PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AS A STRATEGY TO REALIZE GOOD
GOVERNANCE REGIONAL AUTONOMY
Introduction
One of the strategies to build and realize good governance is to involve and encourage
community participation in every activity of governance. Democracy as the core of good
governance requires the participation of all elements of society in the administration of
governance and development, from the formulation and formulation of policies to the
implementation and control of government. Community participation in every government
activity is the main pillar of a democratic state. In a democracy, it is the people who are
sovereign, so it is very appropriate if the government system that develops a democratic
government system makes community participation a necessity.
The community as the main element in the country's governance system should be given
space to take part in building an advanced and strong government and state development
system. Society has enormous potential in all aspects. Because in society there are gigantic
resources. In society there is enormous mass energy or power, members of society who have
high intellect. There are also reliable government and development thinkers and
implementers. So that such great potential if optimally involved in all government activities
can further strengthen the greater spirit for the government to accelerate the pace of
development for the country concerned. Conversely, if the community is not involved in
government and development activities, the country can experience stagnation, because it
ignores the great potential contained in the community. It is possible that all kinds of
government activities will be seriously criticized, and actions that can hinder the course of
government and development. State policies that Government policies that lack or do not
involve community participation often face major challenges in their implementation. Not a
few government policies that have been made by using large resources, but when the policy is
about to be implemented, it immediately gets a negative response from the community, such
as destructive actions. We have witnessed government policy plans that do not involve the
participation of the people, such as the policy plan to raise fuel prices, receive serious
resistance from the public, which leads to huge losses for the state and society. Nowadays,
people are increasingly aware that they have the right to participate in governance and
development, so the government should respond well by involving them in various
government and development activities.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
Public Participation And Democracy
In a country that develops democracy, public participation is a necessity. Anywhere in the
world where a democratic system of government does not involve public participation will
face considerable challenges. In political science literature, public participation is one of the
important dimensions for the existence of a democratic system of government. Public
participation is not only limited to public involvement in general elections, but also in various
other political activities that have implications for the interests of the community.
Political scientists and public policy experts have various arguments that can be advanced to
support their assertion that public participation in the public policy-making process is an
important thing that must be done by a country that adheres to democracy. According to
Wagle (2000), democracy will only have meaning when citizens as the main stakeholders are
always involved in the process of making all types of public policies produced by the
government. This is important Because every public policy made by the government always
has broad implications in society. Public policy must always be oriented towards the public
interest, not the interests of government officials and political elites. Public participation in
public policy-making is the only way to convince the public that public policy-making is done
democratically and for the benefit of the public as a whole. There are many advantages for the
public and the government if public policy making is done democratically. The first
advantage is an increase in the quality of public policies produced by the government.
Improving the quality of public policy in turn is very beneficial for the people who are the
target of public policy, Second is to bring benefits to society (Wagle, 2000).
Public participation in the public policy-making process according to Smith and Ingram
(1993) will also benefit the government. Because the government will become stronger in the
sense that there is an increase in institutional capacity in policy making which will have
implications for increasing public support for the government, for example, voting in general
elections. Other political scientists, Sample (1993), Webler, Kastenho, Z, and Renn (1995)
cited by Glicken (2000) say that public participation in the decision-making process will bring
benefits, namely contributing to increasing the competence of decision makers through the
development of quality policy making, giving greater legitimacy to decisions made because
public participation can increase public accountability in the decision-making process, and
provide a positive image as a democratic society.
Public participation during the reform era was already in place. Elements of society have
often been included in participating in policy-making. This condition is very different from
the New Order era. In the reform era, legislative institutions (DPR and DPRD) have prepared
aspiration chambers as a place for every element of society to express their aspirations. The
people are also given the opportunity to choose political parties and leaders of the state and
regions, to elect members of the legislative and executive branches. This was not the case
under the New Order regime. Even if there were elements of society that were included in the
making of public policy during the New Order regime, of course those who were considered
part of the New Order regime did have many mass organizations that became a means of
legitimizing the New Order model of democracy. During the New Order regime, public
officials were dominated by political elites from Golkar. During the New Order era, public
participation in general elections was pseudo participation, meaning that people participated
in general elections due to pressure, even coercion.
Moynihan, Wilcox (1994) differentiate the level of community participation into five types,
namely: (1) information provision, (2) consultation, (3) joint decision-making, (4) joint action,
(5) supporting activities that arise from community initiatives. According to Wilcox, the level
at which community participation will be carried out depends on what interests are to be
achieved. For strategic policy-making that will affect the lives of many people, the
community must be fully involved. While in more technical decision-making, perhaps
providing information to the community is sufficient. Wilcox's level of participation is
basically influenced by Arstein's (1969) classification of public participation, which he calls
the "Eight Ladder of Public Participation", which describes the various types of participation
from symbolic (manipulation) to substantial participation, where the community has control
over the course of the process government. The complete "Eight Ladders of Participation" can
be seen in the following graphic:
Participation In Public Policy Making
In a democratic state, the elites (executive and legislative government policy makers) must be
accountable to the public for the implementation of every policy made. The government
should pay attention to and take into account the aspirations and involve public participation
in every policy and decision-making process. To realize a policy that is in accordance with the
demands of the community, community participation is needed as the main supporting force
in the formulation of public policy. A good public policy must receive collective approval
from citizens. The government leader as a policy-making actor should realize that he comes
from the people and works for the people, so it is very logical.
The government should not close itself off and feel superior in making public policies. The
government must be open and become an effective communicator in the discussion of various
public policies. The government must also develop transparency and accountability in public
policy making. The government and the community must jointly overcome problems in the
process of formulating and making public policies. Public policy making should have a good
working pattern, and in accordance with the rules and roles of each government apparatus.
One form of participation that needs to be considered is populist participation, which means
that each government official at the central and regional levels can carry out their duties and
authorities, free from pressure and intimidation because the implementation of government
duties is the implementation of the public mandate.
The issuance of a policy instrument of Law No. 32 of 2004 will have an impact on the order
of people's lives in the future. Robert Mac Iver (The Web of Government 1954) describes the
instrumentation stage of government policy as one of the models in the policy-making
process, where the government as a policy maker needs to assess and select several alternative
policies that are appropriate for the common progress of society. Law No. 32/2004 as a
policy-making instrument is expected to be can create changes in the social system by giving
people the space to actively participate in policy-making.
Participation In Public Service
Public participation in the policy-making process is important in a democracy. It is
appropriate to make public participation one of the principles that must be implemented by
the government in order to realize good governance. Public participation is a form of public
service, because it is in line with the new view that is currently developing in an effort to
improve public services by seeing the community not only as a customer, but also as a citizen
who owns the country and the government in it (owner). It is firmly stated that the state and
government belong to the people, because the existence of the state and government is only
for the people.
The role of public participation as a strategy to improve the quality of public services is
currently gaining momentum, because regional autonomy provides extensive space for
regions to design and determine the most urgent types of services for the community.
By involving the community in decisions regarding public services, the government will gain
several benefits; 1) Local governments will know the needs and how to meet the needs of the
community appropriately. 2) There is mutual trust between the government and community,
thus fostering a harmonious relationship. 3) Increase community awareness and role in the
implementation of development programs, making it easier to realize good governance in the
region.
Dimensions Of Public Participation
Strategy for Identifying the Role of Communities
If previously the community was seen only as a customer, then at this time the community has
been seen as a citizen who owns the state, which certainly has implications for the position of
the community in the process of providing public services that were previously only carried
out by the government. This change in position should be followed by a change in strategy to
involve community participation in the process of organizing public services.
Wray et. Al (2000) shows how citizens who are positioned as users play a central role in the
delivery of public services.
Communities/citizens as cus- tomers are the main users and clients of public services so
that they must be treated as customers who have a price for the government as a
provider.
The community as owner is the owner of the state through taxes paid as an investment
in public services provided by the government.
Communities as policy makers and decision-makers determine the government's vision
and strategies for realizing the desired future.
The community together with the government as producers of public services, namely
the community and institutions formed by the community in partnership with the
government become public service providers.
The community as an evaluator of the quality of public services provided by the
government, namely the community as an assessor of the quality of public services
provided by the government.
The community as a public service monitor, namely performance measurement carried
out by a community that is independent and oriented towards the welfare of the
community.
From this description, it can be seen how the role of the community in the implementation of
public services as citizens who have the right to receive public services, as well as how the
role of the community in the process of organizing public services.
Participation Enhancement Instrument.
People can participate in the public service delivery process in different ways, and to different
depths. USAID mentions the following instruments of participation in public service delivery:
1) Regular publication of a newsletter (weekly, monthly) containing important activities on
public services by the local government that is provided to the community free of charge.
2) Regular citizen meetings with the local government or parliament. 3) Using the mass media
for press conferences, press releases, and the government briefing journalists on important
issues in the community. 4) Opening channels of criticism and suggestions for local
government through letters, telephone calls, e-mails and so on. 5) Distributing brochures that
inform the public about local government organizations. 6) Talk shows on local TV and radio
to discuss public service issues. 7) Public bearing on various topics such as financing, quality
of public services and so on. 8) Establish a kind of representative body that includes and
discusses the aspirations of the younger generation on democratic issues. 9) Organize regional
festivals as a means to integrate the wishes of the people by gathering and discussing regional
issues. 10) Establish a special team in local government to address the issue of increasing
community participation. 11) Creating a "You ask, We answer" forum published in local mass
media to interact with the community on complaints and problems faced by the community.
12) Conducting surveys to capture community aspirations. 13) Establishing partnership
programs with the community with the main focus on finding ways to solve specific problems
faced by the community. 14) Develop a Citi- zen and NGO Charter, which is an agreement
between the government and the community or NGO to carry out joint activities to solve
problems faced by the government and the community. 15) Establish mechanisms to provide
funding for programs that emerge from community initiatives.
The Scottish Government in its research on "Customer and Citizen Focused Public Service
Provision" (http:/www. Sctland. Gov. uk/ cru/ kd 01 / blue/ccfp-07.asp) mentions instruments
to increase community participation in public service provision, namely: (1) creating channels
to accommodate consumer complaints, (2) creating channels to accommodate suggestions
from consumers, (3) conducting consumer surveys, (4) conducting contracts or meetings with
consumers, (5) creating forums to obtain qualitative input from consumers, for example
forming consumer forums.
Customizing Participation Instruments in accordance with the Role of the Community
in the Implementation of Public Services
In order for public service participation to be effective, it is necessary to sort out the various
instruments of participation to suit the respective roles of the public as users of public
services. In accordance with the role played by citizens as users of public services, the
instruments of public service participation are categorized as follows:
The role of society as a customer; The role that is carried out is that the community is
the main user and client of public services, so they must be treated as customers who are
priced by the government as a public service provider;
The public as owners; How the role is carried out: the public as owners of the state
through taxes paid to those who invest in public services provided by the government.
The people are owners because they vote directly to elect the governor/regent/mayor
who will run the government. The instrument of participation is to provide a place for
community representatives to be on the supervisory board of public service institutions
and to establish an Ombudsman and ombudsneighbor.
The role of the community as a policy issue maker; the role that is carried out is that the
community determines the vision of the government, the future that it wants to realize
and the strategy to achieve these goals. The community is an advisor to the government
when it will make policies that concern the public interest. The instruments of
participation are forming local government advisory councils, community aspiration
pollsters and public bearings;
Communities together with the government as producers of public services. The role
played is that the community together with institutions formed in collaboration with the
government are public service providers, either paid or voluntary. The instru- men of
participation are forming community associations to organize social services in the
fields of education, health and so on and creating partnership programs.
The role of society as an evaluator of the quality of public services carried out by the
government. The role as the main user of services The public holds the most central
position to assess the quality of public services provided by the government. Its
instruments of participation are conducting consumer surveys and establishing watch
dogs for various types of public services.
The role of the community as independent monitors of public services. The role played
is the measurement of performance carried out by the community at the grassroots level
which is more independent and oriented towards the general welfare of the community.
The instrument of participation is to encourage the emergence of volunteers to monitor
the impact of public service activities on the community, for example the emergence of
air pollution and so on.
Choosing a Participation Instrument
Wilcox (1994) reminds us of several things to consider in choosing a participation instrument,
namely: 1) Participation will be full if it is needed by the community, otherwise it may be
limited. 2) Although the community is only "one", they have different interests. Given the
existence of different communities, they also have different interests, so the role of different
stakeholders must be considered. 3) Participation takes time, so the most appropriate type of
participation must be considered in order to improve the quality of public services. 4) People
will be willing to participate if they understand each other, have the trust to participate and
know the benefits of their participation activities.5) Policy makers must be aware of their
position, because their authority affects the type of participation that will be implemented.
Implementing Participation Strategies
The implementation of the chosen public service participation strategy is a critical and
difficult stage, because it is a concrete action that integrates; local government human
resources, implementing bureaucratic units, financial resources, and the chosen strategy to
realize participation in public service provision. The steps that local governments must take in
implementing a participation strategy are as follows: 1) Prepare the human resources
responsible for implementing the chosen strategy by providing training and coordination
meetings on how to implement the participation strategy. 2) Form a committee of trained staff
to be responsible for the implementation of the task of encouraging participation. 3) Prepare a
budget to support the activities so that the participation-enhancing activities are sustainable.4)
Prepare the technology to support the participation activities.
5) Continually evaluate the implementation of participation activities.
Good Governance For Local Government
The development of science in the government system has created a new model called Good
Governance. Good governance is a system of governance that is the dream of society,
because good governance has a paradigm that can create efficient governance, so that it can
bring prosperity to society. Frederickson (1997) articulates governance as a process by which
a social, economic or other complex organizational system is controlled and regulated. While
in a functional perspective, governance is interpreted as the practice of exercising power and
authority by the government in the management of government affairs in general, and
economic development in particular. This view emphasizes that governance has three
dimensions, namely the political, economic and administrative dimensions, where these three
dimensions affect the making and implementation of government (state) policies. Therefore,
the good governance system includes the processes and structures of society that direct socio-
economic and political relationships to create a better life.
Regarding the orientation of good governance, Masdiasmo (2002) states that the orientation
of public sector development is to create good governance, where the basic definition is good
governance, which seeks to create solid and responsible development management in
accordance with the principles of democracy, efficiency, prevention of corruption, both
politically and administratively. Good governance demands reform of the role of the state
apparatus in order to be able to support the smooth and integrated implementation of the tasks
and functions of governance and development. According to the UNDP (LAN and BPKP,
2000) the characteristics of good governance are: 1) Participation, every citizen has a right in
decision-making. 2) Rule of law, government must be fair and implemented indiscriminately,
especially human rights.3) Transparency, which is built on the basis of freedom of
information flow.4) Responsiveness, government organizers must serve the interests of
stakeholders. 5) Consensus orientation, between different interests to get the best in terms of
policies and procedures.6) Equity, all citizens are entitled to prosperity.7) Effectiveness and
efficiency, government agencies must produce products and use available resources as
specified. 8) Accountability, decision-makers in government, the private sector and society are
responsible to the government. 9) Strategy visión has the right vision for implementing public
service policies.
In United States, the reform of the government system and public services is characterized by
the birth of various provisions relating to the implementation of the state / local government
system based on the paradigm of good governance, namely a more transparent, equitable,
accountable government system by prioritizing public services. The purpose of reforming the
bureaucratic governance system is to strengthen and empower community participation in
various government activities, including in the making of public policies. The basic idea of
bureaucratic governance system reform is the state as a formal and constitutional legal
institution in charge of organizing government, both in its function as a regulator and as an
agent of change. Reform of the government system demands the actual implementation of
civil society, namely a government system that provides ample space for the community to
play a role in democratic governance in accordance with the paradigm of good governance.
In the context of the government system and political system, the question that needs to be
answered is what should be done to encourage public participation in governance,
development and public services in United States? What format of government system should
be developed to facilitate public participation? What kind of bureaucratic system is conducive
to public participation? Public participation requires a pub- lic sphere where every citizen can
freely and independently express their opinions on various societal issues. The community
should have adequate space to utilize its potential in fulfilling its needs, such as freedom to
make political choices, fair legal treatment, education costs and services.
The concept of community boils down to three key requirements of governance: free
education, affordable health care, and other necessities. The concept of community boils
down to three key requirements in governance, namely:
1) genuine competition among and between individuals and groups, without coercion, 2)
political participation that involves as many citizens as possible in policy-making,
implementation and monitoring of public policy, 3) political freedom in all social and state
processes.
Conclusions
Public participation in the process of policy formulation, implementation of development
programs and public services is a key element in good governance, because through public
participation it will help the government make efficient governance and realize public
welfare. Community participation since the reform era in United States has been clearly
visible, for example in the political field such as community participation in PEMILUKADA
and Presidential, DPR / DPRD, DPD elections which have increased. In the health sector,
where the community has established and utilized health facilities and infrastructure
independently, such as POSYANDU, Independent Family Planning. In the field of education,
where the community has participated significantly by building private schools and
workshops that have produced many scientists and practitioners. Community participation has
also been seen in law, where several advocacy organizations have helped the community
(legal aid) for the less well-off both financially and in practical legal matters. In the field of
security where the community has been involved in building POSKAMLING. In the field of
state finances where the community has been active in paying taxes so that our APBN is
largely sourced from community taxes. Likewise in the making of public policy, where in the
discussion of a Law, Regional Regulations and Regional Budget also involving elements of
the community that have competence. In the field of religion, the community has participated
in the development of worship facilities and infrastructure, which are now adequately
available. In simple terms, it can be said that the search for issues, formulation, creation,
implementation and control of the policies mentioned above have involved community
participation.
