PSYCHOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF REWARD POWER:
MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES BEYOND TRADITIONAL METHODS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PSY 430 - INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WEEK 5
A.
Understanding Power:
Greenberg and Baron (2000) state that "A has power over B such that A can require B to
do something that B would not do without A's power". This definition conveys the concept of
power specifically while recognizing specific types of behavior. In every interaction and
social relationship in organizations there will be power. Individuals tend to influence other
individuals and organizations in every action or behavior by exercising social influence
(Greenberg & Baron, 2000). Furthermore, according to Robet Dahl, an expert in political
science, a person or group cannot have power in a state isolated; power The power must be
exercised or have the potential to be exercised in relation to other people or groups (Luthans,
2015). Power refers to a capacity that A has, to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in
accordance with A's wishes. Power can exist without being used. Therefore, power is a
capacity or potential. A person can have power but cannot enforce the use of his or her power.
The most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency. The greater B's
dependence on A, the greater A's power in the relationship. Furthermore, dependency based
on alternatives perceived by B and the importance that B places on the alternatives controlled
by A. A person can have power over an individual only if that person has power over A.
controlling something that the individual wants.
Power is the ability of a person or group to influence the behavior of other people or
groups in accordance with the wishes of the perpetrator (Miriam Budiardjo, 2003). The study
of power and its influence is critical to understanding how organizations conduct their
activities.
Max Weber defines power as the possibility of one actor in a social relationship who is in
a certain position to do his will without resistance. Furthermore, Pfeffer, an expert in
organizational behavior theory defines power as potential power or in more detail as the
ability to influence behavior, change events, overcome resistance, and to ask people to do
something they did not want to do before (Luthans, 2015).
B.
Types of Power:
According to Psychologist Betram Raven, 2008; Luthas, 2015 describes five types of
power, namely:
1.
Reward Power:
This type of power focuses on the ability to reward work or tasks done by others. This
power will be realized through an event or situation that allows others to find satisfaction
in the rewards received. In a concrete description of reward power, if an individual can
guarantee or provide certainty that a person's salary or position will increase, then that
individual can have reward power. In other words, a person can exercise reward power
because he is able to give satisfaction to others.
2.
Coercive Power:
This type of power, which is coercive, focuses more on the ability to punish others. This
coercive type applies if subordinates feel that their superiors have the power to punish
with difficult tasks, working overtime every day and reducing the rewards or salary
earned. According to David Lawless, if this type of coercive power is used too much, it
will bring the possibility of subordinates taking revenge for treatment or punishment that
they feel is unfair, it is even possible that subordinates or employees will leave the work
they are responsible for.
3.
Referent Power:
This type of power is based on a relationship of 'liking', in the sense that one identifies
others who have the qualities or requirements that one desires. In a more concrete
description, a leader will have a reference to subordinates who are able to carry out the
work and take responsibility for the work given by their superiors.
4.
Expert Power:
Power based on this expertise focuses on a belief that someone who has power certainly
has more information, knowledge, expertise and competence in a problem. A superior
will be considered to have expert power about solving a particular problem, if his
subordinates always consult with the leader and accept the problem solving provided by
the leader. This is an indication of the emergence of expert power.
5.
Legitimate Power:
Legitimate power is actual power, when a person is given the right, by agreement, to
regulate and determine the behavior of others in an organization. This type of power rests
on the social structure of an organization, and especially on cultural values. In an obvious
example, if a person is considered to be older, to have seniority in the organization, then
others agree to allow that person to exercise that legitimized power.
C.
Group Power: Coalitions
The natural way to gain influence is to be in power. Therefore, those who want power will
try to have personal power. However, personal power may be difficult, impossible or costly.
In such cases, it will be sought to form a coalition of two or more people who, by joining
forces, can pool their resources to increase their own rewards. Successful coalitions are found
to contain fluid membership and are quick to form in achieving the issue/goal as well as quick
to dissolve.
Decision-making in organizations does not end only with the selection of a set of
alternatives. The decision must also be implemented. In organizations, implementation and
commitment to decisions are at least as important as the decisions themselves. Therefore, it is
necessary for coalitions in organizations to seek a broad range of owners to support the
coalition's goals. This means broadening the coalition to encompass as many interests as
possible. This broadening of the coalition facilitates consensus building and is more likely to
occur in organizational cultures where cooperation, commitment, and shared decision-making
are highly valued. In heirarchically controlled and autocratic organizations, efforts to
maximize the size of the coalition are less sought after.
Another thing that relates to coalitions is mutual support dependencies within the
organization. It is likely that more coalitions will be created where there are multiple task and
resource dependencies. Coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks performed
by workers. The more routine the tasks of a group, the more likely coalitions will form. The
more routine the nature of the work that people do, the more interchangeable they are and the
greater their dependency. To In the face of this dependency, they then chose to form a
coalition.
D.
Relationship between Power, Politics, Authority and Leadership
1.
Power and Politics:
Politics and power are something that exists and is experienced in the life of every
organization, but it is rather difficult to measure it but it is important to study in
organizational behavior, because its existence can affect the behavior of people in the
organization. Politics and power do not only occur in government systems, but politics also
occur in formal organizations, business entities, religious organizations, groups, and even
in family units. Politics is a network of interactions between people where power is
acquired, transferred, and used. Politics is carried out to balance the interests of individual
employees and the interests of managers, as well as the interests of the organization. When
the balance is achieved, individual interests will encourage the achievement of
organizational interests that may be detrimental to organizational goals or to the interests
of others in the organization (Gibson, Ivancevich, and Donnelly, 2015).
According to Kacmar and Baron cited in Andrews and Kacmar (2001) provide an
understanding that politics in an organization are individual actions that are influenced by
the goal of achieving personal interests without regard or respect for the well-being of
others or the organization. Greenberg and Baron (2000) define organizational politics as
the unofficial use of power to enhance or protect personal interests. Organizational politics
is a series of actions that are not formally accepted in an organization by means of
influencing others to achieve individual goals (Greenberg and Baron, 2000).
There are many definitions for organizational politics. But essentially all focus on the
use of power to influence decision-making in the organization or on the self-serving and
organizationally unsanctioned behavior of its members. For our purposes, we define
organizational political behavior as those activities that are not required as part of one's
formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution
of gains and losses within the organization. This definition includes elements that many
people mean when they talk about organizational politics. Political behavior is beyond the
demands of one's specific job. It requires an attempt to exercise one's power base. In
addition, our definition includes attempts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used
in decision-making when we state that politics concerns "the distribution of gains and
losses within the organization." Our definition is broad enough to include political
behavior such as withholding key information from decision-makers, whistle-blowing,
rumor-spreading, leaking confidential information about organizational activities to the
mass media, exchanging support with others in the organization for mutual benefit, and
lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual alternative decision.
The prevalence and intensity of the emergence of organizational politics varies
according to the characteristics of the organizational structure and special cycles (Drory,
1993). Pfeffer (1992) cited in Greenberg and Baron (2000) suggests several aspects of the
situation that give rise to political activity in organizations, as follows:
a.
Political behavior usually arises when there is uncertainty, resources are scarce, units
(individuals and groups) have conflicting interests and when members of the
organization have almost the same power.
b.
Political behavior arises in the field of human resources, such as during performance
appraisal, personnel selection, and compensation decisions (Ferris and Kacmar, 1992).
This is likely due to ambiguity. The organizational environment is ambiguous because
there are no clear evaluation criteria, so organizations tend to rely less on measurable
results and more on worker effort, perceived potential and personal characteristics,
values and attitudes. All of these can be changed through the manipulation of
judgment (Ferris & King, 1991).
c.
Political activities are usually not the same at different stages of organizational life.
According to Greenberg and Baron (1997) there are three stages in organizations that
have different political behaviors. The first stage, when the organization is just
established, the founders of the organization gain political power by showing their
ideas to their subordinates. Second, in the growth stage of the organization, members
of the organization tend to be separated due to the complexity of the task, which
creates different interests and can lead to conflict. Third, when organizational growth
declines, members feel insecure about their jobs and need political action to gain
power in controlling the organization.
The abuse of power in the political world that is often carried out by political actors
raises the view that the main purpose of participating in politics is only to gain power. In
fact, in essence, the use of power in politics aims to regulate the interests of all people in
the organization, not for personal interests or for the benefit of the organization group. For
this reason, limiting power is necessary so that the trust of organizational members in
power holders grows and justice and comfort in life are created.
Understanding that the organization is a political entity will be able to make managers
see the organization as a ‘whole’ and not only rely on instrumental means. Morgan3 and
Bolman & Deal4 for example, see the organization as a vehicle or political arena where
interests are negotiated by its members. Drory5 defines organizational politics as informal
behavior in the organization by using power and influence through planned actions
directed at improving individual careers in situations to obtain many decision options.
Furthermore, Miles6 defines organizational politics as a process in which each actor or
group in the organization builds power to influence the setting of goals, criteria or
organizational decision-making processes in order to fulfill its interests. Organizational
analysis from a political perspective involves three discourses: interest, power and
influence.
2.
Power and Authority:
Power is defined as the need to manipulate others and have superiority over them.
From the definition of the need for power, power itself can be defined as the ability to do
something - to make people change. Individuals with power have the ability to manipulate
or change others. This definition of power distinguishes power from authority and
influence.
One of the main sources of definitional controversy revolves around the question: Is
power an observable influence on others, or merely the ability to influence? The reasoning
is that the most powerful individuals are the least powerful the possibility to show the
external evidence they possess. Their mere presence is enough to change the behavior of
others without raising a hand or saying a word. This makes the study of power more
difficult, but at the same time it should not be conceptually ignored. Employees who take a
backseat to avoid confrontation with intimidated coworkers are influenced without
knowing the power being exerted over frightened coworkers.
Authority has legitimacy and it is the source of power. Authority is the right to
manipulate or change others. power has no legitimacy. In addition, there is a difference
between classic top-down bureaucratic authority and Bernard's concept of bottom-up
authority which is based on acceptance. Specifically, Bernard defines authority as "the
character of communication (orders) in formal organizations in which goodwill is accepted
by contributors or 'members' of the organization as governing the actions to which they
contribute."
The theory of acceptance of authority is easily distinguished from power. Grimes
states: "What legitimizes authority is the promotion or pursuit of collective goals linked to
group consensus. In contrast, power is the pursuit of individual goals in relation to the
achievement of the group.
Influence is usually understood more broadly than power. Influence includes the ability
to change others, such as changing satisfaction and performance. Influence has more to do
with leadership than with power, but both are clearly involved in the leadership process.
Thus, authority differs from power in its legitimacy and acceptance, and influence is
broader than power, but conceptually so close that the two terms can be used
interchangeably.
3.
Power and Leadership:
A careful comparison of our depiction of power with our depiction of leadership in the
previous chapter reveals that the two concepts are closely intertwined. Leaders use power
as a tool to achieve group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and power is a means to facilitate
the achievement of those goals.
A difference relates to goal compatibility. Power does not demand goal compatibility,
it demands mere dependence. On the other hand, leadership demands a congruence or
goals of the leader and the followers. The second difference relates to direction and
influence. Leadership focuses on downward influence on one's subordinates. Leadership
minimizes the importance of sideways and upward patterns of influence, power does not.
Still another difference concerns research. Leadership research, for the most part,
emphasizes style. It seeks answers to questions such as: How supportive should a leader
be? How much decision-making should be shared with subordinates? In contrast, research
on power has tended to cover a wider field and focus on tactics to gain compliance. It has
gone far beyond the individual as executor because power can be used by groups as well as
by individuals to revert other individuals or groups (Robbins, 2003).
E.
Contingency Approach to Power
Pfeffer (Luthans, 2015) states that power arises from the "right" place. he describes the
right place or position in the organization where managers should be:
1.
Controlling resources such as budgets, physical facilities, and positions that can be used to
strengthen relationships and support
2.
Controls access to extensive information-about the organization's activities, preferences or
judgments of others, what happens, and who does it.
3.
Has formal authority within the organization
There is some research support for contingency observations, and there are also some
research findings that lead to contingency inferences as follows:
1.
The greater the professional orientation of group members, the greater the relative power
that referent power has in influencing members.
2.
The less effort and interest high-ranking members put into allocating tasks, the more likely
low-ranking members are to acquire power relevant to these tasks.
In addition to contingency observations, there is increasing awareness of the controlling
impact of strategic contingencies such as organizational independence, and the degree of
depth of control exercised by one department over the critical operations of another
department, or the role of behavioral influences on perceptions of power. The characteristics
of the targets affected (i.e., their ability to influence) have an important impact on the type of
power that can be best used. Power relationships can be better understood through the
examination of several target characteristics.
The following are the things that are considered important in influencing the target.
1.
Dependency:
The greater the target's dependency in relation to the agent (e.g., when the target cannot
break free from the relationship, does not value alternatives, or values the agent's rewards
as unique), the more the target is influenced.
2.
Uncertainty:
Experiments show that the more uncertain a person is about correct or appropriate
behavior, the more they are influenced to change that behavior.
3.
Personality:
There are a number of research studies that show the relationship between personality
characteristics and influencing ability. Some of these findings are clear (e.g., people who
cannot tolerate ambiguity or are highly anxious, and people who crave affiliation are more
impressionable), but some are not (e.g., positive and negative relationships are both built
on self-esteem and impressionability).
4.
Intelligence:
There is no simple relationship between intelligence and influencing ability. For example,
highly intelligent people may be able to listen, but because they also have high self-esteem,
they are not easily influenced.
5.
Gender:
While it has traditionally been thought that women are more conforming to bad influences
than men because of their upbringing, there is now evidence that this is changing. As
women and society's views on women's roles change, gender-differentiated influencing
abilities are diminishing.
6.
Age:
Social psychology generally concludes that the ability to resist influence increases in
children aged eight or nine and then decreases in adolescence. At that point the level stops.
7.
Culture:
Cultural values in society clearly have a tremendous influence on its members. for
example, western culture emphasizes individualism, dissent, In Asia, cohesiveness,
agreement and uniformity are emphasized, which will further enhance the ability to
influence.
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
A.
Understanding Industrial Relations :
The term industrial relations, which in foreign terms is known as industrial relations, is a
development of the term labor relations, or labor-management relations.
Industrial relations are activities that support the creation of harmonious relationships
between business actors, namely employers, employees and the government so as to achieve
peace of work and business continuity. The relationship between workers and employers is
one of mutual need and complementarity. Employers will not get goods or services if they are
not supported by workers, and vice versa (Nawawi, 2009).
According to Labor Law No.13 of 2003 article 1 no.16, industrial relations is defined as a
system of relationships formed between actors in the production process of goods or services
consisting of elements of employers, workers/laborers and government based on the values of
Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia.
According to Kertonegoro (1999), industrial relations in Indonesia are industrial relations
based on values that are a manifestation of all the precepts of Pancasila and the 1945
Constitution. This implies that the implementation of industrial relations must practice the
precepts of Pancasila as follows:
1)
Almighty God:
Recognize and believe that working is not only for the purpose of earning a living, but
also as a human dedication to God, to fellow human beings, to society, nation and state.
2)
Fair and Civilized Humanity:
There is recognition that workers are not merely factors of production, but are human
beings with dignity. Therefore, employers' treatment of workers is not only seen in the
context of improving human dignity.
3)
Indonesian Unity:
The relationship between workers and employers does not have conflicting interests, but
has the same interest, namely the progress of the company. Because with an advanced
company all parties will be able to improve welfare, and strengthen the unity and unity of
the actors of the production process.
4)
Democracy Led by Wisdom in Representative Consultation
Any differences of opinion between workers and employers must be resolved through
deliberation to reach consensus in a family-like manner. Therefore, the use of suppression
measures and unilateral actions such as strikes, demonstrations, lockouts and others are
not in accordance with the principles of industrial relations in Indonesia.
5)
Social Justice for All Indonesian People:
There is a balance between the rights and obligations of both parties in the company. This
balance is achieved not on the basis of power considerations, but on the basis of a sense
of justice and compliance. In further development, industrial relations in Indonesia is also
understood as a partnership relationship between actors in the production process of
goods and services merit, in practicing Pancasila and the National Accord.
B.
Industrial Relations Goals
Industrial relations have general and specific objectives.
1.
General Purpose:
The general objective of industrial relations in Indonesia is to carry out the ideals of
the Proclamation of Independence of the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1945,
namely to create a just and prosperous society based on Pancasila and the 1945
Constitution, and to participate in implementing world order based on independence,
lasting peace and social justice.
2.
Specific Objectives:
The specific objective of industrial relations in Indonesia is to achieve industrial
harmony and economic development.
The definition of work peace and progress tries to cover harmonious and dynamic conditions
in labor relations, and contains the following elements:
a.
The rights and obligations of all parties are guaranteed;
b.
Improved labor welfare, productivity and company progress
c.
When disputes arise, they are first resolved through deliberation and consensus.
d.
Strikes and lockouts are only used as a last resort.
C.
Elements of a Working Relationship :
According to Kertonegoro (1999), in general, the elements contained in the employment
relationship include:
1.
Actors: Workers, Employers, Government:
The actors in industrial relations consist of workers, employers, and the government.
Workers are laborers who work in employment relationships with employers as employers
by receiving wages. In this employment relationship, workers are often represented by
Trade Unions, especially in collective bargaining. In this case, a Workers' Union is an
independent, democratic, free, and accountable workers' organization formed from, by, and
for workers to fight for the rights and interests of workers and their families.
Entrepreneurs are:
a.
A natural person, partnership, or legal entity that operates a self-owned enterprise;
b.
A natural person, partnership, or legal entity that independently runs a company not its
own;
c.
A natural person, partnership, or legal entity residing in a country representing a
company domiciled outside the territory of that country.
In this case, a company is any form of business incorporated or not that employs
workers with the aim of seeking profit or not, owned by individuals, partnerships, or legal
entities, both private and state-owned.
The government is the authority that has the authority to regulate and supervise in the
field of labor. The government has an interest and role in creating safe, harmonious and
dynamic industrial relations.
The functions of the actors in Industrial Relations are as follows:
a.
The government has a role in setting policies, providing services, carrying out
supervision, taking action against violations of labor laws and regulations.
b.
Workers/laborers and trade unions can play a role in carrying out work in accordance
with their obligations, maintaining order for the continuity of production, channeling
aspirations democratically, developing their skills and expertise, advancing the
company, fighting for the welfare of members and their families.
c.
The function of employers and business organizations: to create partnerships, develop
businesses, expand employment, and provide welfare for workers/laborers in an open,
democratic and equitable manner.
2.
Collaboration: Management-Employee:
To ensure safe, harmonious and dynamic industrial relations, all actors must always
prioritize cooperation with each other based on partnership and mutual need. Such
cooperation must first occur between employers on the one hand and workers and labor
unions on the other, known as bipartite cooperation.
Broader cooperation involves the government as a policy maker, regulator, and
supervisor in the field of labor. Three-party cooperation: employers, workers, and
government is known as tripartite cooperation.
To ensure continuity and sustainability, these collaborations are institutionalized at the
central level, at the regional level and at the company level.
a.
Bipartite cooperation institution is a forum for communication, consultation, and
deliberation on industrial relations issues in companies whose members consist of
elements of employers and elements of workers.
b.
Tripartite cooperation institution is a forum for communication, consultation, and
deliberation in the framework of industrial relations whose members consist of
elements of employers, elements of workers, and elements of government.
3.
Collective Bargaining: Labor Agreement, Collective Labor Agreement, Company
Regulation
At the heart of industrial relations is collective bargaining, which is a negotiation
process that takes place between an employer, a group of employers or one or more
employers' organizations, on the one hand, and one or more trade unions, on the other:
a.
Determine working conditions and terms of employment; and/or
b.
Regulate the relationship between employers and workers; and/or
c.
Regulates the relationship between employers (employers) or their organizations and
trade unions (unions).
Negotiated issues include: wages, working hours, welfare programs, occupational
health and safety, leave, training, and education.
Collective bargaining is expected to produce a collective labor agreement (CLA) that at
least contains provisions regarding:
a.
Rights and obligations of employers;
b.
Rights and obligations of trade unions and workers;
c.
Company rules;
d.
Period of validity of the KKB;
e.
Effective date of the KKB
f.
Signature of the KKB maker.
Companies that have not been able to conduct collective bargaining and therefore do
not have a collective bargaining agreement (KKB) are obliged to have company
regulations made by employers, and authorized by the Government. A company regulation
(PP) contains provisions similar to a collective bargaining agreement collective bargaining,
but employers can enter into employment agreements. In this case, a work agreement is an
agreement between employers and employees orally and/or in writing, either for a certain
time or for an indefinite time, which contains working conditions, rights, and obligations of
the parties.
Employment agreements give rise to employment relationships in both the formal and
informal sectors.
a.
Formal sector employment is an employment relationship that exists between
employers and employees based on a work agreement, either for a certain time or for
an indefinite time, which contains the elements of work, wages, and orders.
b.
Informal sector work relations are work relations that exist between workers and
individuals or several people who carry out joint businesses that are not legal entities
on the basis of mutual trust and agreement by receiving wages and / or compensation
or profit sharing.
Collective agreements on wages tend to be valid for a certain period of time. Whereas
other agreements such as working conditions, benefits, and other matters are made valid
for an indefinite period. Generally, even in the absence of a specific term, an agreement
remains binding until such time as a request for new negotiations is made. In cases where
the agreement has a fixed term, it is usually for one or two years. Everything depends on
the stability of the economic situation. For example, in times of rapid inflation, any wage
agreement needs to be revised at least once a year, if not more frequently.
4.
Welfare: Wages, Social Security, Pensions, Occupational Safety and Health,
Cooperatives, Job Training
Workers' welfare is a fulfillment of physical and spiritual needs and/or necessities, both
during and outside of work relations, which directly and indirectly can increase work
productivity. This welfare includes wages, social security, pensions, occupational safety
and welfare, cooperatives.
Wages are the rights of workers received, and expressed in the form of money as
compensation from employers to workers for work or services that have been or will be
performed, determined, and paid according to a work agreement, agreement, or laws and
regulations, including benefits for workers and their families.
Labor social security is a protection for workers in the form of compensation in the
form of money, as a substitute for part of the lost or reduced income, and services as a
result of events or circumstances experienced by workers in the form of work accidents,
illness, pregnancy, maternity, old age, and death.
Pension is a periodic payment paid to workers since terminating employment with
pension rights due to reaching retirement age, permanent total disability, death. and / or
other requirements stipulated in pension regulations.
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is the protection, prevention, and mitigation of
the risks of accidents and illness in the workplace, including OSH education, OSH
facilities, and OSH medical personnel.
Cooperatives are legal entities formed by, from, and for workers to provide various
goods and services needed by workers at affordable prices.
Job training is the overall activity to provide, acquire, improve, and develop skills or
expertise, productivity, discipline, attitudes, and work ethic at a certain level of skills and
expertise in accordance with the levels and qualifications of positions or workers, both in
the formal sector and in the informal sector.
5.
Industrial Disputes: Abritation, Mediation, Strike, Company Closure, Termination of
Employment
Industrial disputes are disputes that arise between employers and employees or labor
unions or federations of labor unions due to disputes over interests, rights, termination of
employment, and disputes between labor unions.
a.
An interest dispute is a dispute arising from a lack of understanding regarding the
improvement of working conditions, working conditions, working relationships, and/or
labor conditions in general.
b.
Rights disputes are disputes arising from the non-exercise of rights based on laws and
regulations, collective labor agreements, company regulations, and/or work agreements.
c.
Termination of employment disputes are disputes resulting from the termination of the
employment relationship between employers and employees.
d.
Disputes between labor unions are disputes between other labor unions, due to a lack of
understanding regarding the implementation of labor-union rights and obligations, as
well as regarding the representation of workers in negotiations with employers.
Industrial disputes can be resolved through deliberation to reach consensus between the
disputing parties, or through arbitration, mediation, labor inspectors, or the Industrial
Dispute Settlement Committee/Body.
a.
Arbitration is the settlement of industrial disputes carried out by an arbitrator, who is a
person appointed by both parties to the dispute, and has the power to decide the dispute
authority to settle industrial disputes by arbitration.
b.
Mediation is a settlement of industrial disputes carried out by mediators, namely
technical employees with special skills from government agencies responsible for
manpower, who are appointed by the Minister of Manpower to conduct mediation.
c.
A labor inspector is a technical employee with special skills from the government
agency responsible for manpower appointed by the Minister of Manpower to supervise
and enforce the implementation of the law implementation of regulations in the field of
labor
d.
Industrial Dispute Settlement Committee/Body is a committee/body that examines and
decides industrial disputes.
Committee/Body Regional is committee/agency that examines and decides in the first
instance for disputes of interests and disputes termination of employment, as well as the
first level and the last level for rights disputes and disputes between trade unions. Center is
committee/body that examines and decides interest disputes and employment termination
disputes at the appeal level.
Industrial disputes can lead to strikes, company closures, and/or termination of
employment. Strikes by trade unions, and company closures by employers are instruments,
weapons, or means of last resort to emphasize the demands of each party.
a.
A strike is the act of workers collectively stopping or slowing down work as a result of
the failure of negotiations to resolve industrial disputes, so that employers meet the
demands of workers.
b.
A lock-out is an action by an employer to stop part or all of the company's activities as a
result of a settlement of an industrial dispute that does not reach an agreement, so that
workers do not make demands that exceed the company's capacity.
c.
Termination of employment is the termination of employment due to a certain reason
which results in the end of the rights and obligations of workers and employers.
D.
Industrial Relations at Indonesia:
In Indonesia, industrial relations are based on and imbued with the values of Pancasila.
Industrial relations are based on values that are a manifestation of all the precepts of Pancasila
and the 1945 Constitution, and which grow and develop on the national personality and
national culture of Indonesia and are based on the values contained in Pancasila.
The history of industrial relations in Indonesia cannot be separated from the history of the
nation's struggle. Therefore, the ups and downs of the stages of the nation's struggle have also
influenced the development of industrial relations in Indonesia.
During the independence movement, due to the influence of the political struggle at that
time, industrial relations were more oriented towards socio-political issues than socio-
economic issues. This was reflected in the Trade Union movement, which not only aimed to
protect the interests of its members, but also to fight for independence.
After Indonesia's independence, especially during the fifties, when Indonesia embraced
parliamentary democracy based on liberal democracy, industrial relations did not escape the
influence of this political system. This was reflected in the free development of various
ideologies that colored industrial relations, liberalism and communism, which is based on
class struggle according to Marxism.
During this period there was a complete lack of harmony both in the system and in the
daily practice of industrial relations. Settlement of differences of opinion by means of a
struggle between workers and employers was commonplace. Strikes and lockouts were two
weapons that were considered a human right to use. In this situation, it is very difficult to
create harmony and harmonious cooperation between workers and employers in the company.
The confrontational and antagonistic nature of the relationship between workers and
employers is exacerbated by the opposition and competition of Trade Unions within the
company. The principle of class power and opposition in industrial relations until the mid-
1960s grew in line with the dominance of SOBSI as the mantle of the Indonesian Communist
Party, culminating in the failed G-30-S/PKI uprising.
Since the beginning of the New Order government, especially since the end of the In the
1960s, the Indonesian government was determined to implement Pancasila and the 1945
Constitution purely and consequently. This means that every aspect of community and
national life needs to be organized in accordance with Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.
One aspect of community life is the system of life and relationships in the workplace,
commonly referred to as industrial relations. In December 1974, industrial relations leaders
from the government, employers, trade unions and scholars organized a National Seminar on
"Pancasila Industrial Relations as an Effort Towards Work Peace and Socio-Economic
Stability for National Development" in Jakarta. The seminar resulted in a National Consensus
in the form of a determination to develop a system of industrial relations based on the
philosophy of the Indonesian nation, namely Pancasila, which at that time was called
Pancasila Labor Relations (HPP). The seminar also formulated the main points of thought
regarding the HPP. As a follow-up to the consensus Several seminars, workshops and
discussions have been held to elaborate the main ideas of the HPP.
In 1981, a National Workshop on "Operational Improvement of Pancasila Labor
Relations" was held to conduct the first evaluation of the development of the implementation
of the HPPM, and at the same time formulate an elaboration of the main ideas of the HPP
based on seminars and discussions as well as the experience of implementing the HPP during
that time.
In 1984, the National Tripartite Cooperation Institute considered it necessary to formulate
a more detailed description of the COGS to serve as a guideline for all parties so as to avoid
differences in perception and interpretation regarding the understanding and implementation
of the COGS. For this reason, the National Tripartite Institute appointed a special tripartite
team to draft guidelines for the implementation of the HPP, which were then stipulated by the
National Tripartite Institute as guidelines for the implementation of the HPP. In addition to
drafting guidelines, the team also proposed changes to several terminology, namely: Pancasila
Labor Relations (HPP) to Pancasila Industrial Relations (HIP), laborers to workers, Collective
Labor Agreement (CLA) to Collective Labor Agreement (KKB). The change in terms was
intended to harmonize the term with the understanding of kinship and mutual cooperation in
Pancasila. The draft proposed by the special team was stipulated as a Joint Agreement in the
plenary session of the National Tripartite LK on June 17, 1985, which was later confirmed by
Minister of Manpower Decree No. Kep-645/Men/1985 dated June 17, 1985. Kep-
645/Men/1985 dated July 3, 1985.
RESEARCH
INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
A.
Definition Research:
According to Azwar (2010), research is a series of scientific activities in order to solve a
problem. The function of research is to find explanations and answers to problems and
provide alternatives to possibilities that can be used for problem solving. Research is further
defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in new and
creative ways so as to produce new concepts, methodologies, and understanding. It can
include synthesizing and analyzing previous research to the extent that it leads to new and
creative results.
B.
Classification of Research Methods :
According to Azwar (2010), research can be classified from various points of view,
including:
1.
Based on Research Approach:
a.
Research with a quantitative approach:
Quantitative research emphasizes its analysis on numerical data (numbers) processed by
statistical methods. Basically, the quantitative approach is carried out in inferential
research (in the context of hypothesis testing) and relies on the conclusion of the results
on an error probability of rejecting the null hypothesis. With quantitative methods, the
significance of group differences or the significance of the relationship between the
variables under study will be obtained. In general, quantitative research is a large
sample study.
b.
Research with a qualitative approach:
Research with a qualitative approach emphasizes its analysis on deductive and inductive
inference processes and on analyzing the dynamics of relationships between observed
phenomena, using scientific logic. This does not mean that the qualitative approach does
not use quantitative data support at all, but the emphasis is not on hypothesis testing but
on trying to answer research questions through formal ways of thinking and
argumentation. Many qualitative studies are small sample studies.
2.
Based on Depth of Statistical Analysis:
a.
Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research conducts analysis only to the level of description, namely
analyzing and presenting facts systematically so that they can be more easily understood
and concluded. The conclusions given are always clear in their factual basis, so
everything can always be returned directly to the data obtained. The description of the
conclusions is based on numbers that are not processed too deeply. Most of the data
processing is based on percentage analysis and trend analysis.
b.
Inferential Research:
Inferential research analyzes the relationship between variables by testing hypotheses.
Thus the research conclusions go far beyond the presentation of quantitative data alone.
In inferential research we can talk about the chances of error in making conclusions.
3.
Based on Problem Characteristics
According to Isaac & Michael, 1981; Azwar, 2010, functional categories of research
based on the characteristics of the problem can be grouped into several types, namely:
a.
Descriptive Research:
Aims to describe systematically and accurately the facts and characteristics about the
population or about a particular field. This research seeks to describe situations or
events. The data collected is solely descriptive so it does not intend to seek
explanations, test hypotheses, make predictions, or study implications. The most
popular example of descriptive research is survey research.
b.
Developmental research:
Aims to study the pattern and sequence of development and/or change, in line with
changes in time. It can be conducted longitudinally and cross-sectionally.
Developmental research centers on the study of variables and their changes over a
period of months or years, in an effort to obtain answers.
In longitudinal studies, the sample problem is usually complicated because not all
research subjects can be followed continuously over a period of years.
More subjects are involved in cross-sectional studies but the number of factors
affecting growth that can be analyzed is more limited. However, cross-sectional studies are
more time-efficient and less costly because the time span and less costly because the actual
developmental time span that needs to be studied can be shortened by sampling only
certain groups of time periods in view of the actual span. Complications can arise because
the samples of each age group are sampled numbers are very likely not truly comparable.
c.
Case Studies and Field Research:
The aim is to study intensively the background, current status, and environmental
interactions that occur in a social unit such as individuals, groups, institutions, or
communities.
A case study is an in-depth investigation of a social unit in such a way as to produce a
well-organized and complete picture of the social unit.
Compared to survey research which usually investigates a few variables over a large
sample, case studies instead investigate many variables and many conditions over a small
sample.
d.
Correlational Research:
Aims to investigate the extent to which variation in a variable is related to variation in
one or more other variables, based on the correlation coefficient. This research is suitable
when the variables studied are very complex and cannot be studied through experimental
methods or whose variations cannot be controlled.
With correlation studies, researchers can obtain information about the level of
relationship that occurs, not about the effect of one variable on another.
e.
Causal-Comparative Research:
Through Causal-comperative research, cause-and-effect relationships can be
investigated through observing consequences that have already occurred and looking back
at the data to find possible causal factors.
In essence, causal-comperative research is "ex post facto", meaning that data is
collected after all The event of interest occurs. Then the researcher selects one or more
effects and tests the data back through time, looking for causes, seeing relationships, and
understanding meanings.
f.
Experimental Research:
Conducted to examine the possibility of a cause-and-effect relationship between
variables by exposing an experimental group to several kinds of treatment conditions and
comparing the results with one or more control groups that are not subjected to treatment.
The researcher must be well aware of the limitations of this study and the extent of its
internal and external validity.
A unique feature of this research is the partial control method based on careful
identification of factors that are suspected to affect its internal validity and external
validity.
C.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology Research :
Research in the field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology is growing rapidly
according to the development of psychology and industry itself. Research conducted in the
field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology can use quantitative or qualitative
approaches. However, most research in the field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
uses quantitative research methods with inferential statistical analysis.
D.
Ethics Research:
According to Robbins (2003), researchers are not always tactful or straightforward with
subjects when they conduct their studies. For example, questions in field surveys may be
perceived as embarrassing by respondents or as an invasion into the sphere of respondents'
private lives. Also, researchers in laboratory studies have been known to deceive participants
about the true intentions of their experiments because they feel the deception is necessary to
get honest responses. The "learning experiment" conducted by Stanley Milgarm was widely
criticized by psychologists on ethical grounds. He lied to his subjects, telling them that his
study was investigating learning, when, in fact, he was concerned with compliance. The
electric shock machines he used were fake. Even the "students" were Milgram's accomplices
who had been trained to act as if they were injured and in pain.
According to Shaughnessy & Zechmeister (2007), good science requires good scientists.
The professional competence and integrity of scientists is essential to ensure high-quality
science. Maintaining the integrity of the scientific process is a shared responsibility of
individual scientists and the scientific community (represented by professional organizations
such as APA and APS). Each individual scientist has an ethical responsibility to seek
knowledge and work towards improving the quality of life.
Dienar and Crandall (in Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 2007) identify some specific
responsibilities based on this general mandate. Scientists should conduct research
competently, report results accurately, manage research resources honestly, recognize fairly,
in scientific communications, individuals who have contributed ideas or time and effort,
consider the consequences of any research work for society, making public pronouncements
on societal issues related to the scientist's knowledge and expertise
In attempting to fulfill these obligations, individual scientists face ethical issues and
questions that are challenging, and at times, ambiguous. To guide individual scientists in
making ethical decisions. The American Psychological Association (APA) has formulated a
Code of Ethics that "provides scientific principles and standards" (American Psychological
Association, 2002, p. 1062). These values are summarized in five General Principles:
Beneficence and Non-maleficence; Fidelity and Respnsibility; Integrity; Justice; and Respect
for People's Rights and Dignity. Based on these five general principles, the APA Code of
Ethics sets standards for ethical behavior for psychologists who conduct research or therapy,
teach, or act in administrative roles (see, American Psychological Association 2002). The
code concerns a wide range of issues such as sexual harassment, compensation for
psychological services, providing psychological advice to the public through the media, test
construction, and classroom teaching.
