ASSESSING LOCAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: A FOCUS ON SOCIOECONOMIC VARIABLES FOR FOSTERING DISASTER-RESILIENT NEIGHBORHOODS

ASSESSING LOCAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN SOUTHEAST

ASIA: A FOCUS ON SOCIOECONOMIC VARIABLES FOR FOSTERING DISASTER-

RESILIENT NEIGHBORHOODS

1. Introduction

In cultural and geographical viewpoint, the Southeast Asian region is a home of different

communities due to the geographical factors that provide a conducive environment to host

various calamities in the region. Frequent incidents like floods, typhoons, earthquake and

tsunami are constantly causing social and economic menace. These are not only the costs that are

borne at the time of disasters, but are the losses that follow on from the disasters and hinder

recovery, threatening the economic and social well-being of the communities (Nguyen & Shaw,

2020). Despite the fact that huge resources have been invested in construction of the disaster

management structures and related enablers, the changing levels and occurrences of natural

disasters caused by climate change and increased human aggregation transform the capability of

the current paradigms to develop resilience.

The approach used in this research to disaster risk management is that of its

socioeconomic aspects in disaster preparedness and response. It will reach a consensus that

positive growth is more so seen in the high income and education earners because they have

more resources and information to turn to in order to recover. It is clear that some of these

community groups with little capital has been able to display high level of resilience in the

support of social networks and indigenous knowledge, proving that only those with much capital

are resilient. As the focus on resilience and disasters in Southeast Asia has emerged, the nuanced

and sophisticated understanding of the socio-economic factor and disaster resilience remains

limited. It tries to help fill this gap by examining the moderating functions of income, education,

and community attributes on the emergency management local strategies (Yusuf & Francisco,

2020). The first is to ensure that the study is as impartial as can be and the second is to draw

concepts from the theoretical and empirical literatures to enhance policy coherence and equity.

Yusuf and Francisco, 2020) stated that a focus on real-life examples and recommendations that

can be applicable in plugging the gap between the conceptual knowledge and practical

implementation will be useful.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Frameworks of Conceptualization in the Field of Disaster Resilience

Catastrophe resilience has therefore greatly evolved over the many years that it has been

in development. It has evolved from being a simple focus of the physical aspects towards being

an understanding that involves social, economic and cultural factors. Community-based disaster

risk reduction (CBDRR)which is one among the many characteristics highlights the importance

of interaction within communities and the decentralized approach of disaster measures. This

framework supports the idea of the decentralization of disaster preparation activities since, Miller

et al. (2020) show that every community has unique strengths and registered knowledge base to

create programs relevant to the risk with which they are faced. However, while it is widely

accepted that there are good things about CBDRR, questions have emerged regarding the ability

of this approach to be sustained in the long run and the amount of resources that can be needed to

support it. It may take a long time for others to pick up on such activities or such activities may

even stagnate due to lack of participation from contributors making those areas economically

unreliable. Taking into consideration these problems, one can come to conclusion that there is an

imperative need of the additional governmental and international organizations support with the

aim to ensure that the community-based models not only started, but also sustained effectively.

The Social Vulnerability Theory offers theoretical framework which may be useful for

the purpose of understanding the concept of catastrophe resilience. Kang (2020) has noted that

this theory goes further to hold that initial social disadvantage includes unequal income, poor or

no school education and/or limited access thereto, and prejudice on grounds of race, colour, sex,

or disability to mean that the degree of a community’s experience of natural disaster is also born.

These variables are identified by the researchers as those which are the antecedents of the

consequences of disasters, which aggravated the losses that are sustained by the disadvantageous

clientele. This means that any strategies for disaster management that are formulated without

taking into account the above relations are likely to merely reproduce a cycle of vulnerability.

From the discussed, there should be a move from the mere medical model to the structural one

that focuses on social equity and economic development. A more critical analysis of the methods

shows that many of them do not contain these more basic questions hence creating a need to

consider a broader definition of resilience that encompasses the physical as well as the social

systems.

Adaptive capacity as another concept has also been defined more systematically in that

stream of literature along with catastrophe resilience concept. Community resilience is a feature

of the community that simply defines the ability of the community to recover from one disaster

to another. This is a process that is opposite to that which is usually favored by education,

economic stability and social relations. The outcomes of the research reveal that if there is

improved adaptive capacity in a community, then decision making and risk reduction for DRRM

will lead to long term disaster response and the handling of disasters (Yusuf & Francisco, 2020).

On the other hand, the disadvantage community normally does not have the capacity to develop

adaptive mechanisms hence they are more likely to suffer from disasters. Because of this, the

researchers have noted that there should be an individual centered approach to be made in order

to enhance the coping strategies of the vulnerable groups. Adaptive capacity as the central focus

of the relief operations is a challenge to more traditional paradigms of disaster management. It is

a plea for more knowledge of social and economic challenges and requests policies that provide

communities with instruments to change, knowledge, and means.

There are some people who complain that the common approaches to construction of

infrastructures are ineffective and that overdependence on physical structures such as flood

barriers and earthquake-resistant buildings give people a false sense of security. However, it

should be pointed out that all these measures are undoubtedly necessary but are inadequate to

ensure adequate preparedness for disasters. As noted by the writers, any notion of resilience

should suppose a more efficient approach that includes supporting such things as physical capital

and social and economic assets. However, physical infrastructure is one of the components of

this approach that seeks to balance. As the affluent towns are socially linked with influential

people and are financially well off they are also faster to get back on track than other less

endowed towns. This is not only because of structures of the affluent neighborhoods. Due to this,

there is a fruitful discussion on the need for a better coordinated DRR framework and practice.

This approach should not address physical and social aspects of the problem without integrating

the two. As to the issues of catastrophe resilience, an analytical approach indicates that structured

is good structured is better.

Specifically, the empirical evidence suggests, for instance, that the current resilience

frameworks do not address one important dimension; cultural factors. Cultural factors influence

how people perceive catastrophes in the same way that they influence how people perceive every

other aspect of their culture. For instance, in most of the societies in the Southeast Asian region,

people’s perception of risks that are associated with environment and how they cope with such

risks are defined a lot by their culture and beliefs and the religion they practice. Therefore where

the above cultural practices are not taken into consideration, effectiveness of disaster

management could be compromised. Some of the strategies can be counterproductive because

they do not promote a relationship with people in the areas where they are used and can be

characterized as culturally sensitive. This is the reason why in the recent years there has been

more focus on the implementation of disaster risk reduction measures that are in sync with the

culture of the people as well as the new age physical awareness with cultural sayings. The

problem is how to reach a point where effective communication of information that is necessary

for risk management does not violate cultural norms.

It is unfortunate that up to the present time, theory development and acquisition are still

far from practice. What has not been noticed though, is the absence of literature that attempts to

compare and contrast such frameworks within and across the two paradigms in different

organizational and client contexts has been brought to the attention of a large number of scholars.

On the basis of the above discussion, Southeast Asia can provide a good justification for

conducting the research as suggested by Yusuf and Francisco in their work done in 2020 for

several reasons; the economic environment is also quite complex, the government frameworks

are also quite different from each other and the cultural differences within the region are also

quite marked. This is why the strategies that are employed in the management of disasters have

to be appropriate to the area and must be highly developed to meet the required challenge. It has

been noted that there is a need for more empirical work in order to assess the extent to which

presence theories help to explain the particular problems that are confronted by different retiring

communities in this region. The purpose of this study is to extend the literature in this area by

assessing the effectiveness of these theoretical models and suggestions that may greatly enhance

catastrophe management.

2.2. Strategies for the Organization and Management of Emergencies in Southeast Asia

It is thus possible to describe the patterns of emergency management in Southeast Asia as

encompassing a very broad spectrum of practices that range from conventional folk wisdom to

the more advanced technology. These traditions are cultural associated with the history of the

region. Even though billions of dollars have been spent on development infrastructure such as

housing, drainage, flood protection, tsunami warning systems, evacuation plans, the outcomes of

these investments are not only variable but also divergent across the different areas (Nguyen &

Shaw, 2020). Advanced countries such as Singapore has put in place full fledge systems which

are supported by new technologies and quick response teams. However, the implementation of

even the basic measures in the sphere will be problematic for the countries with a relatively low

level of living. This raises a concern because economic divide is the center of efficiency in terms

of management of risks of catastrophes. In an area of the economy where little policy is coherent

to serve a particular strategy, the research concludes that such an approach is counterproductive

for that area and calls for a growth that is more inclusive of such differences.

Therefore, in connection with the issue of increasing the catastrophe resistance, the role

of the movement connected with them as the most significant factor of the scene grows most

rapidly. In the rural or any other place that is not given much attention this is true; the civic

associations and local personalities come in to offer the basic needs that the government has

failed to offer. This is especially the case where the government has no role to play at all Such is

the case of schools in the UK which are entirely independent of the government. Some of the

activities that are carried out during community-based activities include; recovery activities;

dissemination of information on disaster and; simulation of evacuation (Miller et al., 2020).

Nevertheless, it is impossible to underestimate the roles of the activities mentioned above, they

still have some crucial challenges. There is also another factor that is a disadvantage to their

growth and achievements; Most of the organizations have no recognition or support from the

government. It also raises some issues to the present efforts like discontinuation of funding,

which affects the formation of strategic plans because they do not know how much funding will

be given to an organization. Some scholars pointed out that for these programs to be effective,

there had to be better coordination between the standard or state driven approaches to disaster

management and those that were people centered.

Although the disaster management is a comprehensive process, the special social and

economic conditions of Southeast Asia are the last drop that makes the cup overflow. Thus, it has

been seen that the local communities which are endowed with high income levels are well

positioned to access the requirements that facilitate disaster recovery and disaster preparedness

for the natural disasters. These resources include improved houses, health facilities and

equipment for emergencies that were not planned for. At the same time, the economically

vulnerable populations are left with many problems at the starting level because they cannot even

invest in the necessary measures (Yusuf & Francisco, 2020). This implies that the vulnerable

group have more severe damages and also take time to be restored and this is a cycle which is

programmed by income disparity. From the research, it has been understood that investment in

social infrastructure may help improve resilience and from the literature, it is suggested that

policies to address these economic divides should be designed to address the enhancement of the

social infrastructure. But in order to get rid of the risks, which are connected with this situation,

economic changes and social activities are inevitable.

The another factor which is available in a country is educational level which also has

some impact on the disaster preparedness. In general, the communities, to a large extent, with a

higher level of education would be more informed, and observe the hazards that accompany

natural disasters, as well as be more protective in implementing the necessary measures. A study

conducted by Nguyen and Shaw in 2020 shows that the regions in Southeast Asia that have been

struggling in education are worst especially in the rural and low income areas. Preparedness and

reaction is lower in communities populated by uninformed groups and this only worsen the

vulnerability of the communities during a crisis. These differences are an essential factor that

contributes to the low overall capacity of the community. Based on the data obtained, one can

state that the availability of educational and awareness raising measures is the value equivalent

of the investment into the creation of physical capital. The populace will also be in a position to

support disaster response operations that are efficient and effective in the community thus

improving the communities disaster capacity.

Since combining the old knowledge and the new approaches for disaster management is

the opportunity, it also provides challenges. Some of the pre-call cultural practices that have

especially defined disaster cultures in many societies across Southeast Asia include indigenous

system of weather predication and community religious practices (Miller et al., 2020). However,

these strategies can be valuable to the SD process at some point, in some cases, they are the

opposite of trading scientifically. Policy makers have challenges this because while making

policies they are faced with dilemma of coming up with policies that are research informed and

cultural sensitive. Critics and scholars have commented that Disaster solution entails an

appreciation of culture as part of the plan. Disaster management could be enhanced or cultural

acceptance may be made if traditional knowledge is included into the plans. This will increase

public confidence and co-operation, and therefore partnership.

As a number of innovation solutions has been suggested, these new approaches merely

extend the question as to whether such initiatives will be sustainable in the future. In Southeast

Asia it is also crucial to note that the majority of disaster management still depends greatly on

the assistance of foreign aid and funding from donors. Therefore, people have a question of how

these organizations will support these projects in the future specifically because there is a chance

to get money from other sources (Yusuf & Francisco, 2020). According to the scholars, the

resourced self has to be developed in order to ensure the sustainability of the system. For this,

capacity of local people has to be developed and it should also be made sure that disaster

management is sustainable economically as well as operationally. In the context of this research,

these sustainability concerns will be discussed; the positives and negatives of the current systems

will be assessed; and recommendations will be made as to how the disaster management may be

made more sustainable and self-sufficient over the region.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Design

It presents a detailed discussion of the various measures offered by local governors and

realities of emergency management and the role of socio-economic factor in the disaster

preparedness in Southeast Asia. This is because disaster resilience is a phenomenon which it is

thought that the two approaches to research, quantitative and qualitative, are not sufficient to

explain. One the one hand, quantitative research enables one to have a broad understanding of

the relations between the socioeconomic factors while on the other hand, the qualitative research

provides the insight that is real in the communities affected (Creswell, 2014). This integrated

methodological approach is appropriate to the fact that the crisis management process is

examined from different perspectives and theoretical generalizations are supported by the

analysis of particular semantic contexts. Therefore, the use of both qualitative and quantitative

approaches increases the understanding of the patterns of disaster effects in relation to the

socioeconomic determinants and the factors that may influence emergency management in

disaster resilience.

This quantitative component of this research relates to the evaluation of the data collected

from the databases, UN, WB, and other national records of disasters. These data sources provide

wide ranging information on factors such as income inequality, education, health seeking

behavior, and population characteristics. To identify the level of the relationships between the

socioeconomic factors and the such indicators of the disaster impact as mortality rates, and the

time needed for the recovery, the regression and correlation analysis will be applied (Bryman,

2015). This phase of some research work is crucial in view of the fact that there are certain

trends that are not very obvious but are very vital for policy and practice. The findings of this

quantitative study will allow for the adding of qualitative analysis on top and also incorporate the

macro and micro level approach in the analysis of the research questions.

This part of this study involves case studies and semi-structured interviews among the

Stakeholders. Particular attention will be paid to selected countries of South East Asia differing

in the level of exposure to natural disasters and socioeconomic status: Indonesia, Philippines, and

Vietnam for example. These countries can be considered as the countries with high potential of

comparison because their experience is quite opposite, and their specific features may explain the

differences in disaster preparedness depending on the economic and social development of the

country. Hence, semi-structured interviews will be needed to get the views of government

officials, local leaders, and community members and disaster management practitioners on

current practices and social and economic conditions (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009). The

principal strength of this particular qualitative approach is the ability for the participants to

expand on their experiences and explain Other factors that may influence disaster occurrence.

These will include narrative accounts that would be difficult to obtain from quantitative data.

This is where three different approaches will be used in the study in order to increase the

credibility of the research overall. To eliminate prejudice and to achieve a clearer and more

comprehensive view of the study’s research questions, the following multiple sources of data and

methods of research are recommended by the author of the study (Denzin, 2012). The obtained

qualitative data will afterwards be compared to the quantitative data to create a final review. For

example, numerical analyses of relationships between income and recovery probabilities can be

complemented with first-person narratives of how income inequality contributes to limitations on

essential resources: for instance, medical care in case of an emergency, and housing. It is because

of this methodological rigor that all conclusions arrived at are valid and can be used by both the

academician and the policy maker. To provide a more detailed picture of antecedents of disaster

resilience it is recommended to employ both quantitative and qualitative data.

The reasoning for the selection of the participants has been expanded to include both the

breadth and depth of the sample. For the quantitative analysis, only secondary cross-sectional

data will be used to assess the disaster management and socio-economic situation in the most

recent period of the last ten years. In this study data cleaning and pre-processing will be done

with a view of handling any issue of incomplete data or any observation that may be out of the

expected range. For the purpose of this study, the researcher will use purposive sampling since it

is dealing with people who have practical experience in disaster management and or are direct

victims of disasters. This way, the data collected is as much and as relevant as possible to the

study, as Patton notes (2002). The study will therefore conduct 30 interviews to get different

views from different status and regions of the places.

As the research areas of this study concern disaster related issues, it is imperative to

consider ethical implications because the participant can be at risk. All the participants will be

given informed consent in which they will be briefed on aspects of the research, objectives,

procedures and their rights as subjects of this research before any interview is conducted on

them. The participants will be required to assent to the questionnaires and will be informed that

all their answers will be treated in confidence and that their names will not appear anywhere.

Also, it will ensure that prejudice on cultural diversity is not emphasized as much as possible

especially when dealing with the people especially the Southeast Asian societies, which have a

different culture. The approval from the university ethical committee will be sought in order to

ensure that ethics of the research will meet the international ethical standard as recommended by

the BSA (2017). The following actions are as follows and serve the purpose of the participants’

protection and the research reliability.

3.2. Data Collection and Analysis

The data collection process is divided into two sections since there is a chance to conduct

quantitative data analysis and on the other hand, there is field work which is qualitative research.

Quantitative phase is therefore a process of gathering secondary data from the databases which

are recognized and credible. These datasets will include among others; income, education, and

health, which are critical in determining the socioeconomic status of a population in disaster

resilience. The data collected will be first pre-processed as cleaning will involve areas like

handling missing and extreme values before the data is analyzed. According to Schultz (2015)

and Bryman (2015), it is possible to use numerous techniques in the research process, and for

that reason, statistical tools like SPSS or R will be employed in the study to analyze multiple

regression, ANOVA and other types of tests that will help the researcher to fully understand the

relationship between the variables under study. Many of the patterns and correlations that are

critical to the study will be presented in this quantitative analysis of the data that is expected to

be relatively large and based on observation.

The analysis will include case studies and semi-structured interviews to provide richer

and contextualized data to the research questions. There are several case studies will be

highlighted throughout the paper and they include the countries that are prone to natural

disasters, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam due to their overdependence on natural disasters,

their disposition to different natural disasters and they cover various economic status. To this

end, this work will only consider some cases and examine the role of the social structure

elements in the results of disaster operation. Semi structured interviews will be conducted on a

purposive sample of respondents from the government and non-government agency, community

leaders and disaster management officials. By using semi-structured interviews, the research can

get a range of opinions and occurrences that give more comprehensive understanding of the

current state of disaster management strategies and their positive and negative results (Kvale &

Brinkmann, 2009).

Thematic analysis will be used in analyzing the data collected and NVivo software will

be used to sort the data into themes and patterns. This procedure will make it easier to categories

and sort the data in a proper manner It will ensure that all details about the participant’s

experiences are captured in the analysis. The thematic analysis will focus on the subject areas

that include the effectiveness of the current interventions, barriers to the practice, and the effect

of the social-economic status on disasters. This qualitative design will enrich the outcome of

quantitative findings by providing details of the trends noticed from the quantitative data. It

means that if quantitative data is used to link education levels with recovery periods, then

qualitative interviews that will follow may help explain why education is central to disaster risk

reduction and management (Creswell, 2014).

Triangulation will therefore be very paramount as part of the data analysis to confirm that

results arrived at are credible. This will in turn enhance the validity and reliability of the research

because data collected from one source will be compared and confirmed with data collected by

using other methods (Denzin, 2012). The analysis of numerical data will reveal a correlation

between income and disaster resistance, while the analysis of nonnumeric data will help identify

the ways in which income influences disaster resistance; for example, the possibility to purchase

better-built homes or better-quality emergency medical services. Through this series of method

integration, the research shall be able to make much more accurate assumptions since in fact

these factors are correlated and hence give out much more specific recommendation on how to

enhance coping capacities in disasters in specific countries of south east Asia.

As outlined in both phases of the study, adaptations have been made to make sure that

research is in a position to take into account the various views of people. This part being a

quantitative research data will be sourced from published works hence data to be used will cover

at least a decade to capture the current trends. In this case, to ensure that the users are actively

involved in the data collection process, purposive sampling technique will be used to select

interviewees who have adequate understanding and experience on the matters of concern in the

research (Patton 2002). This way, it is certain that the study will be able to capture the voices of

the society, both the town dwellers and the villager, the haves and the have nots. The goal is to

get to a point of theoretical saturation that is when the researcher gets the feeling that there will

be no other new flavor to the experiences in the region to be identified.

The most important moral consideration will be institutional morality; every effort will be

made to do research ethically. The participants will realize their purpose in the study, role

Demands, Rights and that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without

explanation. Participants will be asked to fill consent forms, and, to the utmost extent possible,

participant identity will not be disclosed in the study. Regarding all study data, the maximum

data confidentiality will be provided, and the information will be available only to the members

of the research group. The subject of cultural concern will be of great concern especially because

people of different and sensitive culture will be involved. In the research, a approval will be

sought from a university and the ethical consideration of the British Sociological Association

(BSA, 2017) will be adopted. This means that the measures are to safeguard everyone who

participates in any research endeavor and for the proper conduct of research.

4. Socioeconomic Variables in Disaster Resilience

4.1. Income and Poverty

Income levels, as well as poverty rates, are two of the most fundamental measures of a

society’s preparedness and recovery from natural disasters. Inequality is high in ASEAN

countries; the readiness and ability of ASEAN in facing disaster also vary depending on the level

of income inequality (Nguyen & Shaw, 2020). When it comes to disaster, the rich are in a better

place; they have the financial muscle to strengthen their homes, stock food and medicine

supplies for the event of disasters, and also to seek insurance policies in case disasters strike

them. On the other hand, the working poor and other low income Earls struggle to meet their

basic needs, thus are highly vulnerable during disasters. This system results in significant

differences in the dynamics of economic recovery in that the well-off districts regain business as

usual while the poor districts are stuck in the development crisis zone. According to the

literature, the definition of income is not only confined to individual level fragility but also to

systematic deriving vulnerabilities at the societal level because such societies lack adequate

infrastructure and basic services (Yusuf & Francisco, 2020).

Poverty is a root cause of vulnerability because it enhances other risks that may occur to

the people and the certain areas. The vulnerable households in these nations are forced to reside

in disadvantaged areas, including: Hazard areas such as flood plains; steep slopes; and

inadequate structures in the slums (Miller et al., 2020). However, these regions have inadequate

railway, water drainage, road and safety houses structure and thus, the areas are prone to natural

disasters. Second, high levels of disaster vulnerability are exacerbated by poor and insufficient

healthcare and disasters preparedness and management systems because low income earners

cannot afford proper medical attention or seek shelter in safer areas. The poverty and

vulnerability cycle perpetuates itself; each disaster leads to increased poverty, and reduced

capacity of the poor to recover. It creates a trap in which societies most vulnerable populations

remain at the edge of the vulnerability line without any opportunity to invest in strategies that

would help them improve their systemic safety over time (Cutter et al., 2018).

Another place where inequalities which stem from income disparities become evident is

in the ability to access recovery resources following a disaster. The health sector or damaged

homes need repairs or people can afford to move to other safer places and thus a fresh start can

be made to the society faster and better. Conversely, low-income families are forced to rely on

assistance from the authorities and, as is known, such assistance comes when it pleases, or it is

insufficient to solve the problem (Tan & Gaillard, 2018). Sometimes, bureaucratic misfeasance

and embezzlement deepen such disparities, which is therefore a waste of resources and the aid

never gets to the intended vulnerable groups. In particular, the issue of long term economic

effects of housing on low income households can be analyzed further as it is known that long

time recovery cycles may lead to job loss, learning loss, or deterioration of health. This lack of

recovery resources indicates that more specific efforts should be made to engage with

economically vulnerable populations to reduce the impact of socio-economic disparities on

recovery (Park et al., 2022).

The other challenge to disaster preparedness and response in many of the Southeast Asian

countries is the dual labor structure. At present, a significant number of such workers are

engaged in low-wage informal employment that does not offer employment rights, leaves, or

other amenities (Chatterjee, 2021). These workers are always at high risks of losing their income

because most disasters result in unemployment or reduced working hours. Since there is no

formal job and social protection that can help families cope with the costs of disaster losses or

wages during joblessness, informal employment families have no option but to turn to useful

access to credit. This direction of an economy is not only detrimental to the individual character

and strength but also to the community- rebuilding potential. However, the informal labor

dependence generates structural factors that necessitate radical changes in the economy that can

only be best described by the global model to enhance job security and social protection (2017,

8).

Measures to enhance disaster preparedness have been observed in the governments

agenda of fighting poverty and income inequality. Thus, social protection; a cash transfer,

subsidies to housing, equal access to health-care, will act as a shield that will dampen adverse

effects of natural disasters on low-income families. Where appropriately funded and well

administered, these programs have not been a failure in providing a form of protection which

these subjects would need to be able to recover. There are many problems that affect the South

Eastern Asian states’ capacity to design and implement effective programs such as inadequate

and erratic resources, corruption, and bureaucracy. There is evidence in the literature this

argument proposing the poverty reduction strategies to go hand in with the disaster risk was

likely to produce more efficient and fair results than any other approach to the problem because,

the improvement of the economic status of the communities means a better prepared society in

the event of any other related disasters in future.

Disaster resilience can therefore not be achieved merely through addressing the issue of

income and poverty, as increasing income and eradicating poverty is inextricably linked with the

question of enhancing the economic situation in the future. The money is also needed for

contingency of every individual but also to build stronger structures or to train more efficient

first responders. The role of integrating disaster risk reduction into poverty reduction strategies

with economic activities is increasing and this means that disaster risk reduction strategies must

consider economic activities such as job creation and investment in affordable housing.

Economic vulnerability can be addressed by government for it to stop the cycle of poverty and

ensure that all people recover from disasters as soon as possible. This can be because of the

reason that comprehensive and sustainable strategies are needed to ensure that progress made in

the reduction of income inequality is harmonized with the improvement of disaster risk reduction

(Lin et al., 2021).

4.2. Education and Awareness

The educational sector is one of the most critical factors in any disaster preparedness

program because education gives one or a community a way of how to handle a disaster

situation. The authors also agree that in Southeast Asia educational resources are not equally

available across the region which creates significant variation in disaster risk management

(Yusuf & Francisco, 2020). In a rural setting, informal disaster education is more prevalent and

generally less efficient than the formal disaster education in urban areas because people in the

former are likely to have poor education standards as compared to those in the latter. This in

particular influences the way the affected population perceives early warnings and follows the

evacuation orders. The healthier a person is, the better the chances that the individual

understands the risk and what to do, the less aware the person is the less aware they are of the

extent of the situation or its severity and what to do about it (Nguyen & Shaw, 2020).

The awareness themes and disaster education interventions have been identified to

address some of these educational gaps especially in the illiterate or low literacy societies. Some

of the programs include community workshops, disaster preparedness circulation in schools and

public information campaigns on the dangers and the right course of action in case of a disaster

(Miller et al., 2020). It poses cultures and accessibility issues with regards to the initiatives that

are developed to enhance the institution. If a program is localized and even translated into the

local language and gives people exactly what they want, then it will be successful. These

programs may be more effective if the traditional knowledge is combined with scientific

knowledge so that people can easily understand them. The literature also directs its attention to

the promising role of appropriate culture sensitivity awareness raising interventions in

establishing trust and mobilization of a wide range of stakeholders into disaster risk reduction

campaigns.

Here, education is not seen as preparation for the improvement of the individual but as

preparation for the general improvement of all or general dealing with hardship. The educated

people are most likely to volunteer in order to coordinate or partake in the disaster management

plans, join various groups, campaign for better disaster facilities and relations and therefore, the

effect is multiplied in the whole society (Cutter et al., 2018). It fosters unity which is another

aspect of resilience, everyone includes. Research on social capital and disaster has highlighted

that people within cohesive communities are in a better place to engage in efforts to work

together in order to respond to disasters, acquire and distribute resources and support each other

during and after disasters. It means that the social capital residing in education, social inclusion

and resilience calls for an investment in both basic education and the social education systems as

well as other related social education resources.

Nevertheless, there are many issues related to the implementation and the impact of

disaster education in the Southeast Asian countries. The homes in the rural areas are not well

equipped with what it takes to prepare for a disaster, and the teachers are not well trained while

the schools are not well developed as those in the urban areas (Tan & Gaillard, 2018). Another

related challenge is the fact that school curricula do not offer comprehensive disaster education

meaning that students in these areas do not gain from important information that would help

them reduce risks. It is therefore necessary to provide money to address these needs; for instance,

in construction of schools where there are few or none at all, in teacher training, and in the

provision of disaster education all over the countries. When governments pay attention to these

measures, then it will be feasible to ensure that each of the various societies, the rural and the

urban, and from all the classes are ready to deal with the disasters that may be falling on them.

Another popular topic of discussion among the reformulations is disaster education which

is being delivered with the help of formal learning process. Although the trend shows that the

integration of disaster contingency planning into school curricular is on the rise, many countries

have not fully embraced it across all institutions (Lin et al., 2021). The literatures show that

integration of Climate change education into the school syllabus would make the young stars

understand climate change and hence Young stars will be able to embrace the course and become

a generation of Disaster Risk Reduction. This way students benefit from this approach and in

turn spread the word in their homes and other families making the society a better place.

Nevertheless, there are several imperative challenges which limit the possibility to enhance the

implementation of disaster education more efficiently, including, for instance, curriculum

overcrowding, and lack of government funding chiefly.

The role of education and awareness in disaster resilience is clear: The common man

armed with information on prevention and recovery is in a much better shape to cope with

disasters and recover from them. The education should be a right for every child and that is why

this will actually benefit from the focusing on this area. Thus, the policy makers should focus on

the integration of the most formal educational activities with the mission-based community

programs in order to reach the highest possible coverage. This way of approaching the disaster

risks from both the top and the bottom would mean that the young, the middle aged, the elderly

and all others in between and from all walks of life would be able to identify the risks of

disasters and how to avoid them. Investment in education in the SE Asian countries will foster a

society that will be able to withstand effects of climate change and other environmental

challenges that are likely to affect this world in the future (Rahman et al., 2019).

5. Case Studies

5.1. Country A: Case Study Overview

The first case study areas that are described are Indonesia, which is exposed to

earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and floods. Indonesia’s location makes this country

one of the most threatened regions in the world with frequent natural disasters because of its

location along the Pacific Ring of Fire. The disaster risks are high in the large populated area and

the vulnerability due to geographical factors such as the coastal and hilly areas (Indonesia

National Disaster Management Agency, 2019). The Indonesian government has also put in place

policies and has also taken actions in aspects of disaster risk reduction. These strategies are

affected by socioeconomic disparities, and the at-risk community from the impoverished slums is

disproportionately impacted in the disasters (World Bank, 2020). These include inequities in

availability and use of resources with the resource poor rural and economically deprived areas

being at the greatest risk. Furthermore, scarce resources which are provided within the

framework of government budgets placed DRRI in the same block with other crucial needs of

society, including health and education. The measures of disaster preparedness are costly and

their application is only felt in areas with high income; thus Increasing the gaps in the society.

Indonesia has also developed a form of disaster management through establishment of

BNPB and early warning systems. The BNPB is an Indonesian government body which is

responsible for supervising the disaster management plans across the regions of Indonesian

archipelago and for managing the collaboration of local governments and foreign organizations

for implementing the disaster preparedness measures (BNPB, 2019). For instance, the agency

has given money for the application of technology on the early signs of tsunamis and volcanic

eruptions in the affected regions. It is evident that these systems are influenced by factors such as

socioeconomic factors such as poor communication and technology infrastructure in rural areas.

These regions face infrastructural constraints to the dissemination of warnings and the majority

of the affected populace gets insufficient or delayed information (Indonesia National Disaster

Management Agency, 2019). Additionally, literacy problems, language barriers also play their

role in the process of providing warnings especially because a large number of rural population

is illiterate. Daily activities are needed and have been sporadic and different in different regions

and are led by local leaders and supported with funds. Some of these gaps have however been

addressed through the development partnership frameworks, a situation that however raises

concerns on sustainability due to the fact that support from the partners is often scaled down or

completely stopped.

The people’s income and education levels increase the ability of an area to restore from a

disaster in Indonesia. Because of the limited access to adequate homes and services, these

affected residents and the majority of those displaced and living in informal settlements are the

most vulnerable (World Bank, 2020). From the educational point of view, this is not very

helpful, as many people in the rural areas may be unaware of good disaster preparedness

measures. As is the case with other factors, urban inhabitants have been reported to have gained

from the education campaigns while rural dwellers continue to be disadvantaged by the two

because the two deals with the identification of resources and support structures for the

campaigns (UNDP Indonesia, 2018). Due to the differences in education, the affected people do

not know the effects and how to prevent them during disasters. Also, the problem of poor health

care in the low income areas complicate the issue because injuries and diseases are hard to

prevent or control after disasters. Some of the economic consequences realized are that families

are shifted to the next level of poverty as disaster moves them to the next level in the poverty

ladder of life. Closeness of these learning and earning gaps should therefore be of paramount

importance in the development of better and more efficient societies.

Among the problem, Indonesia faces is the inability to foster economic development

while at the same time promoting disaster risk reduction. This has been occasioned by

urbanization where people and their developments have taken them to the disaster-prone areas

with a view to exploring the dangers that are associated with natural disasters (World Bank,

2020). Technological disaster mitigation policies exist in the country to address the problem of

land use and construction of structures that can fall easily during disasters but such policies have

not been well implemented. Third, the neoliberal agenda of fiscal discipline and market

liberalization is repeatedly defeated by the populist agenda, with the result that inadequate and

informal housing for the poor is provided with no regard for vulnerability to disasters due to

financial constraints. Solving of these problems requires the integrated processes and procedures

with economic considerations in actions and governance of hazards, in the course of disaster risk

reduction in development, which does not impede the development of new solutions with people

in Indonesia (UNDP Indonesia, 2018). Another factor that complicate the issue is the fact that

some parts of the Indonesian economy are run by informal sectors and these areas and structures

have been developed without any regulation. There are increasing demands by the urban

planners and the policy makers to embrace Integrated approaches that has intervention from the

private sector and the public sector. However, the actions are often hampered by corruption and

bureaucracy and are at most erratic. The alleged qualities of such strategies are therefore the need

to formulate long term visions that can reconcile the economic potentialities with stable growth.

Indonesia has also demonstrated very good practices in the management of community

disasters. In the implementing areas including Aceh which a devastating hit by the 2004 tsunami,

the locals have also similar created demands as well as participate in the reconstruction and

enhancing their preparedness (Indonesia National Disaster Management Agency, 2019).

According to Getzema and Getzema, some of the measures that have helped in raising the level

of awareness include; people in the communities trying to put in place training on disaster

preparedness; and organizations of able-bodied persons in the communities to be put on standby.

These programs are locally focused and informed and aid communities in being proactive. Even

if this is the case, they have been seen to be pulled by funding constraints and the need to sustain

such spirit from national and international friends. Thus, numerous managers in communities

note the lack of available and efficient tools that are necessary for planning. This implies that

there will always be cultural beliefs and values that may influence the people in organization on

issues to do with risk taking and therefore strategy change. Also, the problem emerges in the

questions of how the traditional methods can be coordinated with the modern strategies of risk

reduction. These measures are being initiated from this date with some success in some regions

for these purposes.

5.2. Country B: Case Study Overview

The second country that needs to be considered is the Philippines which is one of the

South East Asian countries that remain most exposed to natural disasters such as typhoons,

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Because of being situated at the Pacific Typhoon Belt, the

Philippines is one of the countries that are most often hit by natural disasters, with about 20

storms per year, five of which are deadly (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and

Astronomical Services Administration, 2020). Through the NDRRMC Philippine has established

a good disaster risk management framework which is the body in charge of disaster risk

management in the country. However, as in Indonesia, it is also known that social-economic

factors are crucial for the level of the communities’ readiness (ADB, 2021). Another factor is the

geographical factor of an archipelagic structure of the country that complicates work and disaster

response in remote areas. The infrastructure in such areas is poor and the physical structures can

limit movements during evacuation and later on distribution of assistance. It is geographically

dispersed and that makes it harder to coordinate with other local and national organizations.

These factors combined together make the disaster management in the Philippines to be harder

than in the other countries.

Among these are the approach that has been used by the Philippines in community based

disaster risk management (CBDRM). This approach has been most applied in the coastal and

rural society regions where the citizens have developed their personal disaster preparedness

modalities and early warning indicators. The CBDRM approach consists of enhancing the

capacities of communities to develop their own risk mapping, evacuation or to manage wounds

and includes the implementation of measures that are culturally acceptable (NDRRMC, 2020).

These activities are based on the amount of funds received and the support of the local

government units. As an addition to the above, there is no funding and poor infrastructure

especially in the resource poor regions, which hampers the coordination of the DRMs. Moreover,

shifts in governmental priorities and policies threaten the paradigms within which the long-term

disaster planning is conducted; the following risks are still possible. Non-governmental

organizations from other countries have been of great help, however, the tendency to rely on

assistance from other countries is not very desirable. Such efforts can be continued only where

there is a system of decentralized government and resources have to be properly directed.

The livelihood factor of the Filipinos intensifies the impact of the disasters because many

of the victims are economically poor. Many people are still poor and cannot afford to take an

insurance cover to cater for such expenses hence a large population is still at risk (ADB, 2021).

This aggravates the situation of the already expanding population of informal workers who form

a large part of the working population of the world. Because they are vulnerable workers, they

are the first to be forced to accept cuts in wages as we have witnessed in the case of disaster.

This weak economic foundation though, means that the journey back into the middle class is a

slow and painful one, one that traps families of color into poverty. These are the economic

factors that have to be addressed in order to build resilience in disaster response; through policies

that ease poverty and economic imbalance to create more sustainable income sources (PSA

2019). Microfinance programs and social enterprises have been suggested but still there are very

limited of them. Similarly, credit market imperfections particularly deeper pockets credits are

still a preserve of the rich and famous and this calls for broad based economic structural changes.

Before making recommendations on how to achieve economic stability, it is important that

governments must not take the disaster risk into account.

It should also be noted that education is also involved in the residual programs related to

disasters in the Philippines. The government has attempted to incorporate disaster education in

the school then it has a direction towards building the culture of disaster preparedness among

children (UNICEF Philippines, 2019). Schools are also employed for disaster drills, and

educative sessions that help learners on how they should behave during a calamity and the

consequences of calamities. The enrolment and participation inequalities persist especially at the

rural and remote areas. Scarcely any schools have all the requirements that are needed for the

implementation of disaster education and the teachers may not have been well prepared to teach

this area. This education gap must be closed so that all population categories may be prepared

with the knowledge needed to respond to disasters (NDRRMC, 2020). Efforts have been made to

improve the education infrastructure but the process is usually slow to medium because of lack

of funds. Some of these gaps have been filled by NGO and private organizations, but this is not

enough; a general framework is required. Perhaps, a curriculum which can be sustained in the

long run and which can also include disaster education in the plan can be made.

Another problem of disaster management related to the effects of urbanization is another

problem Experienced in the Philippines. This has been attributed to; rapid urban development

that has lead to the growth of slum and other shanty towns in the hazard prone areas including

the riverine and coastal lines. These regions are densely populated, and the physical

infrastructure is generally weak and thus very vulnerable to floods and storm surges (ADB,

2021). The government has also followed the post disaster risk management by conducting what

is known as ‘resettlement’ to move people from the affected areas but this has not been very

effective because people are normally reluctant to move from their original place of business and

social life. To prevent risks and to design a solution, it is necessary to consider the ways that

economic improvement and safety are interrelated in cities. The cultural and social relations with

regard to land affect early relocation and thus agriculturalist voluntary relocation is difficult.

There are efforts to formulate conceptually sound integrated urban planning measures but the use

is still a challenge. These is could be made better by efforts that include involvement of the

affected communities in collaborative processes.

The Philippines has had some flexibility through these practices and a very centralized

community orientation. Mostly, local authorities and non-governmental organizations have

initiated such activities as the project of mangrove planting, protection of coastlines, and the like,

which have proved their efficiency concerning the impact of typhoons and storms (UNICEF

Philippines, 2019). These nature-based solutions are not only helpful for disaster risk reduction

but also beneficial to the ecological, and economic aspects of the affected areas and their

inhabitants. This experience of the Philippines reveals that even with the predominantly constant

socio-economic factors, the concept and reality of prevention can lead to significant

improvements in disaster risk reduction and resilience in the sum total in the future if community

mobilization is well done. Also, family-oriented organizational culture and values of bayanihan

which means people help each other especially during disasters are also applicable. In order to

meet future needs the community based investment and sustainable issues will also need to be

further expanded. Improvement of the disaster management system that has been depicted by the

government is inspiring to other developing countries.

6. Findings and Analysis

6.1. Socioeconomic analysis of variables across various case analyses.

On the basis of the comparison of the indicators of socio-economic development of

Indonesia and the Philippines it is possible to identify the corresponding similarities and

differences which determine the potential of countries in the field of prevention and response to

disasters. All these countries face discrimination in many spheres of their life and treatment of

different groups of people; these differences have significant effects on how people from

different communities’ experience or even suffer from negative events such as natural disasters.

The urban to rural split is quite a peculiar one for Indonesia. This is despite the fact that areas in

cities like Jakarta are well endowed with resources, better infrastructure and literate population to

undertake the right disaster control measures as seen by Indonesia National Disaster

Management Agency (2019). On the other hand, the rural areas are deprived with little or no

infrastructure at all; therefore, disaster warning and response interventions are also poor. As for

the problem of resource availability for crisis endurance resistance, these gaps indicate that such

inequalities need to be addressed. Similarly, the governments’ priorities also focus on the

development of cities, which makes rural areas receive little attention and even forms vicious

circles. This is a big challenge for disaster management as the urban and rural regions need two

contrasting models of management. However, disaster response is still a problem because of

physical factors such as the fact that Indonesia is a large stretched archipelagic geography. That

is why the policies of disaster management and prevention should be localized as there are

differences in culture and language in different areas.

The Philippines also fits this picture as the level of disaster preparedness in the country is

quite contrasting between the well-developed urban centers and the least developed rural regions.

Again, the core cities and areas like Manila can gain better infrastructure, preparedness, funds to

improve their early warning systems and funds to rebuild. But this is not the reality especially in

rural and the coastal part of the country respectively. The identified population has low levels of

literacy and high rates of disease, low health standards and poor disaster preparedness due to the

fact that the population live in areas that are prone to natural disasters in the Philippines

(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2019). This is even the fact that families that have some

employment have people working for them because employment that is common in the society is

the informal employment which does not assist families much when they are in financial

difficulties. Such economic vulnerability is similar to what was revealed in Indonesia and

therefore both countries should have particular economic and social measures to improve the

population’s standard of living. However, Philippines is an Archipelago; it means that it is

composed of many small and large Islands which make it difficult to access the affected area

with the relief items in the right time. Politics and governance is a key determinant of the

behaviour of disasters and this makes the response to disasters an unpredictable process. Its own

requirement of international aid in both countries further cements the need to develop an

independent system of disaster management that is sustainable for the future.

Indonesia as one country and the Philippines as another country in the same manner have

different social education and awareness levels for disaster because of the difference in their

preparedness and response to disasters. While disaster education has been perceived to have been

given much attention in urban areas, the rural areas have been struggling to access education

materials (UNDP Indonesia, 2018). Many rural societies have no professional knowledge in

disaster which results to delayed moments of evacuation and wrong choices during disasters.

Even though it is this way, the Philippines has put much effort into integrating disaster education

into its school systems despite the difficulties encountered in rural areas. For instance,

implementation strategies that have targeted existing densely populated areas in schools and

public awareness campaigns have been expanded to enhance their effectiveness while other

strategies that need to cover more area have been called to extend their services to the

impoverished communities (UNICEF Philippines, 2019). From the above, it is seen that the level

of education of both the urban and rural population of both countries demands more attention

and investment in the delivery of disaster education information and knowledge. Also, cultural

factors determine the level and the manner in which people understand and can be made to

understand disaster literacy, which is cultural sensitive. There is also conflict over language,

perhaps because many of the communities are not fluent in the national language. These issues

raise questions on the appropriateness of community-based education intervention strategies

which are sensitive to the free and people’s culture.

The other crucial questions that emerge from the case studies are; how does economic

inequality affect the vulnerability of housing and infrastructure? In particular, Indonesia and the

Philippines, people with low income cannot build safe and durable homes, thus, they are at

higher risk of natural disasters. Most of the time they are compelled to live in substandard houses

or slums. The houses are largely built with inferior materials and are situated in risky zones of

the river bank or flood plains (World Bank, 2020; ADB, 2021). Lack of funds to purchase better

quality houses leads the occupants to be more vulnerable to suffering from more accidents,

fatalities and losses. Also, the low income earners have limited access to the recovery assets,

including financing or insurance; hence, recovery is costly to them. This calls for formulation of

polices that aims to ensure that provision of house and physical infrastructure is equitable so that

every community can afford good standard of living (World Bank, 2020). This is so because

aspect of planning the city structure and organization through zoning has to incorporate DR, in

the analysis. More disheartening is the fact that the informal settlements can be used to give

affordable houses as a counter measure. There could be other possible ways of funding for

instance micro credit for home improvements and maintenance that would make the homes of

the low income earners more disastrous. It means that the cooperation between the government

and the private sector is key to addressing the housing problem.

Another important externality of disaster is an inadequate healthcare which is another

potential hazard that is likely to be used as a measure of disaster preparedness. This type of

health care delivery tends to favor the urban area while the rural population suffers from

inadequate health care needs before, during and post disaster (Indonesia National Disaster

Management Agency, 2019). The Philippines is also vulnerable to the same because most of the

health institutions are compromised during disasters especially in the difficult to access areas

(ADB, 2021). Health care is limited and this is a factor that escalates the effects of disasters

especially due to the continued unattended to injuries to the society’s economic and social

structure. The present scenario requires more investment to enhance the healthcare infrastructure

especially in the disaster prone zones of both the countries. Mobile health care facilities and

telemedicine services might be seen as possible solutions to the challenge of reaching out to the

population which is not easily reachable. Capacity building of healthcare workers during

disasters can also enhance the health care system capacity. However, partnership with

international health care institution could bring added knowledge and creativity. The

establishment of health care system is not simply social agenda but rather a disaster risk

reduction and preparedness.

There are some particularities regarding disaster risks in every country and the manner in

which these states are willing to address them. This nation has also put much of its resources into

technology to develop early warning systems for some natural disasters including tsunamis and

volcanic activities. It is noted that these systems are limited to the rural environment since there

is no infrastructure that supports the integration of the two systems (BNPB, 2019). For instance,

Philippine has an effective tradition of community and local government organizations and Non-

Governmental Organizations and humanitarian organizations are very active in disaster response

(NDRRMC, 2020). It has also been effective in community organization and building up the

capacity of the local people. In order to extend the potential of the problem-solving in that area,

both countries need social and economic transformations. Integrating traditional practices to

disaster management with the technological approaches that involve integrating ICTs may

enhance or even replace the current disaster response operations. It means that the development

of Public-Private Partnership (PPP), can contribute to mobilizing resources for efficient DRM to

address problems of food assistance and so on. BNPB (2019) says the international cooperation

can also lead to the development of new forms of relations in South East Asia between the

countries of the region. It will also be to the advantage of both countries to learn from each other

on how best to strengthen the country in the face of disaster.

6.2. Social Demographic Variable Factors and Consequences Regarding Disaster Resilience

Socioeconomic factors are a part of disaster resilience process and not only define the

way of disaster preparedness, but also the way of disaster recovery. Income is thought to be an

important predictor of resilience because it allows one to buy protective factors and avoid

financial losses and recover quickly. The Indonesian and Filipino middle and higher income

status can easily fortify their houses, insure their properties, and access health care while the

poor remain excluded from such basic needs (World Bank, 2020; ADB, 2021). This paper noted

that high levels of income inequality exacerbate the adverse impacts of disasters as bottom-end

regions cannot afford to absorb the socio-economic impacts of disasters in terms of financial

replenishment. Hence, addressing those economic inequalities is pivotal to enhance the Disaster

Risk Reduction. These gaps could be remedied if special funding was provided for special

programs. It is possible to create centers for microcredit, which will help people get cheap loans

for repairing damaged houses after catastrophes. The other measures include real sources of

income diversification such as job training programs as indicated above. It means the

government must ensure that it has measures that help to promote Economic Empowerment of

disadvantaged groups.

Education and awareness is another factor that has very big influence on disasters. Those

members who have high education status are likely to take an early warning, participate in

disaster practices, get involved and make the right decisions in disaster situations. Disaster

education has not been well enhanced in the rural areas of Indonesia, hence, poor response

outcomes on the other hand the urban areas have been well educate and has improved the

response outcomes (UNDP Indonesia, 2018). However, while Disaster Risk Reduction in

education curriculum is well implemented in the Philippines, challenges still persist especially in

far flung and hard to reach and poor areas (UNICEF Philippines, 2019). It is also clear that

education acts as an antecedent of personal preparedness and as a basis for collective

preparedness, this means that disaster education for the communities that have no access to such

services will enhance preparedness. The community based education program may be relevant in

the formal education system. Technological lessons may be useful in enhancing disaster

education so as to enhance the level of education in the area. The participants, our DPLs and SPs,

still had some suggestions as to how these initiatives could be improved; for instance, by

developing culturally appropriate educational materials and by involving other NGOs. It is

recommended that education should remain a tool for reducing the existing gaps in the

achievement of sustainable development in the many future years.

Socioeconomic status has direct impact on housing and infrastructure that are very vital

aspects of any community. Alexander (2021) assert that the case studies provide evidence that

families with low income live in temporary structures often located in cyclically inundated areas.

These settlements are associated with poor access to necessities like adequate drainage facilities;

they are very vulnerable to disasters such as floods and the likes (World Bank, 2020). This factor

puts the low income earners in a disadvantaged as they are incapable of affording well-built

house and therefore are more likely to suffer from injuries as well as loss of property. Such

policies as those intended to advance better housing and offer cheap and disaster resilient houses

may help this hinder these risks and increase resilience. Second, concrete public concerns with

improvement of the infrastructure that would positively impact all classes of the community

which is transportation and shelters, an emergency safety necessity for all. Laws under

construction must be followed to their core in relations to the construction quality. Definitely,

governments should promote the important housing improvements for low income families by

subsidizing the costs that families have to pay. The other benefit key priority of resilient urban

planning is also responding to disaster risks through including green spaces. There is an

importance in planning and managing of disaster risks in planning for safer districts.

Healthcare provisioning, surprisingly, features as another sub-theme in disaster resilience

agenda where the differences between urban and rural areas of both countries has been quite

apparent. In Indonesia, unlimited exploitation of the centralized healthcare facilities in urban

areas often results in denial of access to adequate health facilities during disasters to rural

populace (BNBP, 2019). The Philippines has the same issue as finding necessary health care in

rural areas and preparing for disasters (Alexander, 2021). Where people cannot access adequate

medical care they suffer from the post disaster impact which is even more profound for low

income groups that cannot afford to seek medical help from private clinics. Increasing capacities

in a risk-prone country as well as addressing the problems of inequitable distribution of medical

services are two valuable paths toward community resilience. The present situation could be

served by mobile clinics and emergency response teams. Training the health care professional in

disaster management is another important investment. ADB (2021) says the potential

improvements to the supply of health resources could stem from governments entering into

partnerships with overseas health organizations. Probably closing the disparities in healthcare is

also an important pillar of disaster resilience planning.

The other two dimensions that characterize the level of disaster resilience include people-

to-people relations and cohesion as well as community involvement. Through community based

disaster management, there has been success in the Philippines in regard to enhancing

community survival. These community actions as self-directed evacuation and risk analysis can

help people and communities to act protectively for themselves (NDRRMC, 2020). Attempts

have also been made in Indonesia to involve the locals in formulation of their disaster

management plans and their effectiveness depends on resource availability and the community’s

participation (Indonesia National Disaster Management Agency, 2019). It is also important

because social relations at the basic level and community spirit is also important for disaster

preparedness as resources can be easily transferred from one house to another in the community.

Due to the fact that community centers accommodate many people of all ages, they become

suitable places for training in disaster preparedness. There are some recommendations which

must be implemented to enhance the community participation which are the interactions with

religious and cultural organizations, for example. The volunteers and local leaders are more

effective in making social connections in the lives of people. The strategies that are structures

towards building community resilience should therefore include some of the cultural features of

the communities in question.

7. Discussion

7.1. Policy and Practice Recommendations

One of the greatest lessons learnt may be the non-existent proactive sensitive policies

given the social and economic state of a community as income and poverty level have been seen

to greatly influence disaster response (Parnell and Walawege, 2018). As DRRI has poverty

reduction as its goal, this paper suggests that the Indonesian and Philippine government should

make poverty reduction a central goal of DRRI. Income sources like training for income

generating activities including micro finance can empower the vulnerable groups to access for

economic resources that are required for funding disaster risk reduction measures (Wisner et al.,

2016). However, those policies that were formulated to offer subsidies for housing and

infrastructure that is disaster friendly may be of great help to the low income groups. The said

interventions will also reduce the disaster related losses and assist in promoting long term

economic stability. The availability of resources can be enhanced when the government

promotes private sector investment in disaster resilience projects. This research also noted that

government should also use public private partnership in facilitating infrastructure development

especially in the disaster prone areas (Schipper & Pelling, 2006). It means that the policy makers

also have such economic interventions to address and ensure that such interventions are efficient

and sustainable for the benefit of the communities that have always been marginalized.

There is a necessity to expand the measures focused on prevention and to make them

socially oriented, including the measures of educational and informational character. This work

reveals that disparities in education due to accessibility in the urban and rural settings are key

drivers of disaster effects (Gaillard & Mercer, 2013). It will also underscore the need for

governments to include key messages for disaster preparedness into school syllabuses and ensure

that there is proper community based education for those who are hard to reach or have no access

to social media. According to Alexander (2022), the programs should also embrace cultural

diversity as well as language and knowledge appropriate to the local context. This means that

public awareness campaigns should make use of other existing technologies such as mobile apps

and social media sites in order to provide the public with such key information as early as

possible (Kapucu & Liou, 2014). Hence, people have to be educated and this becomes one of the

most vital measures which will enable the policymakers to act as expected in the event of

disasters. The same way that teacher training and all other educational facilities must also be

given a fair share of investment and most especially in the rural areas. It is then possible to

expand and support these initiatives with NGO and international organizations’ partnership. To

train a generation of educators on DRM issues can help identify the changes in the generational

turnover of the communities’ resilience level (Paton, 2003).

The health care sector is another sector which has to be developed and the more

important need in any country. This paper also reveals in the case studies that the absence of

healthcare in rural areas exacerbates the impacts of these disasters by raising avoidable mortality

and morbidity (Bennett et al., 2016). To this end, the governments should foster development of

health facilities in the affected regions and capacity enhance of the population in handling

disasters. In terms of accessibility, HMUs and telemedicine services are of particular value

because the target beneficiaries may be largely inaccessible especially during and after disasters.

The relations between healthcare organizations and global health body can assist in enhancing

the overall organizational health system, and therefore the ability of the organization to cope

with stress (McEntire, 2014). Policy makers have to understand that access to health care is a

part of CCA and act accordingly. It is also important to enhance the mental health care as most

of the times the psychological effects on the community are long lasting, the Nigerian school

children who committed mass suicide after being compelled to sit for exam without preparation

is a good example. There should be emergency health funds which will help best management of

the money in case of disasters. This is the case, and health care preparedness and contingency

planners can further enhance their preparedness through stocking medical supplies in strategic

locations (Cutter et al., 2008).

The other sets of challenges that call for drastic changes in policies include; housing or

shelter as well as infrastructure. Both Indonesia and the Philippines have the same problems

concerning informal settlements, uncoordinated urban development that makes the countries

susceptible to natural disasters (Jha et al., 2013). They should impose pressure and at the same

time increase standards and also give some more incentives to construct houses that can

withstand disasters. It is important that urban planners include disaster risk assessment into the

regulation of land use to consider growth of vulnerable settlements. Relocation of the inhabitants

of high-hazard zones should be purposeful, that is, people’s livelihoods and social interactions

should not be affected (Birkmann, 2017). The efficiency to involve the community in the

formulation and preparation of the strategies of the urban development. It also noted that

relationship with private sector organizations may provide funding for better structures and

therefore improve the community’s readiness in the event of a disaster (Birkmann, 2017). There

should of course also be policies concerning retrofitting of existing structures that may not have

been constructed in accordance with the current code. Alexander (2015) says the challenge was

for urban development projects to incorporate green infrastructure as a means of addressing

flood and heat them risks. A confirmation of the present structure that permits authorized checks

may work in identifying the investments and enhancements to be made.

Disaster management cannot be realized without the intervention of the community and

social cohesion. CBDRM practice in the Philippines reveals the importance of local resources in

addressing the disasters risks (Heijmans, 2012). The governments and NGOs should continue

creating such programs, stressing the importance of the local community to spend more time on

the response to their environment, providing the training for those who have to become leaders

of the community, and providing the funds for the practical application of such programs. It is

thus necessary to make more appropriate changes in community participation in Indonesia to

ensure that its networks are well placed to mobilize resources especially in emergencies. This

paper also confirms that the development of concrete social relations and the support of

communities can greatly enhance the disaster response and recovery (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015, p.

715). More effort should be placed on community based and volunteer based strategies because

it has been demonstrated that they are just as effective and in some ways more preferred than

other conventional methods in the long run. Having a chance to get into buildings which contain

community centers can give a person at least some kind of shelter during such disasters. Another

complementary activity, which could be performed, is to educate the residents in first aid or at

least in basic disaster response in order to support the current activities. This paper focused on

the idea of multiculturalism and learning from cultural values that if people support each other,

then their relation will be better (Dynes, 2006).

It is good to enhance the sphere of cooperation and the sharing of information and the

exchange of experience in regards to disaster management. As new challenges can be addressed

through cooperation across the Southeast Asia region, there are many things Indonesia and the

Philippines can learn from other countries as well as lending their own, the process will be

mutually beneficial if the cooperation is conducted accordingly (Becker, 2019). People ought to

be formed into international disaster response teams, cross jurisdictional training can go along

way in improving the field’s efficiency. Hence, based on the current knowledge acquired from

the scientific research, new approaches to the technical interventions with the latter can be

developed that could be feasible and culturally acceptable in the context of indigenous people.

More international dialogue forums and Cooperation should be held in an effort to enhance the

solidarity of combating the increasing calamity extended by Climate change. They can also

collaborate in writing coauthored review papers that evaluate efforts in combating climate

change striving for achievement of adaptation besides mitigation. The other is to open other

funds including the regional disaster funds in order to assist in creation of the necessary funds to

make the quick move. Disaster diplomacy that is the uniting of nations in response to disaster

can be used in improving diplomacy.

7.2. Future Research Directions

On the basis of the analysed relations between the selected SOC indicators and disaster

preparedness in Southeast Asia this research also offers recommendations for further research.

The first is that there is no systematic attempt to examine variations in the socioeconomic

dimensions of disasters and then the effects of these variations on the disasters themselves across

time (Alexander, 2015). Understanding how income changes, education and availability of

healthcare are associated with the changes in recovery over weeks will help paint a better picture

of what it means to be a resilient person. The future work should examine the connection

between the economics of disaster risk reduction/recovery and policies on social protection

/income distribution. All these studies would therefore offer the needed evidence for policy

interventions to redress economic inequities and to enhance communities (Tierney, 2014). In the

same context, the effects of condition cash transfer programs on disaster management should

also be assessed in studies. Studying how the economic aid impact migration policies and

procedures after disaster can also be useful in building the knowledge. Further comparison of

one country with another country having different economic system may give an idea on which

one is the best (Wisner, 2011). The examination of the economic incentives related to disaster-

resilient behavior is useful for policy-making in the future.

Another future studies agenda is to integrate cultural practices into the current DISRM

frameworks. This paper has found that cultural factors are critical in determining community’s

perception and behavior towards disasters (Kelman et al., 2012). Future research could be done

in the manner in which indigenous knowledge; including early warning systems and architecture

is similar to the ones established by science. This made the study to be a cross disciplinary one

which may help in providing a better understanding and management strategies to the culturally

sensitive population that are required in disaster management. There should be a study that

would compare the effectiveness of different CBR-based community interventions across

cultures would be useful. It could also analyze how globalization influence traditional

approaches to disaster resilience in addition to providing information on cultural dimension of

disaster (Mercer, 2010). It aims at providing insights of intergenerational knowledge transfer in

vulnerable communities with a view of strengthening the community. More work has to be done

to examine the efficiency of other cultural leaders in disaster response in order to gain more

knowledge on how best to deal with community related public. Two more possible areas of

interest relate to methods for integrating traditional and scientific knowledge in a single

framework, which is another promising area of research (Gaillard, 2010).

Research questions that require further exploration are; The role of technology in the

reduction of disaster risk. Although the use of early warnings systems and mobile

communication platforms has to some extent proven effective, its effectiveness is however

dampened by factors such as lack of access to technology in farming communities (Van Westen,

2018). The subsequent research may examine the viability of the more latest technologies as the

artificial intelligence, remote sensing in catastrophes preparedness and responsive (Van Westen,

2018). The representation of the current digital divide if hue and cry was to be made for disaster

risk communication could assist in the development of policies that would enhance on the

innovations to provide and augment the quality of the services it offers to peoples from all over

the society. Academicians can evaluate the usefulness of the social media in disaster response

and could study the potential of using the realized networks like Facebook and Twitter to

disseminate information and involve the public in real time (Meier, 2015). In a similarly way,

Mieier (2015) adds that research focusing on the diffusion of misinformation during disasters

and effects on the response is also essential. It means that acknowledged that auditing the

employment of blockchain technology for the purpose of transparent distribution of aid could

come up with breakthrough strategies. If the use of a specific type of technology is explored for

its ethical use in disaster contexts, then its use can be informed ethically (Crawford & Finn,

2015). According to Cutter (2016), climate change is a factor that has not been studied on

disaster risks in Southeast Asia as a continuous phenomenon, and its effect on future disaster

risks should be addressed in future research. The analyses estimating the projection of climatic

change effects in the occurrence and intensity of disasters can yield important information for

policymakers (Cutter, 2016). The other valuable research areas include the ones containing

climate adaptation options including ecosystem based and green infrastructure based options. To

design policies that may help reduce risks for the future, natural disaster risk management needs

to incorporate climate science (O’Brien et al., 2012). The CCM studies could also offer

understanding of how different communities might be helped out in light of climate change alone

and its effects on migration and displacements. Integrating climate resilience in disaster

management research is very crucial as natural disasters occur frequent, and they are more

severe. The integration of output from climatologists can improve the precision of the disaster

models (Adger, 2006). Evaluation of international climate agreements can be useful for disaster

resilience enhancement for global policy making. The other sources of ideas included research

on how adaptation technologies are adopted by local government, may also be useful (Pelling,

2011).

The other exciting area that can also be categorized as one of the most promising is

healthcare and disaster resilience. To the best of the current research’s knowledge, the role of

healthcare access is a crucial component of disaster preparedness; nonetheless, there is limited

information about how health systems can be best organized for disaster (Peek et al., 2018). In

future, there is need to involve the reliability of mobile medical facilities, tele-pharmacy and

medicine, training in disaster medicine and medical management courses. Research can be and

should be made for such a purpose to compare such systems in different parts of the world which

have high chances of disasters so that one may get to know what measures need to be taken to

improve the medical response in disasters. Although disaster-related psychological distress could

have been used in identifying specific needs of the affected communities, the direction of

appreciating mental health services in the process of coming up with a better view of the

community resilience might have been more useful (Norris et al., 2002). These additional works

will go a long way in providing support to effective disaster management plans that includes the

management of the physical and psychological aspect of the body. Disaster Health disparities

may be useful in the decision making of policies to improve the impact on disaster outcomes.

Such research could also explore the impact of the availability of healthcare on long term

community resilience. Primary health care in disaster situations can be compared to determine

how international relations can assist (Klinenberg, 2018).

Hence the following research questions could be posed in order to build on the existing

knowledge on governance and delivery of policies. Thus, this research finds that good

governance should therefore be embraced as a critical success factor to deliver disaster risk

management; but there is potential for further research to establish factors that affect the

achievement of policy goals (Tierney, 2012). It means that it provides a sound proposition by

providing a sound recommendation. The simulation which may have been based on the actual

policies or programs that were well implemented or arbitrarily implemented during the period of

disaster could have been most useful for the authorities in the event of future disasters. It also

provided a revelation that the area of disaster management has limited theoretical literature on

corruption and political will to elucidate the factors that affect positive outcomes of measures.

According to Boin et al. (2010), doing a cross country analysis of nations with their own

governance systems may give some sense of how such systems influence disaster risk

management. To understand how subnational governments could participate in the catastrophe

response, these answers must be viewed as decentralized policies. An analysis of how

community-based organizations influence the impacts of policy decisions might introduce new

insights into the governance. According to Comfort et al (2013), an analysis of the literature on

the effectiveness of the international assistance and an analysis of whether it is suitable here

could be a starting point for the creation of more efficient interventions.

8. Conclusion

Socio economic factors of disaster resilience have also been explored in this study

especially focusing on Southeast Asian countries with specific reference to Indonesia and

Philippines. From the analysis of income, education, healthcare, housing and community

engagement it is quite clear that such factors are very significant in explaining how communities

respond, prepare, prevent, cope with and recover from natural disasters. Catastrophe remain a

work in progress and socio-economic status was implicated in this work with more successful

preparation observed in the higher levels than in the lower levels, and the persistent and severe

problems felt by the lower socio-economic areas. These economic discriminations must be

fought as the economic capital is crucial in creating capable societies to deal with disaster risk

reduction as they use financial protection in their activities.

In this work it was found that education is an important component that enhances

baseline disaster consciousness and shows that the more educated groups are more responsive to

the warning signs and thus take pre disaster precaution and spend money on mitigation. The fact

that the facilities are mainly unequally distributed, hence the rural area is not well provided with

the facilities are the reasons for these. A campaign that will help to launch the education of

disaster information for all people within the country regardless of their age and their resident

location will be needed. Through these activities, victims’ ability to be victimized will be

decreased, as well as increasing society's preparedness. By educating how a threat will affect the

community’s resiliency better people are made to have through collaboration.

Another disaster factor which was identified as being of crucial importance in the drive

towards disaster preparedness was the availability of health facilities. Inefficient allocation of

healthcare resources is one of the biggest issues that enhance the impacts of disasters and

recovery time in the developed countries especially in rural and remote areas. Health care should

also be reinforced and available to all, in order to decrease the effects of disasters on human

health for the long term. It also has to be noted that, when investing in healthcare, especial

attention should be paid for psychological consequences of disasters, which are often overlooked

while being one of the biggest factors affecting the affected population in terms of providing

them with psychological help. It has pointed to the fact that integrating health into disaster risk

reduction and management can assist in the development of resilience among communities as

regards natural disasters.

Housing and structures are still the major challenges that face disaster prone areas in the

society today. Habitats in informal settlements are constructed with improper construction and

substandard materials and situated in prone areas of disasters, these habitats are not well

protected from disasters. Preventive measures such as adoptions and prevention techniques such

as good urban planning, and constructing structures in compliance with the set codes in order to

reduce risks are very useful. Relevant and thorough planning of the relocation programs that

have to be done in the society is a time consuming process and a lot of consideration has to be

given to the social and economic impacts of the people that are affected by the relocation. Such

structures are funded for to ensure the safety of lives and property as well as to ensure that the

economy is well ready to bounce back in the event of a disaster. The enhanced ideas of the city

growth with the green areas and flood protection could enhance the ability of communities to

withstand various catastrophes.

The people with their social networks are central to the processes of disaster risk

reduction and prevention. Disaster risk management and community engagement in particular,

has in the past been useful in developing community capacities for disaster response. It is

therefore important that these problems are solved so that the disaster response strategies are

made in a way that they can be carried out with the cultures of the societies. Therefore, the social

networks and volunteering are used in the community to enhance the capacity of the community

in event occurrences. Other strategies in the dissemination and application of culture on practices

that strengthen communal bonds can also be employed in the achievement of the goal of

enhancing the resilience of communities because disaster risk management is done culturally and

socially thoroughly.

In the future, economic, educational, healthcare and infrastructure measures should be

used for the improvement of the status of disaster preparedness. These measures should be

adopted and systems thinking should be used in conjunction with these measures as the variables

cannot be isolated and real resilience cannot be seen where socioeconomic disadvantage is

apparent. Effective disaster risk reduction framework requires the participation and collaboration

of the government, NGOs, the private sector, and other stakeholders and the community. There

will be a need to look for new threats that could be brought about by climate change and which

may call for more flexible policies whenever they are likely to occur in the future. The future

disasters that will impact a large number of the population should now be of interest to the

Southeast Asian nations to invest in resilience.

Indeed, this aspect is of interest to the research since it shows that social factors

management is crucial in disaster risk management. Conversely, the development of the adult in

resilient communities’ entails equity, inclusion and sustainability. There are many challenges

remaining if governments, organizations, and communities work together, it will make the

biggest change in the world. The planning for future shifted from the level of the response to the

next disaster and became the set of conditions under which it is possible to start the process of

social development without prejudice to anyone’s interests.

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