SCIENTIFIC FRAMEWORK OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PHI 307 - PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
WEEK 7
A.
Definition Ethics:
Ethics comes from the Greek ethos with its plural form (ta etha), which means habit. Ethics
is often paired and known with the word "moral" or "morality" which comes from Latin,
namely mos with its plural form (mores), where the meaning is also the same, namely
habits. Sumaryono (1995) suggests the meaning of ethics, according to him ethics comes
from the Greek Ethos which means good customs.
Matching the meaning of ethics with morals is not wrong, but it is less precise. This is
because ethics has a broader meaning than morals. Ethics means not only limited to a
person's behavior but also includes the motives for doing so. Morals, on the other hand, are
limited to one's outward behavior.
Indonesians have their own habit of referring to ethics as "susila" or "kesusilaan".
Decency comes from Sanskrit, which consists of two syllables, su and sila. The word su
means good, beautiful, lovely. While sila has the meaning of manners, behavior, adab
(manners and so on), morals, morals. From the two meanings of these syllables, it can be
concluded that "Susila" is a behavior or action that is good and in accordance with the
norms and rules that exist in social life.
In Islam, ethics is part of morals. This is because it is not only related to human actions
outwardly but also its relationship with creed, worship, and sharia, therefore it has a wider
scope than the definition of ethics stated earlier. Abdullah Salim argues that in Islam there
are Islamic morals including the following things:
1.
Ethos, which regulates one's relationship with his Creator, al ma'bud bi haq and the
completeness of uluhiyah and rubbubiyah, such as towards Allah's messengers, his
Book, and so on;
2.
Ethical, which governs one's attitude towards himself and towards others in his daily
life;
3.
Morals, which regulate relationships with others, but are of different types and/or
concern the honor of each person;
4.
Aesthetics, a sense of beauty that encourages a person to improve himself and his
environment, to make it more beautiful and towards perfection.
By following the explanation of the Big Indonesian Dictionary which is deemed unable
to explain comprehensively, K. Bertens tries to explain the meaning of ethics again by
stating that ethics can be distinguished in three meanings, namely:
1.
Ethics in the sense of values and moral norms that guide a person or group in regulating
their behavior. Examples include Indian ethics, Buddhist ethics, and Protestant ethics.
2.
Ethics in the sense of a collection of moral principles or values. An example is a
profession's code of ethics.
3.
Ethics as the science of good and bad. The latter is synonymous with ethics as a branch
of philosophy.
The first and second definitions of ethics in K. Bertens' explanation actually refer to the
same definition of ethics, namely ethics as a value system. If we talk about the ethics of the
legal profession, we are also talking about the value system that guides a professional
group, regarding what is good and bad according to the values of that profession. Usually
these values are formulated in a written norm, which is then called a code of ethics. So, it is
quite clear that ethics is defined in two ways, namely: ethics as a value system and ethics as
a science, or more strictly as a branch of philosophy.
B.
Reasons, Objectives, and Benefits of Studying Ethics:
Every legal subject must be subject to the law. If the person concerned is found to have
violated the law, then the entire legal process must be carried out under the jurisdiction of
the applicable legal system. Thus, the ethical consequence of the absence of choice for legal
patients is a very high demand for professional ethical observance for those in the legal
profession. The intensity of this obedience is even higher than any profession in the world,
including when compared to the medical profession which is as old as the legal profession.
People in the legal profession who dare to violate their professional ethics not only hurt the
sense of justice of individuals and society, but also harm the legal system of the country as a
whole.
Against this background, the ethics of the legal profession becomes very important to
study, despite the fact that there are moral teachings (for example, religious teachings) that
also teach goodness. The presence of ethics, including professional ethics, remains
necessary for the following reasons:
1.
We live in an increasingly pluralistic society, also in the moral field, so we are confused
about which morality to follow.
2.
Modernization brought about major changes in the needs and value structure of society
which consequently challenged traditional moral views.
3.
There are various ideologies that offer themselves as guides to life, each with its own
teachings on how humans should live.
4.
Ethics are also needed by religious people who, on the one hand, need to find a basis for
stability in their faith, and on the other hand, want to participate fearlessly and
unapologetically in all dimensions of life in a changing society.
Magnis-Suseno's last note emphasizes that although moral teachings in religion already
exist, ethics and professional ethics still play an equally important role. This is because
religion itself requires ethical skills in order to provide orientation and not just
indoctrination. Four things that underlie ethics in religion are as follows:
1.
Ethics can help in exploring the rationality of religious morality as an example in the
question, "why does God command this, not that?".
2.
Ethics helps in interpreting conflicting religious teachings.
3.
Ethics can help apply religious moral teachings to new problems in human life.
4.
Ethics can help in interfaith dialog because it is based on rational argumentation rather
than revelation.
Because the journey of the legal profession is a very dynamic journey, it is clear that in
practice new things will be found that are not fully resolved only through the approach of
religious moral teachings. The ethics of the legal profession, with all the basics of
rationality behind it, will be very helpful in opening a solution that can be accepted by all
parties from various circles.
Meanwhile, the purpose of studying ethics is to get the concept of good and bad human
judgment in accordance with applicable norms. The definition of good is all good actions,
while the definition of bad is all actions that are despicable. The benchmarks that make the
applicable norms as guidelines are inseparable from the nature of the existence of norms.
The norm itself is to create an order and regularity in one's behavior in society.
A society with a high level of order and regularity can be created if each individual who
is part of the community can carry out the ethics as agreed upon in the group regarding
ethics or good and bad actions that should be done and not done. This can be exemplified by
a common ethic that is universally recognized as a bad thing, namely stealing. Stealing is a
bad act and not in accordance with ethics. If someone commits the act of stealing, it will
damage the order and regularity that exists in a society, where the rights of someone (the
victim) that should be enjoyed by himself but taken away by others (the perpetrator). In this
case, the purpose of ethics has been ignored by the perpetrator, causing disorder.
In addition to an ethic that is generally adopted by all human beings in the world, there
is also an ethic that only applies to a certain group. Which means that the good and bad
values are limited to the group that recognizes and agrees on them. For example, Javanese
people are said to be ethical (have ethics) if eating is done sitting down, if it is violated it
will be considered unethical and considered bad. However, this does not necessarily apply
to groups outside the Javanese community. Another example of ethics being equated with
morality is that for Indonesians, if a man and woman who do not have a family relationship
or even marriage live in the same house, it will be said that they are committing an unethical
or immoral act (in Indonesia it is known as cohabitation). The reason for such a label is the
culture that has been agreed either directly or developed as a habit since the ancestors of the
Indonesian people stated that such actions are prohibited by custom and are considered
unethical. However, this is considered normal behavior for western culture with its
modernization era. Men and women can live in the same house even though there is no legal
marriage relationship, there are even certain countries that allow their citizens to have
children without a legal marriage under the law applicable. This adheres to the guideline
that each individual is free and free to do anything for himself as long as it does not offend
the rights of others.
From the explanation of the reasons behind and the purpose of studying ethics, we come
to the function of studying ethics itself. Ethics serves to be used as a guideline in conducting
behavior, being a limitation on an act whose function is to create a peace for individuals as
the smallest element in society. Peace can be created if a group first succeeds in achieving
the purpose of studying ethics itself as explained earlier, namely so that individuals can
maximally strive for the creation of justice. If justice can be achieved then each individual
will not feel something that can interfere with his life, this is then what is defined as
serenity. A harmonious, peaceful, organized, orderly, and prosperous life atmosphere will
also be created.
C.
Object of Discussion Ethics:
It has been explained that the subject matter of ethics is human morality. Previously, it has
also been mentioned that the unit of morality is morals. Moral itself is one of the social
norms, or to borrow the term of Hens Kelsen, moral is the regulation of internal behavior. If
morality is a norm, then it certainly contains values because norms are the concretization of
values.
Every human behavior or action must be related to the norms or ethical values that
apply in society, so it can be said that human behavior, whether directly observable or not,
can be used as a review material, a place of assessment of the norms that apply in society.
Actions become objects when ethics attempts or applies value theory.
The combination of value and action as its implementation results in something called
morals or decency. Actions that can be associated with ethical values are:
1.
Actions by oneself whether conscious or not.
2.
Actions influenced by others can be in the form of suggestions, advice, counsel,
pressure, coercion, warnings, or threats.
According to Achmad Amin's opinion, the act referred to as the object of ethics is a
conscious act either by oneself or the influence of others based on free will and
accompanied by an inner intention.
D.
History Ethics:
Humans as individuals who are one of the elements with a very important role in life
besides having advantages, namely the mind of the fruit of their intelligence, but the reality
is that a human being cannot essentially live alone. As stated by one of the Greek
philosophers, Aristotle, according to him humans are zoon politicon who always live in
society and need each other.
The implication that arises from needing each other is that sometimes an act committed
by the other party is not in accordance or deviates from what should be. Problems that very
often arise in the midst of Indonesian society are related to family problems. Which in a
family does not only consist of one individual but there is a father as the head of the family,
and mother, and children as its members (a simple example of a family). In establishing
family life, family problems often arise. For example, A is a resident in Sendang Biru
village with poor economic capabilities. A is the wife of B, A and B have been married
since 2000 and have been blessed with 2 children. In the first 3 years of marriage they were
harmonious, until finally A discovered the fact that her husband had another woman and
often committed violence against A. A finally filed a lawsuit in court, but A did not have the
money to use the services of an advocate. C is an Advocate who upholds the Advocate's
code of ethics, so C helps A to resolve her legal problems with free case fees without
differentiating treatment to other clients of C who pay a fee.
From one of these reasons, the role of professional ethics emerged. Professional ethics
first emerged in England in the 18th century, in the field of medicine (medical ethic). An
English physician named Thomas Percival drafted a code of medical ethics. In his draft he
introduced the terms medical ethics and medical jurisprudence, which a few years later for
the first time the British Government passed the Law on Pharmacists, more precisely in
1815. Since then the State has begun to pay attention and make regulations regarding
medicine and health which also regulate the ethics of the profession. Then in 1846 the
United States began to develop and make a manuscript on the organization's code of ethics
which regulates the obligations and rights of a physician, therefore the American Medical
Association (AMA) was formed. Then in 1847 the text was passed into the Code of Medical
Ethics.
The accounting profession is the second profession that has a professional ethics
system. In 1494, Luca Pacioli who is referred to as "the father of accounting" wrote a book
on accounting ethics for the first time (Summa de Arthmetica, Geometry, Proportione, et
Proportionalita). In 1887, the American Association of Public Accountants (AAPA)
organization was founded which also introduced a modern code of ethics for accountants.
AAPA has now changed its name to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
(AICPA). Meanwhile, in 1905 the code of ethics was ratified and then used as a guideline to
educate its members. Two years later in the bylaws the code of ethics was improved and
became more effective.
The legal profession occupies the third position in the development of the code of
ethics. A judge in the United States named George Sharswood wrote an essay entitled "legal
ethics". From the writings of Judge George Sharswood, the idea was born to create a code
of ethics that was applied in the state of America, Alabama in 1887 became the first state in
America to authorize the code of ethics. In 1908 the professional code of ethics was ratified
and known as the "Conons of Professional Ethics".
E.
Ethics as a Science Knowledge:
Ethics can be understood as a critical reflection on how humans should live and act in
concrete situations, certain specific situations. Ethics is moral philosophy, or the science
that discusses and critically examines the issue of morally right and wrong, about how to act
and concrete situations (A. Sonny Keraf, 2002: 4-5).
Ethics is very closely related to philosophy. Because in general, ethics is part of the
discussion of philosophy, even one of the branches of philosophy. Speaking of philosophy,
the first thing that must be distinguished is that philosophy is not always defined as science.
Philosophy can also mean a way of life. As a science, philosophy is a process that must be
rolling and never knows the word finished. On the other hand, philosophy as a way of life is
a product (values or value system) that is believed to be true and can be used as a guide for
behavior by an individual or society. Ethics is often also said to be philosophical thinking
about what is considered good or bad in human behavior that contains a responsibility. It is
called philosophical thinking because historically ethics developed in line with the
development of philosophy.
Ethics can also be seen from this distinction. So, there is ethics in the sense of science
(philosophy), but there is also ethics as a value system. The ethics of the legal profession
can actually be viewed from both definitions. If what is meant by professional ethics is
limited to the code of ethics imposed by each legal professional organization, it is in the
context of ethics as a value system. However, if professional ethics is studied
systematically, methodically and objectively to find the rationality behind the moral reasons
for the chosen value system, then professional ethics here is part or branch of science
(philosophy).
There are many different branches of philosophy. So much so, that the philosophers
themselves have their own systematics regarding the branches of philosophy. However, no
matter how many branches it is, in principle philosophy can be is returned to three main
groups of branches of philosophy namely: (1) ontology, (2) epistemology, and (3) axiology.
Thus, ethics is a branch of philosophy, specifically the philosophy of values or
axiology. The values referred to here pertain to human attitudes and behavior. In other
words, ethics talks about the values that are good for humans as "human beings". These
values are known as morals.
Systematically, ethics can be divided into two types: general ethics and specific ethics.
If we talk about moral principles, the meaning and function of ethics, issues of freedom,
responsibility, and conscience, we are talking about general ethics. When moral principles
and values have been linked to the context of a particular field, either the field of life or
interpersonal, then we have talked about specific ethics. The basic question of ethics in
particular is, "how should I act in a particular field?" or "How should that field be organized
so that it can support the achievement of the good of mankind?".
So, philosophy is a part of science that serves as an interpretation of human life. Ethics
is a part of philosophy, namely moral philosophy. Moral philosophy is a branch of
philosophy about human action. In conclusion, it is a science that studies good and bad
human actions based on the will in making decisions that underlie human relations.
F.
The Relationship between Ethics and Profession Law:
The relationship between ethics and the legal profession, that professional ethics is as an
attitude of life, which is in the form of a willingness to provide professional services in the
field of law to the public with full involvement and expertise as a service in order to carry
out tasks in the form of obligations to people who need legal services accompanied by
careful reflection, that's why in carrying out the profession there are main rules in the form
of professional ethics, namely as follows ([Kieser, 1986: 170-117]).
1.
The profession must be seen (and lived) as a service, so selflessness (disintrestednes)
characterizes the development of the profession. What is meant by selflessness here is
that the decisive consideration in decision-making is the interest of the patient or client
and the public interest, and not one's own interests (professional development). If
selflessness is ignored, then professional development will lead to the utilization (which
can lead to abuse) of fellow humans who are experiencing difficulties or distress.
2.
Professional service in putting the interests of patients or clients first refers to interests
or noble values as critical norms that motivate attitudes and actions.
3.
Professionals must always be oriented towards society as a whole.
4.
In order for competition in services to take place in a healthy manner so as to ensure the
quality and improvement of the quality of professional bearers, professional
development must be characterized by solidarity among colleagues.
In addition, in carrying out the duties of the legal profession, apart from being trust in
the form of habl min-annas (horizontal relations), it must also be based on habl min Allah
(vertical relations), where habl min Allah is realized with love. The embodiment of love for
Him, of course, we must fully implement or serve His commands, which among other
things, love for Him is realized with love between fellow human beings, by living love as
the basis for the implementation of the profession, it will automatically give birth to
motivation to realize the ethics of the legal profession as a realization of life attitudes in
carrying out the duties (which in essence is a mandate) of the legal profession. And with
that the developer of the legal profession gets a religious foundation, then he (the bearer of
the profession) will see his profession as a social duty and at the same time as a means of
realizing the love of Allah Swt. with real action.
The relationship between ethics and the legal profession is then used in defining the
ethics of the legal profession. Legal professional ethics is the basis or reference used as a
guide by law enforcers in upholding justice as outlined in the form of a legal professional
code of ethics. In relation to the ethics of a profession, it can be said that the code of ethics
includes efforts to uphold and guarantee ethics, but is also intended to go beyond it, for
example with the existence of a professional standard. Codes of conduct draw strength from
ethics, but also reinforce them. A written code of ethics can contribute to the growth of
shared ethics and ethical beliefs. It demands a concerted effort to increasingly understand
and protect the human and moral values of the profession (Liliana, 2003: 76).
Ethics and the legal profession have a relationship with each other, that professional
ethics is an attitude of life, which is in the form of a willingness to provide professional
services in the field of law to the public with full involvement and expertise as a service in
order to carry out tasks in the form of obligations to people who need legal services
accompanied by careful reflection, and therefore in carrying out the profession there are
main rules in the form of professional ethics.
Professional ethics itself is a science of rights and obligations based on certain expertise
education. This basis is necessary in professional ethics. So that there are no deviations that
cause discrepancies. Professionalism is very important in a job, not only loyalty but
professional ethics are very important. Ethics are very important in solving a problem, so
that if a profession without ethics there will be deviations that result in injustice. Injustice
felt by others will result in a loss of trust which has a very bad impact, because trust is a
basis or foundation used in a job. The professional code of ethics functions as a protector
and professional development. With the existence of a professional code of ethics, we still
encounter many violations or abuse of the profession. Moreover, if there is no professional
code of ethics, there will be more violations. There will be more and more There are many
abuses of the profession. Therefore, there are limits to professional ethics in the legal field
that can be used as guidelines so that deviations in the legal profession can be avoided,
namely as follows:
1.
The orientation must be a service that leads to one's devotion in the legal profession. If
this is applied, the profession will be carried out seriously and selflessly.
2.
Do not differentiate services to one individual from another. So that the perpetrators of
the legal profession will try to treat everyone the same.
3.
Together with colleagues to always cooperate and help each other in good things in
order to exchange ideas and lighten the burden.
From the description above, it can be seen that the existence of ethics, a code of ethics
for duty bearers in the legal profession in addition to being a professional must be fenced
off with a code of ethics that must be obeyed. If not, it will cause disharmony in the life of
society.
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF PHILOSOPHY
A.
Definition Philosophy:
The definition of philosophy in the history of the development of philosophical thought
between one philosopher and another is always different and almost as many as the
philosophers themselves. According to Surajiyo, the definition of philosophy can be viewed
from two aspects, namely etymology and terminology, (Surajiyo: 2010).
1.
Etymological Meaning
Philosophy is from the word philo which means love and the word sophos which means
knowledge or wisdom. Etymologically, philosophy means love for knowledge and
wisdom. In this connection al-Syabani argues that philosophy is not wisdom but love
for wisdom and trying to get it, focusing on it, and creating a positive attitude towards
it. For this reason, he said that philosophy means searching for the essence of things,
trying to link causes and effects, and trying to interpret human experiences.
2.
Meaning in Terminology
According to the term (terminology) philosophy is the love of wisdom and trying to get
the philosophy of Islam, focusing on the philosophy of Islam and creating a positive
attitude towards philosophy Islam. Islamic philosophy is a field of thought that
continues to develop and change. In this regard, a historical approach to Islamic
philosophy is needed that not only emphasizes the study of figures, but more
importantly understands the dialectical process of thought that develops through
thematic studies of the problems that occur in each era. The term philosophy can be
viewed from two aspects, namely:
1.
Semantic aspect: philosophy comes from the Arabic word falsafah. From the Greek
philosophia, which is knowledge of wisdom. So, philosophia means love of
knowledge, wisdom, and truth. This means that people make knowledge the goal of
their life and immortalize themselves to knowledge.
2.
In practical terms, philosophy is the realm of thought, meaning that philosophizing
is thinking. People who think about philosophy are called philosophers, i.e. people
who think about the nature of things seriously in their duties. Philosophy is the
result of the human mind that seeks and thinks about the truth in the deepest
possible way. So, philosophy is a science that studies seriously the nature of the
truth of everything (M. Yatimin Abdullah: 2006).
In another sense, Burhanuddin Salam (2009) in his introduction to philosophy suggests
the notion of philosophy in a narrow sense and in a broad sense. In a narrow sense,
philosophy is defined as a science that deals with logical methods or logical analysis of
language and meanings, philosophy is defined as "Science of science", where its main task
is to provide a critical analysis of the assumptions and concepts of science, and to
systematize or organize knowledge. In a broader sense, philosophy tries to integrate human
knowledge from different fields of human experience and make a comprehensive view of
the universe, life, and the meaning of life.
Furthermore, he briefly stated the meaning of philosophy, namely:
1.
Philosophy is an attitude about life and about the universe;
2.
Philosophy is a method of reflective thinking, and reasoned research;
3.
Philosophy is a set of problems;
4.
Philosophy is a set of theories and systems of thought (Burhanuddin Salam: 2009).
In Greek, the word philosophia is a combination of two words, namely "philo" which
means "love" and "sophos" which means "wisdom". Thus, etymologically philosophy
means "love of wisdom", (Muhamad Mufid: 2009). So, according to its name, philosophy
can be interpreted as wanting to achieve cleverness, love for wisdom, (M. Ahmad Syadalim:
1999). The word philosophy was first used by Pythagoras (582-496 BC). The meaning of
philosophy at that time was unclear, then the meaning of philosophy was clarified as is
widely used today by sophists and also by Socrates (470-399 BC), (Surajiyo: 2010). From
the various definitions above, Yatimin Abdullah (2006) sees the meaning of philosophy in
terms of terms, which also means seeing philosophy in terms of its definition. The definition
of the science of philosophy given by philosophers is as follows:
1.
Plato (427 BC-347 BC) said philosophy is the science of all that exists (science that is
interested in achieving the original truth).
2.
Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) said philosophy is the science that follows the truth, which
contains the sciences of metaphysics, logic, rhetoric, ethics, economics, politics, and
ethics.
3.
Al-Farabi (889-950 AD) said philosophy is the science of nature and aims to investigate
the true nature.
4.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804 AD) said philosophy is the main science and the basis of all
knowledge which includes four issues, namely God, nature, mind, and humans.
5.
French Bacon said philosophy is the grand parent of the sciences and philosophy
handles all knowledge as its field.
6.
John Dewey said philosophy should be seen as an expression of the continuous human
struggle.
The difference in definition, according to Ahmad Tafsir (1992), is caused by the
different connotations of philosophy to these figures because of the different beliefs they
hold. The difference can also arise due to the development of philosophy itself which causes
some special knowledge to separate itself from philosophy. Up to this point, it can be
concluded that the differences in the definition of philosophy between one figure and
another are caused by differences in the connotations of philosophy in each of them.
Philosophizing is thinking, but not all thinking is philosophizing. Thinking is said to be
philosophical, if the thinking has three main characteristics, namely: radical, systematic, and
universal.
Radical thinking means thinking to the root of the matter, thinking about something in
an unmitigated way, right down to its ultimate consequences. Systematic thinking means
logical thinking, which moves step by step consciously, in a responsible order. Universal
thinking means thinking as a whole, not limited to certain parts, but covering all aspects of
the concrete and abstract or physical and metaphysical (Cecep: 2008).
B.
The Relationship between Ethics and Science Philosophy:
Philosophy is a science that seeks to study everything that exists and that might exist using
the mind. Its parts include:
1.
Metaphysics is the study of the real world;
2.
Cosmology is the study of nature;
3.
Logic is the discussion of how to think quickly and precisely;
4.
Ethics is the discussion of human behavior;
5.
Theology is the discussion of divinity;
6.
Anthropology is the study of humans.
Thus, it is clear that ethics is one of the components of philosophy. Many sciences were
originally part of philosophy, but because the science is increasingly widespread and
developed, eventually formed its own discipline and independent of philosophy. Likewise
ethics, in the process of its development although still recognized as part of the discussion
of philosophy, it is a science that has its own identity (Alfan: 2011).
The relationship between ethics and the science of philosophy according to Ibn Sina is
like a shared sense, estimation and recollection that helps the human soul to acquire
concepts and ideas from its natural surroundings. If man has reached perfection before he
separates from the body, then he will forever be in pleasure. If he separates from the body in
an imperfect state, he is always influenced by lust. He lives in a state of regret and is
damned for all eternity in the hereafter.
Philosophical thinking about the soul put forward by Ibn Sina gives a clue in
philosophical thinking towards materials or sources that can be further developed into the
concept of ethics.
Ibn Khaldun in seeing humans is based on previous assumptions of humanity through
the knowledge he gained in Islamic teachings. He saw humans as thinking beings.
Therefore, humans are able to produce science and technology. These qualities are not
possessed by other creatures. Through his ability to think, man not only makes his life, but
also pays attention to various ways to obtain the meaning of life. These processes gave birth
to civilization. In the thought of science, Ibn Khaldun appears that humans are cultural
beings whose perfection will only be realized when they interact with their social
environment. This shows the need for human development, including in fostering ethics.
The description of humans contained in philosophical thought will provide very useful input
in designing and planning about ways to foster humans, treat them, and communicate with
them. In this way will create a pattern of relationships that can be done in creating a safe
and peaceful life (M. Yatimin Abdullah: 2006).
Ethics as a branch of philosophy can be understood as a term used to limit human
activity with the value of good or bad provisions. Ethics has the same object as philosophy,
which both discuss human actions. Philosophy as knowledge seeks the deepest cause based
on the mind (Yatimin: 2006). If he thinks of knowledge so he becomes the philosophy of
science, if he thinks of ethics so the philosophy of ethics (Ahmad Tafsir: 2005).
C.
Ethics as a Distinctive Feature Philosophy:
Philosophical ethics is the science of investigating the field of human behavior, namely
regarding human obligations, good and bad deeds is the science of philosophy about human
actions. Many human actions are related to good or bad, but not all actions are ethically
neutral. For example, if in the morning I put on my right shoe first and then my left shoe,
that action has no relation to good or bad. It could be the other way around, left shoes first
and then right shoes. That method is good in terms of efficiency or better because it suits
my motor skills, but the first or second method is not better or worse in terms of ethics. The
action can be said to have no ethical relevance.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) argued that humans have a sense of ethics embedded in
their souls and hearts. People feel that they have an obligation to stay away from bad deeds
and do good deeds. Philosophical ethics is a specific human action, which is based on its
understanding of good and bad. Ethics as a branch of philosophy is actually what
distinguishes man from other creatures of God and puts him when it has become orderly at a
level above them (M. Yatimin Abdullah: 2006).
As described by Mohamad Mufid: 2009 that ethics is often called moral philosophy.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that talks about human actions in relation to the main
purpose of life. Ethics discusses the good-bad or rightness or wrongness of human behavior
and actions and at the same time highlights the importance of ethics human obligations.
Ethics asks how humans should act.
Human actions are determined by various norms. Ethics helps people to take a stand
against all external and internal norms, so that people achieve autonomous moral
consciousness.
Ethics investigates the basis of all moral norms. In ethics a distinction is usually made
between descriptive ethics and normative ethics.
1.
Descriptive Ethics
Descriptive ethics describes and explains moral consciousnesses and experiences
descriptively. This is done by starting from the fact that there are various moral
phenomena that can be described and described scientifically. Descriptive ethics seeks
to find and explain moral awareness, beliefs, and experiences in a particular culture.
Descriptive ethics is divided into two, namely:
a. Moral history, which examines the ideals, rules, and moral norms that have
prevailed in human life in a particular time and place.
b. Moral phenomenology, which seeks to find the meaning and meaning of morality
from various phenomena. Moral phenomenology is concerned with explaining
moral phenomena that occur in society. It does not give moral guidance and does
not blame what is wrong.
2.
Normative Ethics
Normative ethics is seen as a science that establishes measures or norms that can be
used to respond to assess actions. This ethics can explain the values that should be done
and allows humans to measure what is happening.
Normative ethics contains two major parts, namely: First, it discusses the theory of
value and the theory of obligation. Second, it discusses theological ethics and
deontelogical ethics. The theory of value questions the nature of goodness, while the
theory of obligation discusses behavior. Meanwhile, theologian ethics argues that the
morality of an action is determined by its consequences. The deontologist argues that
the morality of an action is determined by the causes that drive the action, or determined
by its essential properties or by its existence in accordance with certain provisions and
principles (Muhammad In'am Esha, 2010).
The characteristics of philosophical ethics are clearly evident also in good-bad, right-
wrong actions, but among the branches of science philosophy has a separate position. There
are many branches of philosophy, such as natural philosophy, philosophy of history,
philosophy of art, philosophy of law, and philosophy of religion. At first glance, it seems
that philosophical ethics also investigates a certain field, just like the aforementioned
branches of philosophy. All branches of philosophy talk about what is, while philosophical
ethics discusses what should be done. That's why philosophical ethics is often called
practical because it deals directly with human behavior, with what people should or should
not do.
It should be recognized that ethics, as a branch of philosophy, has its limits. For
example, students who get good grades for ethics course exams, not necessarily in their
behavior will take the best actions according to ethics, it could even happen that good
grades are just the result of cheating, so the result of an action that is not good (M. Yatim
Abdullah: 2006).
D.
The Nature of Ethics Philosophy:
Philosophical ethics, as a branch of science, follows one's tendencies in daily life.
Philosophical ethics reflects elements of behavior in opinions spontaneously. The need for
reflection can be felt among other things because ethical opinions often differ from the
opinions of others.
Philosophical ethics can be defined as a critical, methodical, and systematic reflection
on human behavior in terms of moral norms or in terms of good or bad. From a normative
point of view, philosophical ethics is a discourse that is unique to the behavior of human
life, compared to other sciences that also discuss human behavior.
Philosophical ethics is one of the branches of philosophy and is even known as one of
the oldest branches of philosophy. In the context of ancient Greek philosophy, philosophical
ethics was already established with admirable maturity. Philosophical ethics is a science,
but as a philosophy it is not an empirical science, meaning a science that is based on facts
and in its discussion never leaves facts. The sciences are empirical, because they take place
entirely within the framework of empirical (sensory experience), namely what can be seen,
heard, smelled, and felt. Empirical science comes from observation of facts and if it
succeeds in formulating scientific laws, then the truth of the laws must be tested again by
turning to the facts. Compared to other sciences, philosophical ethics does not limit itself to
concrete phenomena. Of course, philosophy speaks also about the concrete, sometimes even
about very concrete things, but it does not stop there.
In the early history of the emergence of ethics, there was a view that correct knowledge
of the field of ethics would automatically be structured by correct behavior as well. This
was the famous teaching of Socrates called Ethical Intellectualism. According to Socrates,
people who have knowledge of good will definitely do good too. A person who does evil
does so because he has no knowledge of ethics. That's why he does evil.
When put in this radical way, it is difficult to defend. When people have a deep
knowledge of ethics, it is not guaranteed that their behavior will be good. This is different
from the experience of science. People who have received almost no education in school,
but always live with good behavior very admirably. However, there is also truth in this
opinion of Socrates, that knowledge of ethics is an important element, so that people can
achieve the maturity of good behavior. In order to attain good ethics, the study of ethics can
make a significant contribution even if the study itself is not sufficient to ensure that good
ethics can be properly practiced.
Philosophical ethics is also not practical philosophy in the sense that it presents ready-
made recipes. Ethics books are not manuals that can be consulted to overcome the bad
ethical difficulties at hand. Philosophical ethics is a reflection on friends which concerns
behavior. In philosophical ethics, it is expected that everyone can analyze key themes such
as conscience, freedom, responsibility, values, norms, rights, duties, and virtues.
Among the common people, philosophical ethics often does not have a good name. It is
often accused of being pie-in-the-sky, because it discusses things that are abstract and less
relevant to everyday life. Many descriptions of philosophical ethics are considered not far
from reality. That is the nature of philosophy regarding ethics. There is no need here to
investigate the extent to which this prejudice holds true. But at least about ethics as a branch
of philosophy can easily be called and approved relevance for many issues faced by
mankind (M. Yatimin Abdullah: 2006).
Ethics is essentially a critical examination of moral reality. Ethics does not give
precepts but rather critically examines moral customs, values, norms, and views. Ethics
demands accountability and is willing to cut through the confusion. Ethics does not allow
moral opinions to be justified. Ethics seeks to clarify moral issues, while the word moral
always refers to the good and bad of human beings as humans. The moral field is the field
of human life in terms of its goodness as a human being. Moral norms are benchmarks for
determining the rightness and wrongness of human attitudes and actions in terms of good
and bad as humans and not as actors of certain and limited roles (Surajiyo: 2005).
The emergence of philosophy in the 5th century BC was a breakthrough to the mythical
age at that time. There was a revolution of thought against the dominance of the mythical
age over truth claims. This period is an important period in which reason began to be used
in the search for truth, reason as a means of seeking truth, reason as a source of truth. The
history of thought entered a new age, the age of Logos. Philosophy is said to be the mother
of science. In its development, philosophy gave birth to branches of science, which
developed into branches of science, sub-branches of science. In its development, science
becomes increasingly specific and technical, which moves independently and does not greet
each other. In its development, many fundamental problems arise that cause science to
become more and more specific and technical far from its essence. Philosophy has two
meanings: First philosophy as a product: implies philosophy as a type of science, concepts,
theories, flow systems that are the result of the philosophical process. Second, philosophy as
a process, in this case philosophy is defined as a form of philosophical activity as a
problem-solving process using certain means and methods. (Kaelan: 6-7). As a science,
philosophy is a science with material objects: the "Existing" includes humans, nature, God
(anthropos, cosmos, Theos) and the problems in it, while the formal object of philosophy is
to examine the material object in depth until the essence of the problem is found. Not all
thinking activities are philosophical activities. Philosophical thinking activities (in the sense
of science) have the following characteristics: Critical-Radical-Conceptual-Coherent-
Rational-Speculative-Systematic-Comprehensive-Free-Universal. In addition to philosophy
having developed into specialized sciences, philosophy itself has branches that continue to
develop in accordance with the development of the problems faced. The main branches of
philosophy are: Ontology-Epistemology-Methodology-Logic-Ethics-Aesthetics. These
branches of philosophy are the first circle, then there are still second circles such as: social
philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of law, philosophy of economics, philosophy
of religion, and third circles such as: philosophy of science, philosophy of culture,
philosophy of language, philosophy of the environment.
E.
Ethics ( Moral Philosophy):
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that talks about good and bad values. Ethics is also called
Moral Philosophy. Ethics talks about considerations about good and bad, moral and
immoral actions in human relationships. Ethics from the Greek ethos which means moral
character or custom. Moral, on the other hand, comes from the word mores, which means
way of life or custom. There is a difference between ethics and morals. Moral is more
focused on an action or deed that is being assessed, it can also mean a teaching system
about good and bad values. Meanwhile, ethics is an in-depth study of the existing value
system. So ethics as a science is a branch of philosophy that discusses the prevailing value
system (morals). Moral is Javanese moral teaching is the teaching of good and bad value
systems that are accepted as they are, but ethics is the study of morals that is critical and
rational. From a scientific perspective, the term Javanese moral teaching is different from
Javanese Ethics in terms of its scope of discussion.
F.
Ethics as a Science Knowledge:
Ethics is the philosophy of values, of morality, of good and evil. In addition to ethics being
the study of values, it is also the knowledge of values themselves. Some also say that ethics
is a part of philosophy that teaches the whole of ethics (good and bad). Ethics is about moral
philosophy, not about facts, but about values, not about human actions, but about ideas.
Ethics is the study of human behavior, not only determining its truth as it is, but also
investigating the benefits or goodness of all human behavior.
From the several opinions on ethics mentioned above, it is clear that ethics is part of
science. One of the various sciences is the philosophy of science, which is a branch of
philosophy that has been of particular interest since the 17th century, but since the middle of
the 20th century it has developed in such a way that no one can keep up with the steps of its
diverse development in various directions. This is because the number of sciences, each
branch of which is constantly growing. The development itself increases the implications of
science which are very diverse and permeate all areas of human life in depth. One of them is
studying ethics in human life individually as well as in society and the state.
The concept of ethics as a field of study of philosophy, especially moral philosophy,
ethics has long been an intellectual discourse of philosophers. Ethics has been the center of
attention since ancient Greece. Even today, ethics remains an interesting and actual field of
study. It is even considered increasingly important to not only be discussed in academic
circles but also practiced in the daily life interactions of every civilized human being.
Departing from human behavior in life both individually and in society and even in the
state, it is necessary to have moral values (etiquette) in that life. Thus ethics seen from
science is values as norms of human morality in the study of the philosophy of science
formulated by studying a scientific approach to moral behavior. Ethics as a philosophy of
science is the art of shaping, discovering, and making, as well as creating concepts in
human life.
In the encyclopedia of education, it is explained that ethics is the philosophy of values,
morality, about good and bad, unless ethics studies the values themselves. While in the
dictionary of General Education terms, it is revealed that ethics is part of philosophy that
teaches the whole of ethics (good and bad). This definition provides a view of ethics that
shows the attitude of the values of knowledge in good and bad behavior, namely reason. In
the Indonesian language the word ethics is less popular and usually this term is often used in
educated circles. The word that is commensurate with it and commonly used in the midst of
society is the word "susila" or "kesusilaan". Decency comes from Sanskrit, which consists
of the words su and sila. Su means good, beautiful, lovely. While sila means manners,
behavior, adab (manners and so on), ahlak, moral. Thus the word "Susila" or Kesusilaan can
mean: Good manners, good behavior, which is commensurate with existing rules, norms, or
rules of life.
According to K. Bertens, ethics means the science of what is commonly done or the
science of customs. In the old Indonesian Dictionary by Poerwadarminta, ethics is explained
as the science of moral principles. Meanwhile, in the new Indonesian Dictionary published
by the Ministry of Education & Culture of the Republic of Indonesia, ethics is explained by
distinguishing three meanings: 1. The science of what is good and what is bad and about
moral rights and obligations (Akhlak); 2. A collection of principles or values relating to
morals; 3. Values about right and wrong adopted by a group or society. From the above
definition, it is clear that ethics is a science. Ethics is understood As the science of moral
philosophy, it is not about facts, but about values, not about human actions, but about ideas.
There are principles and values about what is considered good and bad that are taken for
granted in a society. In its development, ethics became the subject of reflection for
systematic and methodical research.
The relationship between ethics and science, where it starts from human behavior,
essentially ethics and morals have the same meaning or understanding. These two terms
mean good behavior of a person or group of people as a guide to the demands of the
conscience of the person concerned and the community in order to create a sense of
humanity, honesty, and justice in life between individuals and society. Scientists explore
ethical values in practical life both between individuals and society, from those values
ethics becomes a guide to human behavior (etiquette), then explored as science
(knowledge), but also ethics can be a rule for a group in a job (profession) or known as the
Code of Ethics (ethic of Conduct).
G.
Ethics in View of Science :
Ethics that uphold human values, honesty, and justice, so that it becomes a source of footing
for correct behavior. Ethics (morals) lead to these behavioral problems, so when he does
something activity in his life will show an attitude as a mirror of the ethics he applies.
According to Imam Ghazali, morals (ethics) is a state of mind from which actions are born
without thinking and without calculating the risks haitun rasikhotun tashduru'antha al afal
bi suhulatin wa yusrin min ghoiri hajatin fikrin wa ruwaiyyatin). Meanwhile, the science of
morals is the science that talks about the good and bad of an action. When talking about the
value of good and bad, the issue of the concept of good and bad arises.
Ethics also talks about good and bad, but the concept of good and bad in ethics comes
from culture, while the concept of good and bad in moral science rests on the concept of
revelation, although reason also has a contribution in determining it. From this point of view
In ethics, there are western ethics, eastern ethics, and so on, while al akhlaq al kaqimah
does not recognize the concept of region, although this has led to differences of opinion,
because ethics is also defined as norms of propriety (etiquette), which in Arabic is called or
karma. While the word moral is often used to refer to morals or ethics, the emphasis is on
one's attitude towards values, so morals are often associated with decency or moral
behavior. If ethics is still at the conceptual level, morals are already at the applied level.
Looking at a person's morals, ethics, or morals, one must distinguish between
temperamental actions and actions that come from his personality character. Character is
closely related to the assessment of good and bad behavior of a person based on various
benchmarks adopted by society. A person's character is formed through the course of his
life, therefore it can change.
Morals and ethics are different from morals. In the Big Indonesian Dictionary, the word
morals means character or behavior. The word morals, although taken from the Arabic
language, usually means character, temperament, habit, but such a word is not found in the
Qur'an. Morals are things that are inherent in the soul, from which easy actions arise without
human thought and research. If these qualities or behaviors lead to actions that are good and
praiseworthy by reason and syarak, they are called good morals. On the other hand, if the
action is bad, the behavior is called bad morals. Good morals or akhlakul karimah, which is
a value system that becomes the principles of behavior derived from the Qur'an, As-Sunnah,
and natural values (sunatullah) and can also mean a value system derived from human
agreement at a certain time and space so that it can change. Ethics, on the other hand, is a
temporary agreement of the group that uses behavioral institutions. Therefore, moral values,
which are ethical values, can change according to the agreement and formulation of
descriptions of basic values that are seen as natural (universal) values. This shows that a
society that uses an ethical system, at a certain time, will justify the implementation of a
certain way of life value, while at other times and places these values are not justified by the
community. Another case with moral teachings sourced from religious teachings, both from
the Qur'an, Al-hadith, as well as from the thoughts of religious leaders and traditional
leaders, a collection of rules and regulations both written and unwritten (oral), about how
humans should live and act in order to become good human beings. The good and bad of
human action is determined by the benchmark of moral judgment as a human being. It is
commonly expressed that if an animal is held by its rope and if a human is held by his
words. This expression means that if a human is no longer able to hold his word, then he
loses his identity as a human being who can be trusted by other humans. Therefore, the
ethical system in this case has absolutely nothing to do with hamblumminallah. The
measure of good and bad in this ethical system is subjective, that is, it depends on the strong
influence of the thinker of the value system and ethics.
In the language of Islam, the term ethics is part of morals. It is said to be part of morals,
because morals are not just about human behavior in the nature of outward actions, but
cover broader matters, namely covering the fields of creed, worship, and sharia, because
Islamic morals are very broad in scope, namely concerning ethos, ethics, morals, and
aesthetics, because:
1.
Ethos, which regulates one's relationship with his Creator, alma'bud bi haq and the
completeness of ulihiyah and rubbubiyah, such as towards Allah's Messengers, His
Book, and so on.
2.
Ethical, which governs one's attitude towards himself and towards others in his daily
life activities.
3.
Morals, regulating relationships with others, but of different types and/or concerning the
honor of each person.
4.
Aesthetics, a sense of beauty that encourages a person to improve himself and his
environment, to make it more beautiful and towards perfection.
From the description above, it can be formulated that morals is the science that
discusses human actions and teaches good deeds that must be done and bad deeds that must
be avoided in relations with Allah Swt., humans, and the surrounding environment in
everyday life in accordance with ethical and moral values.
H.
The Relationship of Ethics to Science :
The notion that science is value-free uses considerations based on the value of what the
science represents. Similarly, ethics as part of philosophy is the science of human moral
values. Science as an attraction for the relentless desire of human curiosity and truth, so it is
necessary to pay attention to ethics as an additional effect of science after it is applied in
society. Human beings are basically powered by reason, so humans have knowledge
(logos). With his knowledge, all his life activities are based on knowledge based on reason.
Then it is expanded to pay attention, listen, collect meaning, store in the mind, stop to
realize. Here logos meets ethos (ethics), meaning a stop, a home, a place, a date, an attitude
deposit. It means an attitude of life that is aware of something, an attitude that prioritizes
keeping one's mouth shut to try to listen, at the expense of speaking more. In this regard,
Karl Jespers wrote that science is man's attempt to listen to the answers that come out of the
world he inhabits. This is where ethics becomes intertwined with science.
What does this have to do with anything? Humans with knowledge will never be
satisfied either in listening or seeking answers. He will always find new perspectives in his
quest for knowledge. In this search, there is no conflict between problems and secrets,
between understanding and wonder, between science and religion. However, there are
limitations that cannot be made by humans in the search for these ultimate values, such as
the search for the almighty, the creator of humanity itself. The intellectual truth that exists in
science is not an effect of science's engagement with the fields of life. Truth is indeed the
original characteristic of science itself. Thus, a neutral, uncolored devotion to science can
launch the notion of truth, forcing science to become value-free. Scientific descriptions of
human beings should be reinforced by an awareness of the roots of truth.
Knowledge is not an end but a means to achieve the desire for truth that coincides with
ethics for fellow human beings and responsibility religious responsibility. In fact, scientists
do not need to take into account the two factors of knowledge and responsibility in their
work. Because the second is attached to the first. Responsibility means that scientists have
ethics in their science. Science is attached to limited human civilization, so with science the
desire for human curiosity contained in itself is a clue to the transcendent truth beyond
human reach.
Ethics, apart from being part of science or part of the philosophy of science, is also a
guide to the values of individual, community, and state procedures. Every life needs ethics
(etiquette) so that the values of morality can be maintained in life itself. In addition, ethics
in the view of Islam is morals. Morals that must be maintained by each individual so that
the relationship both between individuals and with their Creator (Al- khalik) is established in
harmony (hamblumminanas hamblumminallah). The relationship between ethics and
science is a restriction so that human thinking that is thirsty for truth can be maintained not
to get out of the norms that should be maintained because that is the mind that is freed will
lead to misguidance.
There are many opinions about ethics, in this paper only a few adequate opinions are
quoted. "Ethic (from Greek Ethos "character") is the systematic study of the nature of value
concepts, "good", "bad", "ought", "right", wrong, etc. and of the general principles which
justify us in applying them to anything; also called "moral philosophy"." (Encyclopedia
Britannica: 752) "The term "Ethics is used in three different but related ways, signifying 1)
a general pattern or way of life, 2) a set of rules of conduct or moral code, 3) inquiry about
a way of life of rules of conduct" (Edwards, Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 81).
In general, ethics is classified into two types; the first is descriptive ethics, which
emphasizes the study of prevailing moral teachings, discussing the issue of good and bad
human actions in living together. The second is normative ethics, a study of the teaching of
good and bad norms as a fact, there is no need to offer rational reasons for the teaching, it is
enough to reflect on why it is a must.
Normative ethics is divided into two: general ethics that talks about goodness in
general, and specialized ethics that talks about good and bad considerations in a particular
field. In everyday life, ethics is often equated with morals, and even further reduced to
etiquette. Morals are related to good and bad judgments about basic things related to human
values, while ethics/etiquette are related to social attitudes, manners, the benchmark for
judgment is appropriate or inappropriate. In addition, there is another term related to morals,
namely norms. Norm means measure, direction, rule, rule of consideration, and judgment.
Norms are values that belong together in a society that have been embedded in deep
emotions as a mutual agreement (Charis Zubair: 20). There are several kinds of norms:
norms of courtesy, norms of law, norms of decency (morals), norms of religion. Each of
these norms has a sanction. The phenomenon that occurs in Indonesian society today is that
people are only afraid of legal norms that have clear and firm sanctions whose
implementation is based on the power of force. Moral norms, which are based on human
consciousness and have no real sanctions, have been abandoned. The essence of the
difference between humans and other creatures is in the moral aspect. It is in morality that
humans find the essence of their humanity, so ethics and morals should be the basis of
human behavior with all their awareness. When moral norms (morality) are not
feared/respected, society will be chaotic. Morality has a universal value, which should be
the spirit of the foundation of human action. Moral norms emerge as an enormous force in
human life. Moral norms are more influential than norms of good manners (the opinion of
society in general), even with legal norms which are products of the authorities. It is on the
basis of moral norms that people take a stand and judge other norms. Other norms should
yield to moral norms (Magnis Suseno: 21). Thomas Aquinas argued that a law that
contradicts the moral law will lose its power. Why should humans be ethical/moral?
In this paper hereafter, the terms ethics and morals have the same meaning to refer to
the judgment of good-bad actions with rational reasons. Why should humans be ethical in
their lives? Why are all human actions subject to judgment, while other creatures are not?
To answer this question, we should explore some basic assumptions about human nature.
According to British biologist Charles Robert Darwin, who is also in line with Aristotle,
there is a development of stages of life, namely, inanimate objects-growing plants-animals-
humans (Sunoto, 63-65). Inanimate objects = not alive (developing) only undergo changes
due to certain processes. Plants = inanimate + living (developing). Animal =
inanimate+living (evolving)+lust. Human = inanimate object+living
(developing)+lust+intellect.
In general, what distinguishes humans from animals is their intellect. Intellect is a
distinguishing element, not an element that makes humans superior to other creatures.
Intellect has two aspects in its use, if used correctly, it will increase the level of humanity,
but if used incorrectly, it will reduce the degree of humans to animals or even lower than
animals. The evolution of life described by Darwin is based more on biological
considerations. It would be better if this evolutionary process is continued based on
humanist-philosophical considerations. Thus the end of the evolution of life will be
described as a good human being consisting of elements: inanimate + living (developing) +
lust + reason + morals. Moral strength is needed to control reason and lust so that human
life becomes more meaningful. Why should humans be moral/ethical? The answer is
because humans are intelligent beings, all human actions, actions, and words must be
accounted for. The actions of intelligent beings are always valued. Valuable actions are
what make human life meaningful. Human life is not only about perpetuating the species,
but also about being responsible for oneself, one's family, the community of the
nation/country, and humanity in general. This demand for responsibility concerns human
activities in all fields.
Why should only humans be moral? Moral norms are absolute, but not coercive. Moral
norms apply to all humans, not to animals, because only humans are intelligent. All human
actions in all fields are always subject to judgment. Human actions are always judged, and
they are judged all the time. Are all humans as intelligent beings subject to moral/ethical
norms? The answer is no. Morals and ethics are only imposed on humans whose intellect is
functioning, humans who have consciousness (consciousness in this case is not in the
medical sense, but psychological-philosophical).
Judgment is only for humans who have reason and have consciousness. Moral judgment
is not imposed on people who lose their memory, are insane, so they have no consciousness
or small children whose consciousness has not yet grown. Humans with these criteria are
not subject to responsibility for all their actions, if subject to action then it must be adjusted
to the level of consciousness. The basic and rational reason why humans must use
morals/ethics as the basis for all their actions is because they are intelligent and have
consciousness. For example: There is a cat that is hungry, in front of him there is food that
he usually eats, without much consideration he will certainly eat it immediately. Unlike
humans, even though he is hungry in front of him there is delicious food he will not
immediately eat it. Various considerations will be the basis of whether he will eat the food
in front of him, whether he has the right to eat it, whether he should eat it now, how to eat it,
and so on. A moral person will not eat what is not his right, a moral person will be able to
control his appetite for food, humans will also use the rules of appropriateness in terms of
how to do things. Maybe this is considered trivial, this is precisely what must be realized
that for small things and daily activities there are so many considerations, let alone for
bigger and more fundamental problems. For example, corruptors can be said to be
essentially not human, but like animals, because there are several species of animals that
have adequate brains so that they have intelligence, even lower than animals. Animals
cannot distinguish between what is their right and what is not, but corruptors can
distinguish, it's just that they don't want to know.
Morals absolutely apply to humans in living together. Humans are cultured beings. This
culture can only grow in living together. Humans are Animal Sociale/Zoon Politicon.
Humans are creatures who live together with other humans, they need other humans.
Cultured beings are the resultante of human nature as Animal Sociale, Animal Rationale and
moral beings.
I.
Science and Ethics :
Overview of Science, science which in English science, Latin scientia means to study or
know. Science is different from knowledge (episteme). Science can come from knowledge
but not all knowledge is science. There are several conditions for knowledge to be
categorized as science. According to I.R. Poedjowijatno, science has several conditions
(Abbas Hamami: 4): 1. Objective: the material object of the target / material of study, the
formal object is the point of view of the approach of a science to its object; 2. Method,
which is a certain procedure / method of science in an effort to find the truth; 3. Systematic,
science often consists of several elements but still a single unit. There is a relationship, a
connection between one part and another; 4. Universal, science is assumed to apply as a
whole, not covering a certain place or a certain time. Science is projected to apply as widely
as possible. As for science, it has several characteristics: 1. Open: science is open to
criticism, refutation, or new revisions in a scientific dialog so that it becomes dynamic; 2.
Public property, science does not belong to certain individuals including the inventors of
theories or laws. Everyone can test its truth, use, and spread it; 3. Objective: the truth of
science is objective. The truth of a theory, paradigm, or axiom must be supported by facts in
the form of reality. Science in its preparation must be separated from the subject, explaining
the target of attention as it is; 4. Relative: although science is objective, the resulting truth is
relative / not absolute, including the truth of the natural sciences. There is no absolute truth
that is indisputable, there is no certainty of truth, there is only a high level of probability of
values in science.
In the history of the development of science, there is a fundamental problem that has
become a long debate, namely the issue of whether science is true value or not. There are
two basic attitudes, first the puritan-elitist tendency, which assumes that science is value-
free, moves on its own (autonomous), in accordance with its laws. The purpose of science is
for science itself. The basic motive of science is to fulfill curiosity with the aim of finding
the truth. This attitude was driven by Aristotle and then continued by scientists of the
natural sciences. Science must be autonomous, should not be subject to values outside
science such as religious values, moral values, social values, power. If science is subject to
values outside itself, scientific, objective and rational truth will not be obtained (Sony
Keraf: 150). Science will not develop. It is just a collection of beliefs without the support of
objective and rational arguments.
The second is the pragmatic tendency. Science is not merely a search for truth. Science
must be useful for solving the problems of human life. Scientific truth is not only logical-
rational, empirical, but also pragmatic. Truth is meaningless if it is not useful for humans.
The basic motto of this pragmatic attitude is that science is for humans. These two opposing
camps have different assumptions, but they are not incompatible. The way out of this chaos
is a synthesis of both. In relation to science, the context of justification and the context of
discovery must be distinguished. Context of justifiction is the context of scientific testing of
the results of scientific research and scientific activities. In this context, knowledge must be
based on purely objective and rational considerations, no other considerations are allowed.
The only thing that applies and is used for consideration is the value of truth. It does not
want to care about other considerations outside itself. Science is autonomous. Science that
dialogues within itself is value-free. It is under pure scientific consideration (Sony Keraf,
155-156).
Context of discovery is the context in which science is discovered. In this context,
science is not value-free. Science is always discovered and developed in the context of
space and time. particular, in a particular social context (Sony Keraf: 154). Scientific
activities have broader goals and objectives than just finding scientific truths. Science
appears to fulfill human needs so that from the beginning science has certain motives and
values. Science in the context of Indonesia.
The tradition of scientific activity in Indonesia is not as well established as in the West.
Therefore, the issue of values and science must be understood from the start as a corridor
for scientific life in Indonesia. The Indonesian nation has its own value system that
underlies various fields of life including scientific life. Pancasila as a core value in scientific
life is an imperative of science in the context of testing, in the process in itself it must be
value-free, objective, rational, but in the process of discovery and application of science is
not value-free. Science must pay attention to the values that exist and apply in society.
Science must carry out a broader mission, namely for the improvement of human dignity.
Science must be beneficial to humans, society, the nation, and the State of Indonesia.
However, the benchmark of benefits is not just a momentary pragmatic benefit or for certain
interests, so that science loses its idealism. The science developed must remain objectively
beneficial for all mankind and must not contradict the values of Pancasila, namely the value
of theosity, the value of humanity, the value of national integrity, the value of democracy,
and the value of social justice (Sri Rahayu Wilujeng, 2012, Draft material of Philosophy of
Science in Character Education for New Students 2012).
The Precept of God Almighty implies that humans not only recognize and appreciate
the ability of human rationality but also recognize that there is another greater power.
Human beings are not only valued for their intellectual activities but also for their irrational
aspects. The precept of just and civilized humanity means that science must be returned to
its original function for humanity, not only for certain groups or sectors (T. Jacob: 42-43).
The precept of Indonesian Unity means that science, although universal, must also
accommodate the local so that it runs harmoniously. Science that is developed should not
destroy and jeopardize the national integrity of the Indonesian nation. The fourth precept
implies that the science developed should not only be decided or controlled by a few people.
Various opinions of experts in the field must be considered, so as to produce a
representative consideration that must accommodate a sense of justice for many people. It
should not serve a small group of people, let alone only serve the interests of the ruler. The
academic environment is the place where knowledge is nurtured. The academic world in
Indonesia has a heavier task than just a scientific life that only emphasizes aspects of
rationality. The Indonesian academic world has greater duties and responsibilities. Lecturers
are not just teachers who transfer knowledge. Lecturers are educators who are tasked with
guiding students to become smart and moral people (Sri Rahayu Wilujeng, 2012, Draft
Material of Philosophy of Science in Character Education for UNDIP Freshmen 2012).
On the other hand, he is a scientist who carries out scientific activities. As explained
above, science is value-free, but scientific activities are carried out by scientists under an
academic institution/authority that involves various interests, so there must be values that
become the spirit that controls it. A scientific ethic is needed for scientists, so that science
continues to run in the right corridor. A scientific attitude must be possessed by every
scientist. It should be realized that this scientific attitude is aimed at lecturers, but must also
exist in students who are the out put of scientific activity in an academic environment.
1.
The first scientific attitude that every scientist must have is honesty and truth. This
value of honesty and truth is an interinsic value that exists in science, so it must be
integrally included in the ethos of all scientific actors in academic institutions. This
honesty concerns the process in scientific activities, truth claims resulting from the
scientific process, as well as in the application of a science. Without honesty, the truth
will not be obtained as it is, while the basic motive of science is to fulfill curiosity to
obtain true knowledge. Attitude honest and objective. Scientific attitudes are reflected
in honest and objective attitudes in collecting factors and presenting the results of
analyzing natural and social phenomena through logical thinking. An honest and
objective attitude produces a product of thought in the form of a straightforward and
unbiased explanation due to certain interests.
2.
Responsibility. This attitude is absolutely necessary in relation to research activities as
well as in the application of knowledge and in academic scientific activities.
3.
Faithful. A scientist must be loyal to his profession and faithful to his science. He must
be loyal to spreading the truth he believes in despite the risks involved.
4.
Inquisitive attitude. An intellectual/scholar has a strong curiosity to explore or seek
answers to a problem that surrounds him thoroughly and thoroughly, and to issue ideas
in scientific form as evidence of their work to the world and the general public because
they feel that the responsibility is on his shoulders.
5.
Critical attitude. For a scholar, a critical attitude and a culture of questioning are
developed to ensure that the real truth can be found. Therefore, all information is
basically accepted as relative/biased input, except after passing a certain standard of
verification.
6.
Independent attitude. Scientific truth is essentially something objective, not determined
by the imagination and interests of certain people. Scholars think and act based on the
voice of truth, and therefore cannot be influenced by anyone to have a different opinion
just to please someone. Right is right, wrong is wrong, even if it is bitter.
7.
An open attitude. Although a scholar is independent, his heart and mind are open to
different opinions and new ideas put forward by others. As a scientist, he will try to
broaden his theoretical horizons and openness to new possibilities and discoveries in his
field of expertise. A scholar will promote the attitude that knowledge and experience are
infinite and will always evolve over time. He will not always learn to "go to China"
even until the end of life.
8.
A willingness to respect the work and opinions of others. A scholar is willing to engage
in continuous dialogue with his colleagues and the surrounding community in an
intensive and sensitive engagement.
9.
Forward-looking attitude. Scholars are thinkers who have the ability to analyze certain
problems or who have potential in their field. "Change makers" are people who make
changes or bring about changes in society. They have the responsibility to change a
static society into a dynamic society and strive and create in real form with the results of
their thoughts and research to change the condition of society from zero to hero.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. Ethics seeks the truth and as a philosophy it seeks the
deepest possible (true) information. As a specific task ethics seeks a measure of good and
bad for human behavior. Ethics wants to find which human actions are good.
Etymologically ethics comes from the ancient Greek "ethos" which means habits, customs,
morals, feelings, ways of thinking, and the word "ta etha" which means customs. And
terminologically ethics is the science of what can be done or the science of customs. In the
Big Indonesian Dictionary ethics is explained with three meanings, the first ethics is the
science of what is good, what is bad, and about moral rights and obligations. Second, ethics
is a collection of principles or those relating to morals. Third, ethics is the value of right and
wrong adopted by a group or society.
The formulation of the definition of ethics can also be refined into three meanings as
well, as follows: 1) the word ethics can mean: values and moral norms that guide a person
or group in regulating their behavior; 2) Ethics also means: a collection of moral principles
or values. What is meant in This is a code of ethics; 3) Ethics also means: the science of
good and bad. Ethics is not an additional source of morality but is a philosophy that reflects
on moral teachings. Philosophical thinking has five characteristics: it is rational, critical,
fundamental, systematic, and normative.
The word ethics is also closely related to the word morals which comes from the Latin
word "Mos" which in its plural form "Mores" means the custom or way of life of a person
by doing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds. Ethics and morals are more or less the same
in meaning, but in daily activities there are differences, namely morals or morality for the
assessment of actions taken, while ethics is for the study of the prevailing system of values.
And to better understand what ethics is, it needs to be distinguished from moral teachings.
Ethics is not an additional source for moral teachings, but rather a philosophy or critical and
fundamental thinking about moral teachings and views. Ethics is a science, not a doctrine.
So ethics and moral precepts are not on the same level, it is not ethics but moral precepts
that tell us how we should live. There is a difference between ethics and moral precepts.
The difference is that ethics does not have the authority to tell us what we can and cannot
do, and ethics seeks to understand why or on what basis we should live according to certain
norms. Moral teachings can be likened to an instruction manual on how we should treat a
motorcycle properly, while ethics provides insights into the structure and technology of
motorcycles.
From the various definitions of ethics can be classified into 3 types of definitions: the
first type, ethics is seen as a branch of philosophy that specifically talks about the good and
bad values of human behavior. The second type, ethics is seen as a science that discusses
the issue of good and bad human behavior in collective life. This definition does not see the
fact that there is a diversity of norms due to the inequality of time and place, so ethics
becomes a descriptive science. The third type, ethics is seen as a normative, evaluative
science that only gives good and bad values to human behavior. In this case, there is no
need to point out facts, just provide information, suggest, and reflect.
According to Robert C. Solomon, ethics is the part of philosophy that covers living
well, being a good person, and desiring the good things in life. The word "ethics" refers to
two things. First, the discipline that studies values and their justification. Second, the subject
matter of the discipline itself, which is our true values and the laws of our behavior.
According to Ki Hajar Dewantoro in the book Lecture on Ethics written by Charris
Zubair, ethics is the study of all matters of goodness (and badness) in all human life. In
particular, regarding the movements of thoughts and feelings that can be used as
considerations and feelings, until the realization of an action.
Ethics belongs to philosophy and is even recognized as one of the oldest branches of
philosophy. In the context of Ancient Greek philosophy, ethics was already established with
admirable maturity. Ethics is a science, but as a philosophy it is not an empirical science.
This characteristic of philosophy is evident in ethics as well. Ethics does not stop at the
concrete, but asks about what should be done or not done, about what is good or bad to do.
Ethics is not the same as other branches of philosophy in the sense that ethics limits
itself to the question of "what is moral" and the main task of ethics is to investigate what
humans should do. All branches of philosophy talk about what is, while ethics discusses
what should be done, which is why ethics is often also called practical philosophy, why
practical because this branch deals with human behavior, with what humans should or
should not do.
The object of ethics is moral statements, basically only two kinds: statements about
human actions and statements about human beings themselves or about the elements of
personality.
