TRANSFORMATIVE DECISION MAKING: LEVERAGING VROOM
AND YETTON’S MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP IN
COMPLEX ENVIRONMENTS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PSY 430 - INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WEEK 4
A.
Definition of Decision Making :
Every day individuals must have had the experience of making decisions, either for
themselves or for others. In solving problems, decision making will also be followed so that
solutions can be realized. Decision making includes identifying and selecting alternative
solutions that lead to desired interests (Kreitner and Kinicki, 2014). In general, decision
making can be interpreted as the act of choosing from two or more alternatives in a problem
situation at hand (Nasrudin, 2010).
Decision making is based on the choice of the best alternative based on consideration of
various factors. Identification and selection of alternatives will occur under a variety of
different conditions. There are at least three types of decision-making conditions, namely:
1)
in a state of clarity and certainty,
2)
in risky conditions, and
3)
under conditions of uncertainty.
In the first situation, the decision is made based on clear knowledge of the possible
outcomes associated with alternative courses of action. In the second situation, the decision is
made based on an action with the possibility of various known outcomes although in certain
cases there may be certain risks that are not yet clear. As for the third situation, the decision is
made without knowing clearly the results that may be obtained and the risks that will occur
(Nasrudin, 2010).
A decision is considered good if it has four main requirements, namely rational, logical,
realistic, and pragmatic. Rational, which means that it can be accepted by common sense
based on certain rules of reasoning. This means that a decision should have a clear and
explicit reasoning basis. Logically, this means that a decision should have a clear and explicit
reasoning basis logical among the elements involved, both content and process. Realistic,
meaning that every decision made should be in accordance with the circumstances and
conditions of the place and time. Pragmatic, meaning that it has practical value in its
application according to the situation and conditions (Nasrudin, 2010).
Decision-making must also be done contextually. Contextual, meaning in accordance with
existing situations and conditions, both time and place. This is because:
1)
decisions do not take place in a vacuum;
2)
decisions take place within the framework of organizational life;
3)
Decision-making is directly related to the achievement of predetermined organizational
goals and objectives;
4)
Decision-making involves various models, techniques and procedures that are universal,
but are applied by taking into account the situation, conditions;
5)
Decision-making in the final analysis is measured by its implementation (Nasrudin,
2010).
Based on the level, the decision has several types. Judging from the level, there are three
types of decisions, namely (Surya, 1994; Nasrudin, 2010):
(1)
Strategic, strategic decisions are decisions that are produced at a high level of
management with characteristics:
(a)
Comprehensive coverage, reaching far into the future,
(b)
Strong influence on all work units within the organization, and
(c)
An integral approach and a holistic paradigm.
(2)
Tactical and technical, Tactical and technical decisions are decisions at the middle
management level, which have characteristics:
(a)
Specific scope (departmental),
(b)
Medium timeframe,
(c)
A strong impact that is only felt in certain parts,
(d)
Sectoral approach, and
(e)
An incremental paradigm.
(3)
Operational decisions are decisions at the implementation level with
characteristics:
(a)
Narrow scope,
(b)
Short timeframe,
(c)
Effects that are only felt in certain work units, and
(d)
A particular approach and an optimal paradigm.
B.
Decision Making Model :
Individual decision-making model (Usman, 2013);
1)
Mintzberg, Drucker, and Simon Decision-Making Model The decision-making model
according to Mintzber, Drucker, and Simon (1976; Usman 2013) proposed three stages in
the decision-making process, namely;
(1)
The problem identification stage, at the identification stage, begins with decision
makers understanding the problems and opportunities in making a diagnosis.
(2)
Development stage, In this development stage, the search for available standard
procedures or problem solving as a new design by decision makers is carried out. In
this stage, there is sometimes a trial and error process.
(3)
Selection stage. At the selection stage, decision makers may choose or decide
through judgment, logical analysis, systematic basis, or bargaining.
Another opinion regarding this decision-making model was expressed by Drucker
(1993; Usman, 2013), who said that an organizational leader can take six steps in the
decision-making process, namely (1) defining the problem, (2) analyzing the problem, (3)
developing alternative solutions to the problem, (4) deciding on the best one, (5) planning
effective actions, and (6) monitoring and assessing the results.
While other opinions state that the decision-making process consists of three stages,
namely (1) activities intelligence, (2) design activities, and (3) selection activities.
Intelligence activities begin with scouting and identifying the situation and environmental
conditions carried out by decision makers. In the design activities, decision makers
decision makers discover, develop, and analyze the possibilities of the actions to be
taken. Next is the selection activity, where the decision maker chooses the best one from
a number of available alternatives (Simon, 1977; Usman, 2013).
From the three opinions described above, it can be concluded that the decision-
making process consists of three stages, namely (1) the stage involving the recognition,
determination, and diagnosis of problems; (2) the stage involving the development of
alternative problems; and (3) the stage involving evaluation and choosing the best
problem solving (Usman, 2013).
2)
Rational Decision Making Model:
The type of decision can be divided into two types, namely programmed decisions
(structured) and unstructured decisions (unstructured). Programmed decisions are
decisions that are always repeated (there are already clear rules and standards). For
example: the decision to raise a student's grade, the decision to appointments, decisions
on determining the salaries of new employees, retirement decisions, and so on.
Meanwhile, unprogrammed decisions are decisions taken to deal with complicated and or
new or unexpected situations. Examples: fire disaster management decisions, decisions to
overcome flooding, school collapses and so on. Unprogrammed decisions are also called
problem solving.
3)
Classic Decision Making Model:
The decision according to the classic decision-making model is a rational process
when a decision is made from one of the best alternatives. The classical decision-making
model is based on the concept of complete rationality. In accordance with the classic
decision-making model, the decision-making process is divided into six logical steps,
namely; (a) problem identification; (b) determining alternatives; (c) assessing
alternatives; (d) choosing alternatives; (e) implementing alternatives; (f) assessing
decisions.
4)
Behavioral Decision Making Model:
This behavioral decision-making model is based on how far the decision can provide
satisfaction. This decision-making model also considers decision-making on the basis of
contextual rationality and respective rationality. Contextual rationality means that
decisions are not only based on explicit provisions (textual), but also those that are
implied (contextual).
5)
Vroom and Yetton Decision Making Model (Decision Tree) :
Decision making model according to Vroom and Yetton (1973; Usman, 2013) have
model making decision-making model decision-making model that is simple and
practical so that it can determine the extent to which input or opinions from team
members can be used as decision-making material in various situations. The following
are the 5 decision-making styles suggested by Vroom and Yetton complete with the level
of participation of its team members.
a.
Decision-making style 1. The leader makes his own decisions using the information
available at the time where the opinions of his team members are not included.
b.
Decision-making style 2. Leaders get information from their team members but still
solve the problem themselves. The leader does not tell team members what the
problem is when asking them for information, the expected role of team members is
only as a source of information and not to assume or contribute to providing
alternative solutions. In this style, the participation of team members is low.
c.
Decision-making style 3. The leader includes the team members concerned with the
problem and asks for their ideas and suggestions individually. Then a new decision
is made, either alone or without the influence and suggestions of his team members.
In this style the participation of team members is moderate.
d.
Decision-making style 4. The leader includes team members as a group to get ideas
and suggestions from them. Then makes his own decisions with the influence and
suggestions of team members. In this style the participation of team members is
high.
e.
Decision-making style 5. The leader engages team members as a group in problem
solving. Come together to develop and evaluate alternatives and try to reach
consensus. You as the leader play the role of chairperson. The leader is not allowed
to influence the group with what to decide and is willing to accept and implement
any group decisions. In this style, the participation of team members is very high.
6)
Carnegie Decision Making Model:
This decision-making model recognizes complacency, the limits of rationality, and
organizational coalitions.
7)
Chung and Megginson's Leadership Style Decision-Making Model:
The decision-making model according to Chung and Megginson (1981; Usman,
2013) proposes a way of making decisions by leaders by making the following six
questions: (1) Is the group task structured? (2) Is the relationship between the leader and
subordinates good? (3) Do subordinates have work knowledge? (4) Does the leader have
a strong position of power? (5) Does the leader have work knowledge? (6) Does the
group have time to complete the task?
Each question asked has two answer options, namely "yes" or "no". Based on the
various variations of answers, the leadership behavior to be taken by the leader is
obtained.
8)
Benefits-based Decision Making Model:
The benefits-based decision-making model has 6 rationales, namely: (1) decision
quality, (2) decision creativity, (3) decision acceptance, (4) decision understanding,
(5) decision consideration, and (6) decision accuracy.
Decision quality means that group knowledge and information exceeds individual
knowledge and information. This means that the group can overcome or make up for
weaknesses and weaknesses individual shortcomings. The assumption is that group
decisions are of higher quality than individual decisions.
Decision creativity means that group creativity is more and tends to be better than
individual creativity. Decision acceptance means that group decision-making is more
beneficial because it is more accepted by the group than decisions made individually.
Decision understanding means that the group will better understand the decisions it
makes together than understand decisions made individually.
The symptoms of changes in responsibility that can occur are: (1) the group spreads
its responsibility to the members, (2) the group leader is more at risk than the members,
and invites the members to be even more at risk, (3) group discussions test the pros and
cons, consequently the sense of kinship is greater in all aspects of the problem and leads
to high risk, and (4) risk in society is expected by our culture. If society is to progress.
Over-commitment can also interfere with group decisions as not all members enjoy
working hard.
9)
Field-based Decision Making Model:
This decision-making model is most widely used in school settings because it seeks to
involve the participation of the school community in making decisions. Four important
techniques in field-based decision-making are (1) brainstorming, (2) nominal group
technique, (3) Delphi technique, (4) advocates who challenge what is considered good.
Polling steps: (1) before the poll, determine the topic; (2) each member is responsible
for his/her speech; (3) each member expresses his/her opinion in turn until all have given
their opinion; (4) members who have not given their opinion can declare "pass" until the
next opportunity; (5) do not comment on other people's opinions; (6) if someone
comments, the chairperson must stop it; (7) it will be faster if the opinion is written down;
(8) if there are no more opinions, the brainstorming is declared over; (9) the same
opinions are grouped; (10) the nominated opinions are scrutinized and discussed; (11) if
not If there is a consensus to decide on the best opinion, then a vote is held.
The nominal group technique is similar to brainstorming. The difference is that ideas
must be evaluated first and then grouped. The Delphi technique was developed by
researchers at the Rand Corporation in the 1960s. The Delphi technique complements the
nominal group technique which does not meet face-to-face, but through mail or the
internet.
Advocates who challenge what is considered good, use the concept of groupthink
deterrents. Initially considering the groupthink to be premature, they can eliminate the
groupthink. Once the group has decided on the best alternative, the devil's advocate
teaches the failures that will be experienced if the alternative is adopted. Although the
devil group is considered as an opposition, it is often used by people to make decisions
because after being corrected, the decision maker improves his decision for the better.
10)
Problem Tree Decision Making Model:
The problem tree decision-making model is a technique for identifying problems in a
given situation, by organizing and demonstrating this information as a series of causal
relationships. The process can start with a specific problem or need to be solved. Then
note all the other problems that are identified.
Brainstorming techniques can be used or each problem identified can be posed with
the questions: what is the cause of this problem? What is the effect of this problem? Then
arrange the identified problems in a logical cause and effect relationship in the form of a
tree. When completed, arrange them like a simple organizational ladder chart. The
essence of the problem statement should be short, clear and negative. Example of a
problem tree: the priority problem is poor education management.
The next step after the problem tree has been created, is to create a goal tree. A goal
tree is a technique for identifying goals to be realized. A goal tree is the opposite of a
problem tree, i.e. a negative statement on the problem tree is consistently replaced with
positive statements in the goal tree. A goal in the goal tree is the result of another goal.
The cause and effect between the targets that have been determined are then compiled
into a target tree. With limited organizational resources, the target tree needs to be
analyzed to determine which branches will have the greatest impact on the organizational
unit. The more leafy the problem tree and the target tree, the closer to reality. Goals are
expressed in sentences that state that they are completed (achieved). Therefore, the
sentence begins with the prefix `ter`. It is also important that the goal meets the SMART
requirement which stands for specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and time bound.
Specific means that the goal must be unique. Measurable means that the goal to be
achieved can be measured, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Attainable means that it
can be achieved. Realistic means that it can be realized. Time bounding means there is a
time limit on when to start and when to finish.
The next step after the goal tree is completed, is to create an alternative tree. An
alternative tree is a technique for identifying or developing alternative problem-solving or
courses of action that can be used to realize a particular goal and demonstrating this
information in a simple format.
Re-examine the goal tree in the bottom row of boxes to determine which alternative
branches are most likely to ensure the achievement of the higher goals above. For clarity,
take the example of creating strong educational leadership. Fill in the activities to achieve
strong leadership in at least two ways.
11)
Hunger and Wheelen's Strategic Decision Making Model Strategic decision making
is a long-term decision.
long term. For example, the long term in the provincial, district and city governments is
five years so that the strategic planning (renstra) is valid for five years However, the
definition of long term in the world of education is four years up to 10 years. Medium-
term is one year to 4 years and short-term is one year.
C.
Decision Making Process:
Appropriate decision-making can be made by going through several stages. Decision
making is carried out after the problems faced are clearly identified and formulated.
According to Surya, (1994; Nasrudin, 2010) in the decision-making process, there are four
main stages, namely:
1)
Alternative Identification:
In this stage, various alternative actions that can be taken in accordance with the problem
at hand and the objectives are outlined to be achieved. To identify these alternatives,
there are several techniques that can be developed, including;
a.
Brainstorming,
b.
Synectics,
c.
Nominal grouping, and
d.
Delphi.
2)
Alternative Evaluation:
Once these alternatives have been identified, the next step is to evaluate each alternative
to determine the one that has the greatest likelihood of solving the problem and achieving
the goal. Some of the techniques typically used in this step are:
a.
Probability theory using payoff matrix and decision tree techniques,
b.
Queuing theory,
c.
Linear programming, and
d.
Simulation.
3)
Alternative Selection:
In this step, it is decided to choose one alternative that is considered the most appropriate
based on the evaluation carried out in the second stage.
4)
Implementation and Evaluation:
In this step, the decisions made in step three are implemented. Next, an evaluation is
conducted to obtain feedback on the effectiveness of the decisions that have been made.
D.
Constraints on Decision Making :
In practice, the decision-making process and its implementation often face various obstacles,
both due to rational and nonrational factors. Some of the obstacles in decision-making
include:
a.
Constraints that originate from the decision maker, such as personality characteristics,
management and leadership styles, intelligence, and so on;
b.
"Ghosts" of past failures;
c.
Inappropriate understanding of the role of information;
d.
Excessive consultation;
e.
Uncertainty factor;
f.
Group engagement as a constraint;
g.
Role ambiguity;
h.
Inertia or laziness;
i.
Lack of time management skills;
j.
Stress factors in the decision maker;
k.
Pressure factors from the environment.
E.
Ethics in Making Decisions:
In making decisions, it is necessary to pay attention to ethics both in making and
implementing decisions later. There are three ethical decision criteria according to Robbins
and Judge (2015). The first ethical measure is (1) utilitarianism, which proposes decision
making based solely on outcomes, ideally to provide the most good in the greatest amount.
This view dominates business decision-making consistent with goals such as efficiency,
productivity, and high profits.
The second ethical criterion is (2) making decisions consistent with fundamental freedoms
and rights, such as those enshrined in the charter of rights. An emphasis on rights in decision-
making means respecting and protecting the fundamental rights of individuals, such as the
rights to privacy, free speech, and due process. This criterion protects whistle-blowers,
individuals who report unethical practices by their employers to outsiders.
The third criterion is (3) embedding and promoting rules in a fair and neutral manner to
ensure fairness or equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Union members generally favor
this view. It is fair to pay people the same wage for the same work regardless of performance
differences and to use seniority as the primary determinant in layoff decisions (Robbins and
Judge, 2015).
Each criterion has advantages and liabilities. A focus on utilitarianism encourages
efficiency and productivity, but it can infringe on the rights of some individuals, particularly
those with minority representation. The use of rights protects individuals from injury and is
consistent with freedom and privacy, but it can create a legalistic environment that reduces
productivity and efficiency. A focus on fairness protects the interests of the underrepresented
and less powerful, but can encourage a sense of ownership that reduces risk-taking,
innovation, and productivity (Robbins and Judge, 2015).
F.
Bias in Decision Making :
Decision making is an action that will often be carried out by individuals, especially if
they have a managerial position at work. In its application, it is not uncommon for common
mistakes to be made by individuals due to several biases during the decision-making process.
The following are biases according to Robbins and Judge (2015);
1)
Overconfidence bias:
An individual's tendency to be overconfident in their ideas can result in not planning how
to avoid problems that arise. Recent research has concluded that individuals tend to be
overconfident in their abilities and the abilities of others. Usually individuals who have
the weakest intellectual and interpersonal intelligence are most likely to overestimate
their performance and abilities.
2)
Anchor Bias:
Anchoring bias is the tendency to hang on to early information and fail to adjust
adequately to later information. Anchoring is widely used by people in professions where
persuasive expertise is important such as advertising, management, politics, luxury
housing, and law.
3)
Confirmation Bias:
The rational decision-making process assumes individuals gather information objectively,
but instead individuals gather information selectively. Confirmation bias is the tendency
to seek information that justifies past choices and to discount information that challenges
past judgments. Individuals tend to accept at face value information that confirms their
original views, but are skeptical of information that challenges them. Individuals even
tend to seek out sources that are most likely to give them what they want to hear, and
individuals give too much weight to information that supports and too little to that which
opposes.
4)
Availability Bias:
Availability bias is the tendency of individuals to base judgments on readily available
information. Recent research indicates that a combination of readily available information
and an individual's direct experience with the same information in particular greatly
impacts the individual's decision-making. Availability bias may also explain why
managers give more weight in performance appraisals to a worker's recent behavior than
to behavior 6 or 9 months earlier.
5)
Escalation of Commitment:
Escalation of commitment refers to an individual's persistence with a decision despite
clear evidence that it is wrong. The tendency to escalate commitment is often due to an
increase in nonrational reasons.
6)
Random Error:
Random error is the tendency of individuals to believe that they are able to predict the
outcome of random events.
7)
Risk Aversion:
Risk aversion is the tendency to prefer a medium amount of certainty over a riskier
outcome, even if the riskier outcome has a higher expected payoff. Trying to cover up
mistakes rather than admitting mistakes. Stressful situations can make risk aversion
stronger. People are more likely to engage in risk-seeking behavior for negative
outcomes, and risk-averse behavior for positive outcomes, when under pressure.
8)
Retrospection Bias:
Retrospective bias is the tendency to incorrectly believe, after the outcome of an event is
actually known, that one would have been able to accurately predict it.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
A.
Definition Communication:
The definition of communication etymologically comes from Latin, namely
communication. The term comes from the word "communis" which means the same; meaning
the same meaning or the same meaning (Suryanto, 2015). Meanwhile, Usman (2013) states
that "Communicate", also means sharing something with someone, exchanging, talking about
something with someone, telling something to someone, having a conversation, exchanging
ideas, connecting and making friends.
Communication is a process where a person or group acts as the sender who sends some
type of information (the message) to someone or another group (the receiver) (Greenberg and
Baron, 2003; Wibowo, 2013). to another person or group (the receiver) (Greenberg and
Baron, 2003; Wibowo, 2013). Opinion another opinion from Colquitt, LePine, and Wesson
(2011) reveals that communication is the process of conveying information, meaning or
meaning from the sender (sender of the message) to the receiver (receiver of the
message).Meanwhile, according to Kreitner and Kinicki, (2010) communication is the
exchange of information between the sender of the message (sender) and the receiver of the
message (receiver) and then produce conclusions as a perception of the meaning of the
message that has been sent.
conveyed by both the sender and receiver.
The nature of communication is the process of stating messages between humans in the
form of thoughts, ideas, ideas, opinions, and or feelings of one person to another using
language as a messaging tool. In the "language" of communication the statement is called a
message (massage), the person who conveys the message is called the communicator
(communicator), while the person who receives the statement is called the communicant
(communicate / communicant).
If analyzed, communication messages consist of two aspects, namely the content of the
message and the symbol. The content of the message is thoughts or feelings, while the symbol
is language. Thoughts and feelings as the content of the message conveyed communicators to
communicants are always integrated because theoretically, it is impossible for only thoughts
or feelings to be dominant.
Communication occurs when there is a common meaning about a message conveyed by
the communicator and received by the communicant. Communicative situations can be in the
form of speeches, lectures, sermons, and other both oral and written communication situations
(Suryanto, 2015).
Based on the understanding that has been explained above, it can be concluded that
communication is the process of exchanging messages between humans in the form of ideas,
opinions, and or feelings using language as a medium.
B.
Form Communication:
Effective communication is communication that is tailored to its communication
objectives. Understanding the form of communication aims to distinguish between one form
of communication and another with the aim of the effectiveness of communication messages,
especially on the target and the media used to convey messages in accordance with the desired
communication objectives (Suryanto, 2015).
Forms of communication can be divided into :
1)
Personal communication, consisting of :
a.
Intrapersonal communication:
The first form of communication is intrapersonal or intrapersonal communication,
meaning the process of using language or thoughts that occur within the communicator,
between oneself. Intrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of the
individual in the symbolic processing of messages produced through the individual's
internal thought processes. In intrapersonal communication, an individual is both the
sender and receiver of messages, providing feedback to themselves in an ongoing internal
process. Intrapersonal communication can be a trigger for forms of communication
others. Knowledge of the personal self through psychological processes such as
perception and awareness occurs during intrapersonal communication by the
communicator (Suryanto, 2015).
Understanding when communicating arises if individuals can understand themselves
and their interlocutors. This understanding can be obtained through the process of
perception. Basically, the location of perception is on the person who perceives, not on
the expression or object. Activities of intrapersonal communication that are carried out
daily in an effort to understand oneself, including prayer, gratitude, self-introspection by
reviewing actions, daydreaming, imagining or planning activities to be carried out,
including conscience reactions, utilizing free will, creative imagination, and so on
(Suryanto, 2015).
In the context of intrapersonal communication, we will find The way a person receives
information, processes it, stores it, and re-generates it as an ongoing process. The
information processing process is referred to as intrapersonal communication, including
sensation, perception, memory, and thinking (Suryanto, 2015).
b.
Interpersonal communication:
The second form of communication is interpersonal communication which is the
process of delivering messages from one person to another. According to this
understanding, communication is associated with the exchange of meaningful
information and must bring results between the people who communicate. Interpersonal
communication is defined by Mulyana (2000 in Suryanto, 2015) as communication
between people face-to-face, which allows each participant to capture the reactions of
others directly, both verbally and nonverbally.
A special form of interpersonal communication is dyadic communication which
involves only two people, such as a teacher and a student. Such communication It shows
that the communicating parties are in close proximity, sending and receiving messages,
both verbal and nonverbal simultaneously and spontaneously (Suryanto, 2015).
c.
Transcendental communication:
Transcendental communication can be broadly interpreted as a communication
process between humans and their creator, namely God Almighty. For example, prayer,
and various forms of prayer requests that humans offer to God (Suryanto, 2015).
Dedy Mulyana (2004; Suryanto, 2015), an expert in communication science, says that
this form of communication is the least discussed in the discipline of communication
science, but it is the most important form of communication for humans.
2)
Group communication:
A group is a group of people who have a common goal who interact with each other to
achieve a common goal, know each other, and see them as part of the group (Mulyana, 2005;
Suryanto, 2015).
Burgoon (1994; Suryanto, 2015) defines group communication as face-to-face interaction
between three or more people, with known goals, such as information sharing, self-
preservation, problem solving, whose members can remember the personal characteristics of
other members precisely. The two definitions above have something in common, namely the
existence of face-to-face communication, communication participants are more than two
people, and have a certain arrangement of work plans to achieve group goals.
3)
Mass communication:
Mass communication is a communication process using mass media. The dynamics now
make mass media and advertising and marketing communication go in a new direction that is
much different from before. Joseph R. Dominick (2000; Suryanto, 2015) defines
communication as Mass as a process in which a complex organization with the help of one or
more machines produces and transmits messages to a large, heterogeneous, and dispersed
audience.
Rakhmat (2004; Suryanto, 2015) defines mass communication as a type of
communication aimed at a number of dispersed, heterogeneous and anonymous audiences,
through print or electronic media so that the same message can be received simultaneously
and instantaneously. The simplest definition of mass communication was put forward by
Bitner, namely as a message communicated through mass media to a large number of people
(Rakhmat, 1999; Suryanto, 2015).
According to Elizabeth-Noelle Neuman (1974; Suryanto, 2015), if the mass
communication system is compared with interpersonal communication, technically there are
several characteristics of mass communication that distinguish it from interpersonal
communication. First, it is indirect, meaning that it must go through technical media. Second,
it is one-way (one flow communication), meaning that there is no interaction between
communication participants. Third, it is open, meaning that it is addressed to an unlimited and
anonymous public. Fourth, it has a geographically dispersed public element (Rakhmat, 1999
in Suryanto, 2015).
C.
Communication in Organizations :
In organizations, communication occurs for the sake of interaction and the exchange of
work-related information. Organizational communication according to Robbins and Judge
(2011; Wibowo, 2013) will be carried out in the form of formal networks, through the
grapevine and through electronic communication.
1)
Formal Small-Group Networks :
The exchange of information in organizations through formal networks for small groups
according to Robbins and Judge can be in the form of Chain, Wheel, and All channels.
The effectiveness of some of these formal networks the various depending on criteria
(speed, accuracy, emergence of a leader, and member satisfaction). A more distributed
communication network structure is described by Colquitt, LePine and Wesson (2011;
Wibowo, 2013).
The above opinion can be described as follows:
a.
The Chain, defined as the process of information exchange within the organization
rigidly follows a formal chain of command.
b.
The Wheel can be defined as the process of exchanging information within an
organization by relying on a central figure to act as a conduit for all group
communication.
c.
The All channel, defined as the process of information exchange within the
organization that allows all members to actively communicate with each other.
d.
The Circle and Y are communication network structures that fall between the
extremes of the degree of centralization.
2)
The Grapevine:
Gossip or grapevine is an unstructured and informal network of information exchange
found to be more related to social relationships than organizational structure or task
descriptions. Gossip spreads information very quickly to everyone throughout the
organization. The grapevine or gossip spreads through informal social networks, so it
becomes more active in workers who have similar backgrounds so that they can
communicate easily (McShane and Von Glinow, 2010 in Wibowo, 2013). Some gossip
may contain true information because it is spread through direct or face-to-face
communication so that workers are motivated to communicate effectively. However,
grapevine or gossip can distort information by omitting details and only incorporating the
core information.
A grapevine or gossip that is a network of information is not structured has clear
advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages are that (a) workers can obtain
information from the grapevine or gossip if the information is not available through
formal channels, (b) gossip or the grapevine can also be used as a source of information.
(c) the social interaction that occurs through gossip will free employees from anxiety so
that rumors can spread quickly during uncertainty, and (d) gossip or grapevine
encourages many employees to get involved in it by being a recipient of gossip is a sign
of involvement (Wibowo, 2013).
However, gossip or the grapevine is not considered a more desirable communication
medium because: (a) the distortion of information that often occurs, which increases
worker anxiety, (b) workers may show a more negative attitude towards the organization
if management is slower than gossip or grapevine in communicating information
(Wibowo, 2013).
There are several suggestions that can be given to organizational leaders in dealing
with grapevine or gossip, namely considering gossip or grapevine as a signal of worker
anxiety and evaluating the cause of the anxiety. The most important suggestion is that
leaders should view gossip or grapevine as a warning and challenge by providing
information to workers directly before the gossip spreads (Wibowo, 2013).
3)
Electronic Communications:
There are many types of electronic communication that are growing rapidly these
days in the form of e-mail, text massaging, networking software, blogs, and video
conferencing. Organizational communication is divided into two namely Formal
communication and Informal communication (Kreitner and Kinicki, 2010 in Wibowo,
2013);
a.
Formal communication channel:
Formal communication channels are communication channels that follow the chain of
command or organizational structure. Messages communicated through formal channels
are seen as official information and are disseminated through vertical, horizontal and
external channels within the organization.
(1)
Vertical communication is a channel of information between individuals at different
levels of position. In this channel, distortion Communication is most likely to occur
if information is passed through several levels of the organization before it is finally
received by the recipient of the message. There are two types of vertical
communication, which can be Upward communication (upward communication) or
Downward communication (downward communication).
a)
Upward communication is concerned with sending messages to someone at a
higher level in the organization. Workers will usually communicate upward
when they want to convey information about themselves, problems with
colleagues, work practices in the organization, and organizational rules that they
do not understand or do not like, and results that have or have not been achieved
by employees.
b)
Downward communication is downward communication that usually occurs
when someone at a higher level in the organization sends information or
messages to someone at a lower level. Managers generally provide five types of
information through downward communication: strategies/goals, job
instructions, job rationales, organizational policies and practices, and
performance feedback (Wibowo, 2013).
(2)
Horizontal communication is a communication channel that flows between
coworkers and between different work units so that coordination is needed. During
horizontal communication, workers share information and carry it out properly,
coordinate work activities and schedules, solve problems that arise, offer solutions
and coaching, and solve problems together (Wibowo, 2013).
(3)
External communication is a two-way information channel between workers and
various stakeholders outside the organization related to the progress of the
organization. External stakeholders include customers, suppliers,
shareholders/owners, labor unions, government officials, communities, and so on.
Some organizations also establish a formal department to focus on public or
community relations to coordinate communication with external stakeholders
(Wibowo, 2013).
b.
Informal Communication Channels :
Informal communication channels are information channels that do not follow the chain
of command or organizational structure. Communication that occurs can be done
bypassing management levels and cutting through lines of authority. Informal
communication in organizations involves grapevine and management by walking.
around (Wibowo, 2013).
(1)
The grapevine is the unofficial communication channel of informal organizations and
includes all types of communication media. People who consistently pass on
grapevine information to others are called Liaison Individuals. In contrast, those who
use the grapevine to increase their power and status are called organizational moles.
(2)
Management by walking around is an informal information channel that occurs when
managers walk around the organization and informally talk to people from different
departments and levels. This is an effective way of communicating because workers
prefer to get information directly from their managers (Wibowo, 2013).
D.
Communication Media in Organizations
Important information in the organization must be disseminated to all workers to get
agreement and commitment to the rules that must be applied to underlie all activities in the
organization. Therefore, the delivery of information in the organization requires a medium to
channel it effectively. According to Terry and Gie (1960; 1996 in Uha, 2015), the way
relationships in organizations can be carried out through the following media;
1)
Special interview.
2)
Meetings work, conference or meeting all organizational members or employees in an
organization/company.
3)
Phone conversation.
4)
Publishing, such as a daily newsletter published by an organization or company for
workers or a magazine, book, manual, guidebook, mandate brochure from the head of the
organization, or other special publications.
5)
Circular letter.
6)
Notice board.
7)
Annual report plaque of the members of an organization or employees in a company.
8)
Letters sent directly to employees.
9)
Movies, slides, and other similar tools.
