in the field they are
working in.
2. Creative thinking skills, characteristics a person possesses related to creativity, the use
of analogies, and the ability to see the same thing in different ways. Analogy allows
decision-makers to apply their ideas in one context to another.
3. Intrinsic task motivation, which is the willingness to do something because it is
interesting, satisfying, fun and challenging. This is what is generally associated with
someone who likes work to the point of making it an obsession.
Work Motivation:
Similar to the individual characteristics discussed in the previous chapters, work
motivation is discussed here as an important process in understanding behavior. Motivation
creates enthusiasm or drive to achieve certain goals. Motivation itself can be internal and
external. Internal motivation is motivation that comes from within the individual and is
usually more lasting, and external motivation is motivation that comes from outside the
individual and is temporary. Both types of motivation have important implications for
managers in their work to motivate employees. Managers need to understand differences in
needs, wants and goals as each individual is unique in many ways. In addition, managers
need to understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on
preferences, rewards and achievement. This chapter begins with some definitions of
motivation that describes the process of motivation, and theories of motivation that are useful
for understanding human behavior in organizations.
Definition Motivation
Motivation is the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within an
individual to initiate and direct behavior (Gibson et.al, 2012:126).
(Motivation is the concept we use to describe the forces acting on or within each individual
that drive and direct behavior).
Motivation as the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (Robbins & Judge, 2013: 202).
(Motivation as the process that explains the intensity, direction, and persistence of an
individual to achieve a goal).
Based on this definition, there are three important elements, namely an impulse from
within the individual, an action, and a goal. Encouragement because there is a perceived need
that moves the individual to act to fulfill the need, namely the goal. Needs are deficiencies
that individuals experience at a certain time. These deficiencies can be physical,
psychological, or sociological.
Motivation is the factors within a person that drive and direct their behavior to meet
certain goals. The process of arising a person's motivation is a combination of the concepts of
needs, drives, goals, and rewards. In Figure 6.1 the motivation process consists of several
stages, namely:
1. The emergence of an unmet need that causes an imbalance in a person and tries to reduce
it with certain behaviors.
2. One then looks for ways to satisfy these desires.
3. A person directs his behavior towards the search for goals or achievements in ways that
have been chosen with the support of his abilities, skills and experience.
4. Judgments of achievement are made by oneself or others about one's success in
achieving goals. Behavior aimed at satisfying needs, for example, pride, is usually
assessed by the individual. Whereas behavior aimed at meeting a need, for example,
financial or position, is generally carried out by superiors or organizational leaders.
5. The reward or punishment received or perceived depends on the evaluation of the
performance.
6. A person assesses the extent to which behavior and rewards have satisfied their needs. If
the motivational cycle has satisfied the needs, then an equilibrium or satisfaction of
certain needs is felt. However, there are still unmet needs, so the process will occur
again. Repetition from from cycle motivation with different behaviors.
Theories of Motivation
To predict behavior, a manager must know the goals of an employee and the actions
the employee must take to achieve his goals. Motivation theories are basically divided into
two, namely content theories and process theories (Gibson et.al. 2012: 129). Content theories
focus on factors within individuals that drive, direct, maintain, and stop behavior. These
theories try to determine the specific needs that motivate people. Process theories explain and
analyze how behavior is prompted, directed, sustained, and terminated. Both groupings have
importance for managers, who, by virtue of their jobs, are involved with motivational
processes. Basic characteristics of Satisfaction Theory and Process Theory The Motivation
process from a management point of view can be seen in Table 6.1.
Based on Table 6.1, it can be seen that there are four Satisfaction Theories namely,
Maslow's Need Hierarchy, Alderfer's ERG Theory, Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, and
McClelland's Learned Needs Theory. Each has an impact on management practice. Process
Theory consists of four theories namely, Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory, Reinforcement
Theory, and Goal-Setting Theory. These motivation theories will be explained successively.
Table 6.1 Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation
Theoretical Base
Theoretical Explanation
Founders of the Theories
Managerial Application
Content
Focuses on factors within the
person that energize, direct,
sustain, and stop behavior.
These factors can only be
inferred.
Maslow-five-level need hierarchy Alderfer-
three-level hierarchy (ERG). Herzberg-two
major factors called hygiene-motivators
McClelland-three learned needs acquired
from the culture:
achievement affiliation, and power
Managers need to be aware of
differences in needs desires,
and goals because each
individual is unique in many
ways.
Process
Describes, explains, and
analyzes how behavior is
energized, directed, sustained,
and stopped.
Vroom-an expectancy theory of choices
based on comparisons that Adams-equity
theory individuals make Skinner-
reinforcement theory concerned with the
learning that occurs as a consequence of
behavior Locke-goal-setting theory
consequence of behavior that conscious
goals and intentions are the determinants of
Behavior.
Managers need to understand
the process of motivation and
how individuals make choices
based on preferences, rewards,
and accomplishments.
Source: Gibson et.al (2012:129)
Maslow's Need Hierarchy. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory suggests that people in the
workplace are motivated by a desire to satisfy a number of needs that exist within a person.
This theory is based on three basic assumptions, namely:
1. Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, starting from the most basic needs to the
highest level.
2. The desire to satisfy needs can influence a person's behavior, where only unsatisfied
needs can drive behavior. Needs that have been satisfied cannot serve as motivators.
3. Higher needs function as motivators if the lower hierarchy needs have at least been
minimally satisfied.
Based on the above assumptions, Maslow's hierarchy of human needs is as follows:
1. Physiological (physiological needs). Physiological needs are the most basic hierarchy of
human needs which is the need to be able to live. In the context of the organization,
compensation is the physiological needs of employees so that management must provide
appropriate salaries to employees to buy basic needs, employees must be given adequate
rest and eating time.
2. Safety and security (safety and security needs). If the relative physiological needs have
been satisfied, the second need arises, namely the need for safety and security. This need
includes the security of protection from the dangers of work accidents, guarantees of job
continuity, and guarantees of old age when someone is no longer working.
3. Belongingness, social, and love (social needs). If the first and second hierarchical needs
have been minimally satisfied, social needs will emerge, namely the need for friendship,
affiliation, and closer interaction with other people. In an organizational context, this relates to
the need for a cohesive work group, good supervision, shared recreation, and so on.
4. Esteem (appreciation needs). These needs include the desire to be respected, appreciated
for one's achievements, recognition of one's abilities and expertise and the effectiveness
of one's work. Therefore, managers must appreciate and reward, and promotions for
employees who work well.
5. Self-actualization (self-actualization needs). Self-actualization is related to the process
of developing one's true potential. The need to demonstrate one's abilities, skills and
potential. Self-actualization is an ongoing and insatiable process. Instead, the need for
self-actualization has a tendency to increase in potential as people actualize their
behavior. A person who is dominated by the need for self-actualization enjoy tasks that
challenge their skills and abilities. Therefore, managers can provide work that challenges
employees so that their skills and creativity are fully utilized.
Alderfer's ERG Theory. Similar to Maslow's Theory, ERG Theory also assumes that
human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. Alderfer and Maslow agree that people tend to
increase their hierarchy of needs in line with the satisfaction of needs in the lower hierarchy.
However, Alderfer does not believe or agree with Maslow that a need must be satisfied first
before the level of need above it arises. If Maslow's theory considers that human needs are
arranged in five hierarchies, ERG theory considers that human needs have three hierarchies
of needs. The three hierarchies include:
1. Existence (existence needs). Existence needs are all needs that include in physiological and
material needs and security needs.
2. Relatedness. These needs are similar to Maslow's social needs. Relatedness needs include all
forms of needs related to the satisfaction of interpersonal relationships in the workplace.
3. Growth. Growth needs include all needs related to developing one's potential including
Maslow's self-actualization and appreciation needs. Satisfaction of growth needs by people
involved in a task not only wants to use and show their abilities to the fullest but also to be
able to develop new abilities.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory. The two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg resulted from a
study of 200 accountants and engineers. From the results of this study Herzberg concluded
two things or two factors as follows:
1. There are a number of extrinsic job conditions (job context), which, in the absence of these
factors or conditions, cause dissatisfaction among employees. These conditions are called
dissatisfiers, or hygiene factors, because they are minimally necessary to maintain
dissatisfaction. These factors are related to the job situation which includes the following
factors:
•
Salary
•
Status
•
Work safety
•
Working conditions
•
Fringe benefits
•
Policies and procedures
•
Interpersonal relationships
2. A number of intrinsic conditions, the absence of these conditions is not necessarily evidence
of extreme dissatisfaction. But if these conditions or factors are present, it will form a strong
motivation that resulting in good work performance. Therefore, they are called satisfiers or
motivators. Intrinsic conditions include:
•
Achievement
•
Recognition
•
Responsibility
•
Progress
•
The work itself
•
Opportunity for growth
The two-factor theory predicts that improvements in motivation will only appear if
managers' actions focus not only on the extrinsic conditions of the job but also on the
intrinsic conditions of the job itself. McClelland's Learned Needs Theory. Mc Clelland
examined three types of needs, namely the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for
affiliation (n Aff), and the need for power (n Pow).
The need for Achievement (n Ach), from the results of research conducted by Mc
Clelland, there are three characteristics of people who have n Ach which are high, namely: (1)
having a high sense of responsibility for the implementation of a task or finding a solution to
a problem. As a result, they prefer to work alone rather than with others. If a job requires the
help of others, they prefer to choose competent people rather than their friends; (2) tend to set
a moderate level of task difficulty and calculate the risks.
(3) have a strong desire for feedback on their task performance. They want to know how well
they have done, and they are eager to get feedback no matter whether the results are good or
bad.
In addition, Mc Clelland found that money is not so important in improving work
performance for those who have high n Ach. People who have low n Ach will not perform
well without financial incentives. However, this does not mean that money is not important
for those with high n Ach, if they are successful then they will be more likely to be
successful. they seek economic rewards as proof of their success.
Affiliation needs (n Aff), is a desire to have friendly and warm relationships with
others, whose characteristics are :
(1) have a strong desire to gain the blessing and peace of others; (2) they tend to conform to
the wishes and norms of others in their environment; (3) have a genuine concern for the
feelings of others. People who have high Aff seek opportunities in the workplace to satisfy
these needs. Therefore, they tend to work with others rather than alone, tend to have high
attendance rates, and tend to perform better in situations where there is personal and moral
support.
The need for power (n Pow), is the need to influence and control others and be
accountable to them. People who have high n Pow are characterized by: (1) the desire to
directly influence others; (2) the desire to exercise control over others; (3) an effort to
maintain leader-follower relationships. People with high pow tend to make more suggestions,
more often give their opinions and evaluations, always trying to influence others into their
way of thinking. They also tend to place themselves as leaders in their group activity
environment.
Expectancy Theory. This theory was developed by Victor Vroom. The basic idea of
expectancy theory is that motivation is determined by the results that a person expects to get
as a result of his actions. The key variables in this theory are effort, and outcome. A person's
effort or drive to act depends on expectations, instrumentality, and valence. Outcome is the
ultimate goal of a particular behavior. Outcomes can be divided into first-order outcomes and
outcomes second level. First-order outcomes are the results of one's efforts in doing work,
such as quantity produced, quality, and general productivity. Second-level results are the
consequences of first-level results or are the ultimate goal of achievement, such as wages,
promotions, awards, and other rewards.
The expectancy theory model that work performance is a combination of
multiplication between ability, effort, skills, clarity of tasks-responsibilities (role
perceptions). If a person has a clear role perception or understands their duties and
responsibilities, has the necessary skills and expertise and if they are motivated to use their
efforts/abilities, then their performance will be good. Job performance generates extrinsic and
intrinsic rewards.
Equity Theory. Equity Theory was proposed by Stacy Adams, that a human or person
in the workplace assesses his or her input in relation to the job compared to the job outcomes
obtained. They compare them with others in their group, with other groups or with others
outside the organization where they work. If a person's perception is that the rewards or
results they get do not match the effort or input they provide to the organization, then they are
motivated to reduce it. The greater the discrepancy a person feels, the more motivated he is to
reduce it. Discrepancy occurs because of differences in perceptions between two or more
people about the link between inputs and the results they get. In equity theory, inputs include
education level, skills, effort, tenure, rank, and productivity. Meanwhile, outcomes are all the
rewards that result from one's work such as salary, promotions, awards, achievements, and
status.
Reinforcement Theory. This theory was proposed by Skinner, that reinforcement is a
learning concept. According to reinforcement theory that behavior is a function of the
consequences associated with that behavior. People tend to do things that lead to positive
consequences and avoid unpleasant consequences. Reinforcement theory, which in this case
uses the concept of operant conditioning, can be seen as a model of motivation, which is
related to shaping, directing, maintaining, and changing behavior in organizations. This
theory has four basic concepts, namely measurable behavior, contingencies of reinforcement,
reinforcement schedules, and reinforcer values. The four basic concepts can be explained
regarding measurable behavior such as the amount that can be produced, the quality of
production, the accuracy of the implementation of the production schedule, and so on.
Contingencies of reinforcement, which is related to the sequence between stimulus, response
and consequences of the behavior caused (reinforcement). A certain working condition is
formed by the organization (as a stimulus), then the employee acts as the organization wants
(response), so on The organization provides rewards that match the action or behavior
(consequences of behavior). From a motivational point of view, through the use of stimulus
and consequences or rewards, employees are motivated to perform the behavior that the
organization wants, in this case, behavior that is motivated through the learning process. The
shorter the time interval between the employee's response (e.g. work performance) and the
provision of reinforcement (reward), the greater the influence on behavior. Regarding the
value and size of reinforcement, the greater the value of the reinforcer for the employee, the
greater the influence on subsequent behavior.
Goal-Setting Theory. This theory was developed by Edwin Locke, where this theory
outlines the relationship between goals set and work performance. The basic concept of goal-
setting theory is that employees who understand goals (what the organization expects of
them) will influence their work behavior. By setting goals that are challenging (difficult) and
measurable results will be able to improve work performance. Provided that the employee has
the necessary abilities and skills. Some statements related to the concept of goal setting
theory, difficult goals produce higher achievement than easy goals; specific (clear) and
difficult goals produce higher achievement than easy goals; specific (clear) and challenging
goals will produce higher achievement than abstract goals.
The goal-setting theory process includes five stages, first, specific incentives provided
by the organization. This stage generally includes the establishment of what the organization
wants to do (target outcomes) and the clarity of rewards associated with achieving those goals
(wage increases, promotions, awards). Second, the goal-setting participation process includes
how goals are set. In the goal setting process, goals can be set jointly between leaders and
subordinates (called participatory) or the goals are set by the leaders themselves leadership
(authoritarian). Third, goal-setting attributes include clarity, difficulty, challenge, competition
with other employees, and feedback. Fourth, there is a commitment from employees to carry
out goals including attention and effort to achieve these goals by employees. Finally, the
results of goal setting are job performance and satisfaction.
Some criticisms of goal-setting theory include; goal setting is rather complex and
difficult to maintain, goal setting works well for simple jobs but not for complex jobs. Goal
setting with jobs where goals are not easily measurable has presented some problems. Goal
achievement can become an obsession. In some situations, goal setters are so obsessed about
achieving their goals that they neglect important areas of their work.
