Spiritual Well-being, Job Meaningfulness, and
Engagement for Human Resource Managers
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Research in the area of spiritual well-being and its influence on the presence of
spirituality in the workplace for all employee groups is limited. Roof (2015) and Benefiel,
Fry, and Geigle (2014) have even found cynicism in their work associated with the
benefits of the concept, and more breadth than depth found in the academic literature on
spirituality in the workplace. There is a significant gap of information in the research
about the relationship of spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace to
engagement levels and workplace meaningfulness, particularly for human resource
managers. The gap surrounding the relationship of these concepts for human resource
managers is a crucial element for further study due to the specific role and potential
influence of human resource managers on the overall climate in the organization. There is
the potential for this research study to affect positive social change in multiple areas of
human resource management if the findings from the research can be used to inform
leaders and human resource professionals of the benefits of spirituality in the workplace
and the potential applications of their spiritual well-being to organizational outcomes.
The literature review conducted in the field of spiritual well-being and spirituality
in the workplace revealed research gaps in the relationship of the variables to be tested to
elements cited by scholars in the human resource areas of organizational commitment,
job satisfaction, employee engagement, and meaningfulness (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013;
Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon, 2015; Fachrunnisa, Adhiatma, & Mutamimah, 2014). The
focus of my investigation was about the relationship of the spiritual well-being of human
resource managers to their engagement levels and meaningfulness in the workplace.
Chapter 1 begins with background information on these topics and variables including
detailed definitions of the terms used in this study. Chapter 1 also includes the problem
statement, the gap in the literature, the research questions under investigation, an
explanation of the nature of the study, and a discussion of the study’s significance to the
field and practice of human resources.
Background
Spiritual well-being and spirituality are broad concepts that have been studied
through a variety of lenses and variables. However, three interconnected perspectives
revealed in the results of these studies show that workplace spirituality is suggested to
enhance employee well-being and quality of life from a human resources perspective,
provide employees with a sense of purpose and meaning at work, and foster a sense of
interconnectedness and community (Vasconcelos, 2013). Spiritual well-being and
workplace spirituality has been shown to have a positive influence on the job satisfaction
of employees (Fachrunnisa et al., 2014; Javanmard, Nami, & Haraghi, 2014); employee
engagement and well-being as reflected in research studies of similar variables by
Agrawal and Khan (2015), Fachrunnisa, Adhiatma, and Mutamimah (2014), and Roof
(2015); and job performance (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013; Fachrunnisa et al., 2014;
Kalyanasundaram & Balasubramanian, 2014).
The presence of workplace spirituality in the organization may have the potential
to affect the organization’s bottom line positively; enhance work-life balance, well-being,
and engagement; and provide a meaningful work experience for employees (Fachrunnisa
et al., 2014). Lips-Wiersma and Mills (2014) stated that spirituality is already present in
the workplace; it does not need to be introduced, but more appropriately, managers
should use their role to create an environment where individuals feel safe and open to
express their spirituality. A thorough literature review conducted by Miller and Ewest
(2013) extended research on the context, theory, and measurement of workplace
spirituality and provided foundational information on the growing and sustained interest
in the topic. This emerging field has been called the faith at work movement, and Miller
and Ewest identified various scales that have been developed to measure variables
associated with spirituality in the workplace, meaningfulness, and engagement.
It is essential that human resource managers understand the difference between
spirituality and other terminology that may be confused with this concept in the work
environment, particularly religion. In a study that compared and contrasted participants’
views of religion and spirituality, Mitroff and Denton (1999) found that 60% of their
study participants viewed workplace spirituality positively, while the rest of the
participants viewed spirituality as a religion. The study participants also indicated that
they were more comfortable showing their intelligence at work than expressing their
emotions, feelings, inner self, or spirituality (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).
Maharana, Patra, and Nagendra (2014) presented 20 years of research on
workplace spirituality and drew on spiritual leadership theory and found that corporate
leaders are beginning to see the value of enabling and allowing spirituality in the
workplace. They argued that, to the extent that the spiritual leadership paradigm is
implemented, individuals will be intrinsically motivated, and experience competence,
autonomy, relatedness, and spiritual well-being (Maharana, Patra, & Nagendra, 2014).
Their assertion aligned with Benefiel et al. (2014) who found that workplace spirituality
enhanced feelings of commitment, connectedness and relatedness, job involvement, and
performance in individuals in the work environment. A detailed and in-depth discussion
of past research surrounding spiritual well-being and workplace spirituality will be
conducted in Chapter 2.
Afsar, Badir, and Kiani (2016) conducted a quantitative study using hierarchical
multiple regression analysis that substantiated the research of Maharana et al. (2014) and
Benefiel et al. (2014) and showed a positive relationship between workplace spirituality
and employee positive behaviors and an increase in an employee’s intrinsic motivation.
Scholars reference multiple definitions of engagement in the literature, and Purcell (2014)
differentiated between two categories of engagement: work engagement, and behavioral
or employee engagement. Work engagement relates to an employee’s psychological state
while they are at work and is seen as a “positive, fulfilling work-related state of mind that
is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption” (Purcell, 2014, p. 242). Behavioral
or employee engagement relates to the managerial practices that appear to be linked to
employees becoming engaged and “is an approach taken by organizations to manage their
workforce” (Purcell, 2014, p. 242) rather than a particular state experienced by
employees. Regardless of the definition of engagement, or the simplistic view that some
scholars take of the concept, it is rarely studied in the same context by researchers.
Although scholars have identified engagement as a positive contributing factor to
organizational success, without definitive causal conclusions in some studies, frequently,
organizations do not know how to affect engagement outcomes, and engagement
assessment results continue to be at low levels (Adkins, 2016; Purcell, 2014; Saks &
Gruman, 2014). This study may provide results from which organizational leaders could
construct strategies to increase engagement and meaningfulness for human resource
managers if it is shown that a positive relationship exists between their spiritual wellbeing
and the research variables.
Problem Statement
Employee engagement has remained stagnant and consistently averaged less than
33% over the last five years (Adkins, 2016). Low levels of engagement, which result in a
paucity of meaningfulness in the workplace and negative organizational outcomes, have
been attributed to a lack of understanding and acknowledgment in the organization that
employees have both an inner and an outer life, and that they desire an opportunity to
bring their whole selves to work (Alas & Mousa, 2016; Atienza & Santiago, 2015;
Brophy, 2015; Roof, 2015). A growing body of research is beginning to focus on a
workplace dimension that has less to do with policies and management ideas and more to
do with meaning, purpose, and a sense of community. Employees desire to express their
spiritual essence in the workplace and want employers to acknowledge both their inner
and outer lives (Alas & Mousa, 2016).
The general problem is that nearly two-thirds of employees are disengaged in the
workplace (Adkins, 2016; Arrowsmith & Parker, 2013). Disengagement is characterized
by the absence of energy, involvement, efficacy, and the lack of “simultaneous
employment and expression of a person’s whole, preferred, or spiritual self in work
behaviors” (Saks & Gruman, 2014, p. 157). The specific problem is that when human
resource managers are disengaged, organizational outcomes such as productivity,
retention, culture, innovation, and performance may be impacted negatively (Alas &
Mousa, 2016; Brophy, 2015; Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon, 2015; Stokes, Baker, & Lichy,
2016). The literature review in Chapter 2 reveals minimal research conducted in the areas
of engagement and job meaningfulness for human resource managers and this study seeks
to fill that gap. One lens through which to view and assess disengagement and a lack of
meaningfulness in the workplace is through the spiritual well-being and workplace
spirituality levels of employees. Employees who do not experience bringing their whole
self or their inner spiritual self to the workplace lack a sense of organizational
community, have a reduced quality of work life, and do not report deriving satisfaction or
workplace meaningfulness from their job (Alas & Mousa, 2016; Roof, 2015; Saks &
Gruman, 2014). This study investigated the relationship between the spiritual well-being
of human resource managers and their engagement levels and job meaningfulness in the
workplace. This relationship may contribute to positive social change in the human
resource field for practitioners and human resource organizations, as well as employees,
organizational leadership, and students of human resources.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to determine if a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization and the strength of that relationship. There are many types and levels of
management in an organization, and this research will focus on a specific subset of
management, human resource managers, to narrow the focus of the study and to obtain
results that may provide steps for positive social change in the field of human resources.
When allowed to be present in the workplace, spiritual well-being in the individual and in
the organization can produce attitudes of care and concern that may expand to the
community, which can create social change in society as a whole. Spirituality connects
people, can lead to the betterment of society, and provides a better future (Suarez, 2015).
Human resource managers generally are the people in the organization who are
responsible for overseeing the care of the employees, and feeling that they can bring their
whole selves to the workplace may lead to redefining the essence of work for all
employees (Schutte, 2016).
A correlation design was used for the study and implemented with survey
instruments to collect data in an effort to determine if there was a relationship between
the spiritual well-being of human resource managers and the meaningfulness and
engagement they experience in their role in the workplace. This research study involved
the use of validated instruments that provided data and assessed the correlation between
the engagement levels, perception of workplace meaningfulness, and spiritual well-being
of human resource managers.
Research Questions/Hypotheses
The foundation of this research study was anchored by the central research
question about how spiritual well-being may be related to the engagement levels and the
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in the workplace. Human
resource managers participated in a survey with three separate subset questionnaires
combined to determine how they perceived their spiritual well-being and the resulting
correlation to their engagement and meaningfulness from their professional role in the
organization. The survey was used to obtain and measure the quantitative results that may
answer the research questions that guide the study. Results may clarify how the spiritual
well-being of human resource managers relates to other key areas of their work life.
The research questions guiding this study included the following quantitative
questions and the corresponding null hypotheses (H0) and alternative hypotheses (Ha):
Research Question 1: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization?
H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Ha1: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Research Question 2: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization?
H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their
role in the organization.
Ha2: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization.
Theoretical Framework
The theory that provided the framework for this study is the theory of
humanocracy (Aldridge, Macy, & Walz, 1982). The origin of the theory of humanocracy
stems from the authors’ assertion that organizations ought to meet the needs of their
employees, and minimize the hindrances present in organizations that keep employees
from bringing their whole selves to the workplace. Aldridge et al. (1982) highlighted
principles and values in their theory that are closely related to the perceptions and desires
that employees have for spirituality in the workplace. Aldridge et al. noted that over time
employees developed an adaptation to high levels of bureaucracy in the organization,
referred to as bureau-neurosis, which can be countered if the organization considers the
human needs of the employees. When the employees’ needs are considered, spirituality in
some form is present in the organization and employees experience spiritual well-being.
There are several theories that could inform the spiritual well-being and
spirituality in the workplace concepts; however, the theory of humanocracy grounds the
study and supports the research problem and research questions for this study. Aldridge et
al. (1982) based the theory of humanocracy on a framework of nine principles and
identified the primary proposition as the amount of control that leaders have over the
quality of the work environment, including the way they approach spirituality and foster
and support the spiritual well-being of employees. A more detailed description and
explanation of the principles, assumptions, and proposition of the theory of humanocracy
is given in Chapter 2.
The theory of humanocracy cites bureaucracy as an inhibitor to spirituality in the
workplace. The current workplace has become an environment where employees feel
controlled by organizational structures that threaten to rob them of their humanness
(Aldridge et al., 1982). The result is bureau-neurosis, which creates an emotional and
behavioral response in employees struggling to have their human needs met in the
workplace. The behavioral response is manifested by employees in six reactions: the
assumption that someone will take advantage of them, the attempt to go unnoticed or be
invisible in the organization, an initial lack of trust for management and coworkers until
they prove otherwise, a lack of loyalty to the organization, disengagement from their job,
and the attempt to hide their vulnerability and emotions that separates their spirit from
themselves (Aldridge et al., 1982). The result of these behaviors is employees who are
inhibited in their passion and creativity and instead choose to be objective, rational, and
sensible. Employees learn to survive in the corporate or organizational environment at the
expense of their human needs as they strive to follow the rules, always give the right
answer, and shy away from being weak, sad, vulnerable, or loving; in essence, from being
human (Aldridge et al., 1982).
Theories of workplace spirituality that linked the influence of management to the
spiritual essence of employees emerged in the 1970s and attempted to humanize the
concept of management (Hong, 2011). Early theories focused on the mechanistic
elements of management; however, more recent management models, such as the
spiritually sensitive organizational practice model (SSOPM), provide strategies for
organizational principles and practices that recognize spirituality as an aspect of each
employee’s human nature (Hong, 2011; Miller & Ewest, 2015; Wren & Bedeian, 2009).
Newer management models incorporate increased awareness of spiritual concepts in the
organization making it more acceptable to discuss spirituality in the workplace apart from
conventional and organized religion (Hong, 2011). The result is more holistic and
inclusive views on spirituality, religion, and spiritual well-being in the work environment
that benefits the organization and the employees (Hong, 2011; Truss, Shantz, Soane,
Alfes, & Delbridge, 2013; Yeoman, 2014).
Even as organizations may be more accepting of workplace spirituality concepts,
human resource managers may feel inhibited in fostering a spiritually-friendly work
environment due to legal and organizational constraints, which impact their spiritual well-
being negatively. According to Aldridge et al. (1982), when faced with a decision or a
particular action to take on most issues, “North Americans are likely to try a choice that
makes sense” (p. 10). In an effort to do what makes sense and in the spirit of
organizational efficiency, many human resource managers may be overly objective and
manifest one or more of the behaviors of those who work in a bureaucratic environment.
The humanocracy theory provided the framework for the construction of the research
questions that seek to measure the relationship between spiritual well-being, job
meaningfulness, and engagement for human resource managers.
Nature of the Study
The research method for the study was quantitative. Quantitative research
provides a numeric description of trends, attitudes, measurements, and relationships of a
population by conducting experiments, surveying, or sampling a portion of that
population (Barnham, 2015). Quantitative research is a method for testing theories or
hypotheses through the investigation or exploration of potential associations or
relationships between two or more variables (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2014).
Quantitative research is a form of inquiry that is sometimes referred to as scientific or a
postpositivist belief system and results in numeric or statistical results of observations,
surveys, or experiments (Neuman, 2011). I was able to make generalizations, claims,
comparisons, and show relationships about the population in my study based on the
research results of my inquiry. The quantitative method was appropriate for the study
since the focus of the inquiry was to determine if a statistical relationship existed between
the variables of spiritual well-being, engagement levels, and job meaningfulness for
human resource managers.
Qualitative research would not obtain insight into, or create alignment with, the
research questions for this study. The qualitative research method is a form of inductive
inquiry that allows for patterns and information to emerge as the researcher conducts the
study through observation or individual interaction, such as in-depth interviewing (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2013). The qualitative method answers questions related to the lived
experiences, perceptions, or beliefs of the participants (Pettigrew, 2013). This research
study explored the relationship between variables and determined if a correlation existed,
which required a quantitative research method and deductive form of inquiry.
The study was a correlation design to determine if there was a relationship, and to
what extent, between the spiritual well-being of human resource managers and the
meaningfulness they experience in their role in the organization and their engagement
levels in the workplace. I surveyed human resource managers who are members of their
local chapter of the Society for Human Resource Management who have the primary
responsibility for the human resource function in their organization using three separate
validated instruments: the Spiritual Well-being Scale, the Work and Meaning Inventory,
and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009; Roof, 2015;
Steger, Dik, & Shim, in press). Results obtained from the surveys reflected a negative
correlation between spiritual well-being and work meaningfulness and no significant
correlation between spiritual well-being and work engagement. Correlation research
provides more accurate estimates of relationships among variables and rules out
alternative explanations for empirical findings (Becker et al., 2016). The purpose of
correlation research is to investigate the extent to which variations or associations in one
factor correspond with variations or associations in one or more other factors based on the
correlation coefficients (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Correlation research measures several
variables and their interrelationships simultaneously in a realistic setting identifying
degrees of the relationship.
The correlation design was the quantitative research design that could best answer
the research questions. An experimental research design would not have been efficacious
for this research study since the purpose of experimental research is to investigate
possible cause-and-effect relationships by exposing experimental groups to a treatment
condition and comparing the results to a control group that does not receive the treatment
(Isaac & Michael, 1997). Correlation research does not manipulate the variables or
identify cause-and-effect outcomes. It shows relationships between variables in their
current situation. The results from the research study attempted to answer the research
questions by showing a possible relationship between the variables of spiritual wellbeing,
engagement levels, and workplace meaningfulness. A more detailed discussion on the
research method and design for this research study is included in Chapter 3.
Definition of Terms
The following are definitions of terms used throughout the study and serve as a
guideline to clarify meaning and standardize the understanding of the terminology for the
purposes of this study.
Employee engagement: The simultaneous employment and expression of a
person’s preferred self in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others,
personal presence (physical, cognitive, and emotional), and active, full role performance
(Kahn, 1990).
Faith: A complete trust or confidence in someone or something (Ghazzawi,
Smith, & Cao, 2016).
Religion: An organized system of beliefs, ritualized experiences, norms, and
worship in a concept, being, or controlling power (Van Cappellen, Toth-Gauthier,
Saroglou, & Fredrickson, 2016).
Spirituality: A sense of transcendence beyond one’s immediate circumstances; a
purpose and meaning in life, a reliance on inner resources, and a sense of within-person
integration or connectedness (Weathers, McCarthy, & Coffey, 2015).
Spiritual well-being: A construct identified by the ability to experience and
integrate purpose in life, positive emotion, engagement, meaning, personal
accomplishment, positive relationships, and connectedness with self and others (Elosua,
2015).
Workplace meaningfulness: The positively valenced construct that refers to the
amount of significance that people experience in their work (Lips-Wiersma, Wright, &
Dik, 2016).
Workplace spirituality: The recognition that employees have an inner life that
nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of
community (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, p. 135).
Assumptions
There are assumptions that were fundamental to this study (Christensen et al.,
2014). The first assumption was that the participants in the study would be honest and
objective in their responses on the questionnaire. The respondents were assured, in
writing, of their anonymity and of the confidentiality of their responses to reduce the
potential for dishonesty or their lack of responsiveness to the survey. The potential
respondents were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could drop
out of the research study at any time. The second assumption was that the participants
would comprehend the questions and the concepts discussed in the survey.
The third assumption was that there would be a large enough sample of human
resource managers that respond to the questionnaire to obtain usable data. The study
relied on proven instruments with established validity and reliability to obtain data
(Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009; Roof, 2015; Steger et al., in press). The fourth assumption
was that the respondents would have an accurate understanding of the terminology
associated with the variables in the study and be able to decipher differences in meaning
between the concepts. The fifth assumption was that the examination of multiple concepts
together in the study would highlight the pattern or correlation of the variables
(Toro & Yoshikawa, 2016).
Scope and Delimitations
The scope of the study was the relationship between spiritual well-being and the
engagement levels and meaningfulness of human resource managers in the workplace.
The potential pool of participants was selected randomly from the members of local
chapters of the Society for Human Resource Management. The target population
consisted of human resource managers from for-profit and nonprofit organizations in
public, private, and government industries within each local area. The target was a
minimum of 313 data points from the sample of participants. The potential pool of
participants received a combined survey comprised of three validated instruments: the
Spiritual Well-being Scale, the Work and Meaning Inventory, and the Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale (Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009; Roof, 2015; Steger et al., in press). Only
factors related to individual spiritual well-being, workplace meaningfulness, and
engagement of human resource managers in the workplace were explored. Correlation
analysis was used to determine if a relationship existed between the spiritual well-being
of human resource managers and their engagement levels and perceived meaningfulness
in the workplace.
The survey sample was delimited to the participants who had internet access and
available email addresses that would allow them to access the survey and to those who
completed the survey. The study was delimited to the independent and dependent
variables selected for the study and their relationship to one another. Additional factors or
variables that may contribute to a positive experience in the workplace for human
resource managers was not investigated in the study. The survey instruments that were
administered to the participants were a delimiting factor in that the participants may have
interpreted the questions, definitions, or concepts differently according to their
perceptions and individual understanding. Demographic variables among the human
resource managers that may have affected the results were not accounted for in the study.
The results were based on data reported by individual respondents that may have
delimited the study if the participants allowed their individual perspectives to influence
their responses toward how they thought they should answer or the results they thought
the researcher wanted to know.
Limitations
A limitation of the study is that there was no agreed-upon definition of workplace
spirituality among scholars. The literature identified multiple definitions of spirituality,
spiritual well-being, and workplace spirituality, as well as individual perceptions, and the
results from this study may encourage scholars to explore these concepts further. The
sampling method may have been a limitation of the study since it was limited to
participants who agreed to participate in the survey voluntarily. The study may have been
limited by the participants’ understanding of the survey questions and their provision of
honest feedback to the survey questions. Participants may tend to exaggerate their
experience, expertise, or levels of understanding in quantitative research (Goh, Lee, &
Salleh, 2009). The study method and design was a one-time measurement of the
participants’ perceptions and feedback and may have been a limiting factor to the overall
study results.
The study may have been limited by the results and outcomes as there was no
qualitative data to explain the participants’ lived experiences with the study concepts.
Qualitative data would have provided a holistic view and understanding of the lived
experiences and concepts in the context of the work life of human resource managers.
Survey research by itself cannot capture the richness, depth of value systems, or all of the
complexity of the levels of meaning of spirituality, spiritual well-being, or
meaningfulness of human resource managers in the workplace. The validity of the study
may have been limited to the reliability of the survey instruments. Researcher bias may
have limited the study since the researcher is a human resource professional currently
employed in the workplace. For that reason, validated survey instruments were used to
obtain data in an objective manner to minimize any potential researcher bias.
Significance
Potential implications and contributions of the study of spiritual well-being
included both personal and organizational context factors, and psychological and
motivational factors for human resource managers and leaders (Albrecht, Bakker,
Gruman, Macey, & Saks, 2015). My study was significant and may assist scholars,
organizational leaders, and human resource managers to gain a comprehensive
understanding of the interrelationships of spiritual well-being, workplace spirituality, and
organizational context factors, and their influence on potential positive outcomes in the
organization. A myriad of variables affecting workplace engagement and meaningfulness
have been studied in previous research, but the constructs of spirituality, spiritual
wellbeing, and workplace spirituality have not been explored for their potential
contribution and significance in the work environment relative to human resource
managers.
Significance to Theory
This project was unique as it addressed an under-researched area critical to human
resource management (Benefiel et al., 2014; Marques, 2008). Human resources is a
primary function in the organization that has the relevant people focus to create the
strategies that businesses need to deliver profits (Kumar & Kumar, 2015; Ramlall,
AlKahtani, & Damanhouri, 2014), and to promote an environment where the outcome is
well-developed and engaged employees finding meaningfulness in their work (Ahmed,
Arshad, Mahmood, & Akhtar, 2016). Human resource managers must begin by
identifying their own sense of connection to their job, and find meaningfulness in their
role, before they can shape outcomes of change, culture, and engagement in the
organization (Stokes et al., 2016). By developing a deeper understanding of theoretical
foundations of management models and recognition that spirituality is an aspect of an
organization’s workers, human resource managers and leaders can design organizational
practices and principles that avoid the mechanistic approach in the workplace and instead
focus on integrating spiritual values in the workplace (Hong, 2011; Iyer, 2016; Mitroff &
Denton, 1999).
Significance to Practice
The outcomes of this study may advance the practice of human resource
management at the individual, team, and organizational levels. The results of the study
could be used to develop strategies to influence attitudes, turnover rates, in-role behavior,
team performance and innovation, financial returns, and the organization’s competitive
advantage (Akhtar, bin Arshad, Mahmood, & Ahmed, 2015; Albrecht et al., 2015;
Krishnakumar, Houghton, Neck, & Ellison, 2015). This study may make an original
contribution to the body of knowledge by identifying relationships between spiritual well-
being, meaningfulness, and engagement in a group for which limited research exists.
Topics within human resource management that have the potential to reduce
turnover, increase organizational competitiveness and the bottom line, and influence
workplace satisfaction positively have been concepts that have attracted a great deal of
interest over the last few years. Conversely, these topics have received less focus in
empirical research with reliable results (Albrecht et al., 2015; Yeoman, 2014). The idea
of engaged workers and high levels of meaningfulness in the workplace are not abstract
ideals. Engagement and job meaningfulness have been identified as fundamental human
needs, which demand that organizational leaders and human resource managers develop
capabilities in the workplace that allow these fundamental needs to flourish (Yeoman,
2014).
Significance to Positive Social Change
There is the potential for this research study to affect positive social change in
multiple areas of human resource management despite the findings from the research.
The results can be used to inform leaders and human resource managers of the benefits of
spirituality in the workplace and the potential applications to the organization. Findings
obtained from the study could aid human resource managers in designing work
environments where they and their employees are engaged, experience meaningfulness
from their work, and contribute to the mission and outcomes of the organization. The
results of my study may create a clearer understanding of the benefits of workplace
spirituality in the organization and allow human resource managers to design work
environments where employees, and themselves, feel whole.
Human resource managers are not the only group that can benefit from the results
and information obtained from this study. Additional stakeholders who will benefit from
the results of this study are organizational leaders and executives, employees, and
students or others desiring to become human resource managers or work in the broader
area of human resource management. Human resource organizations, on both the local
and national levels, may benefit from information gained from this study as they interact
with human resource professionals at many levels and strive to support them in
improving workplaces for employees and creating more satisfying and meaningful
environments for themselves in their roles.
Summary and Transition
Human resource managers, organizational leaders, and scholars have explored
ways that the management of people can create improved organizational performance
outcomes, streamlined internal processes, and satisfied and engaged employees. Some
early studies showed outcomes in research that positive perceptions of the workplace by
human resource managers can lead to increased commitment, engagement, and
meaningfulness (Yeoman, 2014). However, there were also studies that were not as firm
on this conclusion such as research results that showed that we cannot be confident that
good human resource management has an impact on organizational performance (Truss et
al., 2013). Chapter 1 described the introduction to the study, the background of the
problem, and the nature of the study, including the specific method and design that was
used in the research. Chapter 1 included definitions of the terminology referenced in the
study, which created clarity for the reader about the concepts to be researched.
Chapter 2 is a summary of the review and findings of the seminal, current, and
related literature on spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace, and the
relationship to engagement and workplace meaningfulness. Chapter 2 highlights the
themes found in the literature as well as previous studies related to the topic and
outcomes of this research study. Chapter 3 is a detailed explanation of the research
method and design used in the study and how the research was conducted. Chapter 4
contains the findings from the survey research and Chapter 5 highlights the conclusions
of the study, identifies areas for further research, and summarizes the study.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study, as stated in Chapter 1, was to
determine the existence and extent of the relationship between spiritual well-being and
the engagement levels and meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in
their role. The background of the broad concepts of the research study were discussed in
Chapter 1. Chapter 2 contains the definitions and the context of terms, and the review of
the related scholarly literature on spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace
and the variables that are the focus of this research study. Second, the chapter provides
highlight reviews of historical scholarly literature as well as current literature related to
the concepts of spirituality, general and spiritual well-being, workplace spirituality,
employee engagement, and meaningfulness in the workplace. Third, in this chapter I
provide a review of the literature related to the theoretical foundation of humanocracy as
well as a thorough and holistic examination of early American religion, the Protestant
work ethic, the faith at work movement, and criticisms and detractors of workplace
spirituality. Chapter 2 concludes with a discussion of organizational outcomes relative to
workplace spirituality, meaningfulness, and engagement and the implications in the
workplace for human resource managers.
Literature Search Strategy
There is a paucity of research in the area of spiritual well-being, meaningfulness,
and engagement related directly to human resource managers. However, a thorough
review of the existing literature on the key individual and combined search terms for this
study provided adequate information from scholarly and peer-reviewed sources related to
workplace environments and employees in general. I was able to draw comparisons and
contrasts from these sources for employees in general and relate them to human resource
managers in particular.
Scope of the Literature Review
A cursory review of the literature started in late 2013 as I completed research and
applications associated with my topic. I began a thorough review of the literature in
March 2015 commensurate with my work toward a specific topic and area of research for
my dissertation. The literature review resulted in a compilation of key words; useful
databases; seminal research; previous and current authors and scholars; additional library
sites; and previously validated scales, surveys, and measurements for my data collection.
Key Search Terms
Multiple searches were conducted for individual key words and combinations of
search terms and phrases using advanced searches in subject terms, all text abstracts, and
titles. The key words and phrases consisted of the following individual words or
combinations of words: general well-being, spiritual well-being, spirituality, workplace
spirituality, spirituality in the workplace, employee engagement, work engagement,
unengaged, meaningfulness, job meaningfulness, religion, religiosity, faith, human
resources, human resource managers, and human resource management. I also
conducted a search to identify surveys, scales, or measurements to use in my study and
used the following key search phrases: spiritual well-being surveys, spirituality
assessment scale, measurements of job meaningfulness, measurements of spirituality, job
engagement surveys, employee engagement surveys, work engagement scales, and how to
measure meaningfulness and engagement at work.
Databases and Search Locations
The literature review was conducted primarily in business and management search
locations in the following databases: ABI/Inform Collection, Business Source
Complete, Sage Journals (initially, Sage Premier), ScienceDirect, and Emerald Insight.
Emerald Insight, Sage Journals, and ScienceDirect are databases that consist entirely of
peer-reviewed journals; Business Source Complete and ABI/Inform Collection databases
contain some journals that are peer-reviewed. I accessed the Academic Search Complete
database to search for combinations and multidisciplinary terms, key words, and phrases
related to the research topic. The scope of the literature review also included completed
dissertations accessed through the Walden University online library as well as Proquest
Central. Search engines used to support the literature review included Google, Google
Scholar, and Sage Research Methods. I set up a Google alert for key words related to my
research topic and filtered a search on the Sage Research website by discipline (business
and management), research method and design (quantitative and correlation), and
statistics information. I also searched the Society for Human Resource Management
website for applicable industry-specific information and statistics related to the research
variables.
Journals, Articles, Dissertations, and Seminal Research
The literature review included a variety of journals, library locations, and
industry-specific websites. Searches included major peer-reviewed academic and
scholarly publications and journals in management such as The Journal of American
Academy of Business, Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Business Ethics,
Journal of Business Research, Journal of Business and Psychology, Journal of World
Business, Harvard Business Review, and the Journal of Management. Scholarly and
peerreviewed academic journals related to the field of human resources included
Advances in Developing Human Resources, Human Resource Development Quarterly,
Human
Resource Management Journal, Human Resource Management Review, International
Journal of Human Resource Management, Leadership & Organizational Development
Journal, and the International Journal of Human Resource Studies. I accessed journals
and peer-reviewed sources related to spirituality and religion including Journal of
Management, Spirituality, and Religion; Journal of Religious & Theological Information;
Psychology of Religion and Spirituality; and Theology Today.
The literature review included accessing a variety of types of literature in multiple
locations. The types of literature accessed included academic and scholarly journals and
articles, seminal literature and research, industry-specific websites, and previously
published dissertations. The locations from which the literature review was drawn
included the Walden University online library; other online university libraries; and brick
and mortar libraries in the local community, Colorado State University library, and the
University of Colorado library. Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory was used to verify the
peer-reviewed status of journals, as well as filtering online library searches for
peerreviewed articles. For current peer-reviewed literature, I accessed databases from the
online libraries that contained only peer-reviewed articles such as Emerald Insight, Sage
Journals, and ScienceDirect, as well as industry-specific journals that were known to be
peer-reviewed. A thorough literature review revealed seminal research related to my
research topic that included the initial articles and research conducted by early
researchers in workplace spirituality, general and spiritual well-being, meaningfulness,
and employee well-being. The review of the literature also revealed the relationship of
spiritual well-being to the early theories of management and to the theoretical foundation
of humanocracy that provided the lens through which this study is viewed.
Theoretical Foundation
The theory that provided the framework for this study was the theory of
humanocracy developed by Aldridge et al. (1982). The development of the theory of
humanocracy was created as a framework in which organizations could balance or
minimize the bureaucracy and work to fulfill the human needs of their employees. The
authors originated the term bureau-neurosis to explain the condition that occurs when
individuals either learn to survive in or bend to the requirements of the organization at the
cost of their human needs or well-being (Aldridge et al., 1982). The contrasting condition
to bureau neurosis is humanocracy, a term created by the authors to identify and define
their theory, which is the component that recognizes the humanness of the people in the
organization (Aldridge et al., 1982). The consequences of bureaucracy in the organization
can affect all employees, and human resource managers are the ones most likely to be
faced with the decision of what action to take to mitigate or intervene in issues of
bureaucracy between employees and leadership. The authors cited one of the reactions in
a bureaucratic organization as the denial of humanness, which can be seen in employees
who try to separate their spirit, inner self, or spiritual being from their identity at work
(Aldridge et al., 1982).
Origin of the Theory of Humanocracy
The origin of the theory of humanocracy stems from the assertion of Aldridge et
al. (1982) that human organizations ought to meet human needs and strive to identify
basic principles to counter the hindrances present in organizations that keep employees
from bringing their spiritual selves to the workplace. The foundational premise of the
theory of humanocracy is that the organization should maximize the quality of the human
experience for employees while they are in the workplace. To assist the organization in
fostering this type of environment, Aldridge et al. based the theory of humanocracy on a
foundation of principles that can support the organization in this purpose. Aldridge et al.
described the principles as: (a) the principle of human scale, (b) the principle of human
need satisfaction, (c) the principle of participation, (d) the principle of functional
generalization and vertical integration, (e) the principle of authority of merit and
leadership turnover, (f) the principle of primary communication, (g) the principle of
design psychology, (h) the principle of subjectivity and its corollaries, and (i) the
principle of the convivial tool.
The principles within the framework allow organizations to support the spiritual
well-being of employees and take steps to work with their spiritual side and not against it
for the benefit of both the employees and the organization (Aldridge et al., 1982;
Golandaz, 2005). The principles balance the human needs of the employees in the work
environment with the use of resources and productivity that must be present for the
sustainability of an organization. For example, in the discussion about the principle of
human scale, Aldridge et al. (1982) noted that there may be a limit to the size of an
organization if individual human needs are to be realized in the workplace. The intention
is not that organizations should never be larger than a specific number of people.
However, the structure of an organization may need to be designed in a way that provides
for managers to have interaction with smaller groups of employees within the larger work
environment. The principles developed by Aldridge et al. also described the importance
of reinforcing an employee’s self-identity through respect, positive self-concept,
reasonable control over their own destiny, adequate care and support, and the opportunity
for challenging work accompanied by a sense of security. Reinforcement of the
employees’ self-identity from the organization can increase an employee’s level of
spiritual well-being (Aldridge et al., 1982).
Other principles that support the framework of the theory of humanocracy are
related to participation in decision-making by allowing those most affected by a decision
to participate in the making of that decision, as well as variation in the responsibility for
work at other levels in the organization, mobility within the organization, and control
over a broader area of information and skill sets (Aldridge et al., 1982). Several of the
theory of humanocracy principles are related to the design of the work environment.
These include communication within work groups, individualized work environment
designs and structures, freedom from unnecessary policies and procedures (other than
those needed for specific industries), and simplifications of work processes (Aldridge et
al., 1982). Bureaucracy can lead to more efficient organizational processes; however, the
well-being and individual needs of the employees should not be discounted or overlooked
by management at the expense of the large-scale bureaucratic organizational strategy.
Assumptions and Propositions of the Theory of Humanocracy
Bureaucracy and the recognition of the spirituality of employees can coexist in the
organization when humanocracy is present (Aldridge et al., 1982). The authors identified
five assumptions in the theory of humanocracy that are present in the coexistence of these
two elements in the organization. The five assumptions of Aldridge et al. (1982) in the
early development of the theory of humanocracy created a framework on which recent
scholars can base their research and findings. The five assumptions are that: (a)
organizations exist to serve the social, as well as the economic, needs of those who
participate in them; (b) organizations are a principle (though not an exclusive) context
within which life-long human development occurs for people; (c) the conception,
structure, modus operandi and social milieu of the organization influences the quality of
human development that its participants experience; (d) a theory of the administration of
organizations should, therefore, include recognition of the importance of human
development as a legitimate organizational goal; and (e) there can be a milieu that
facilitates human development, while not substantially compromising the economic
(product) end for which the organization was formed (Aldridge et al., 1982).
With increasing focus on business profits and changes in the labor landscape, the
assumptions identified by the creators of the theory of humanocracy align with other
scholars’ assessments of how organizational leaders can develop new business models.
Leaders can also adapt behaviors to accentuate motivational leadership, employee
wellbeing, sustainability, and social responsibility without sacrificing profitability and
other organizational outcomes (Schutte, 2016). Findings by Afsar, Badir, and Kiani
(2016) exhibited how leadership theories implemented in the organization affected the
behavioral outcomes of employees positively when leaders fostered the social and
spiritual interests of employees.
The research of Naidoo (2014) and Pawar (2014) into a leader’s individual
spirituality and the spirituality within an organization, identified the potential positive
benefits of spiritual leadership. Positive benefits include employees with higher levels of
spiritual well-being, increased morale, lower absenteeism, and organizational
transformation, including a more stable bottom line (Naidoo, 2014; Pawar, 2014). Shinde
and Fleck (2015) identified a positive correlation between spirituality and creativity,
innovation, and lower levels of stress among employees working in a spiritually-friendly
environment.
The primary proposition that Aldridge et al. (1982) identified that led to the
development of this theory was the extent to which leaders have control over the quality
of the work environment. Leadership control includes the way leaders approach
spirituality and foster and support the spiritual well-being of employees. The authors
noted that larger organizations may have higher levels of bureaucracy, which would
conflict with the individual human needs of employees and their comfort level with
revealing their spirituality (Aldridge et al., 1982; Golandaz, 2005). Part of the reason may
be that human needs important to employees, such as trust, empathy, compassion, and
concern, are difficult to quantify through traditional business processes (Aldridge et al.,
1982). One remedy for this may be to break down the organization into smaller units that
could be equipped to take the human needs of employees into account. The results would
be characterized by increased openness, trust, mutual respect, and employees bringing
their whole selves to work instead of just their body and brains (Aldridge et al., 1982;
Schutte, 2016).
Previous Application of the Theory of Humanocracy to the Current Study
Previous studies and research that drew on the theory of humanocracy focused on
management models in human services as well as the field of human resources (Daniel,
2015; Hong, 2011). A quantitative study conducted by Daniel (2015) drew on the theory
of humanocracy to explain the phenomenon of spirituality in the workplace in his study
about the relationship between three dimensions of workplace spirituality, which
included: (a) inner life, (b) meaningful work, and (c) sense of community, with the
variable of work stress in the United States and Mexico. The total sample for the study
was 304 individuals. There were 165 participants from Mexico who were managers and
supervisors from manufacturing, government, and oil and textile industries. The 139
participants from the United States were part-time business students at two universities in
southeast Texas and part- and full-time workers from the retail, banking, insurance, and
healthcare industries (Daniel, 2015).
The participants responded to a questionnaire based on a 7-point scale that used
five items to measure the inner life component, seven items for meaningful work, and
nine items to evaluate the conditions for community. The researchers used a four item
instrument to measure stress. The four items for measuring stress were (a) my job is
extremely stressful, (b) very few stressful things happen to me at work, (c) I feel a great
deal of stress because of my job, and (d) I almost never feel stressed because of my work.
Results showed that for both countries inner life and sense of community were found to
be statistically insignificant, but meaningful work was found to be negatively and
significantly correlated with work stress in both the United States and Mexico. Results
suggested that employees perceived less stress when they participated in meaningful
activities in the work environment, which is a concept related to engagement and
spirituality in the workplace (Daniel, 2015).
The application of the theory of humanocracy in the study conducted by Daniel
(2015) was similar to my study in that the relationship of spirituality to work attitudes
were explored, specifically those of engagement and meaningfulness. Similarly, Hong
(2011) drew on the theory of humanocracy to develop a management model of workplace
spirituality to counter bureaucracy in the workplace and explore the potential of applying
spirituality at the macro level of the organization. Many management models stem from
the humanistic management theories and were created from the rational or mechanistic
perspective. Hong noted that the awareness for accommodating religion and spirituality in
the workplace was lower than that for gender equality or racial diversity and identified his
model as a spiritually sensitive organizational practice. Hong’s model presented
organizational principles for both employees and leadership. Hong advocated for the
creation of human-centered mission and vision statements to be shared by the leadership
and employees, which would create an organizational environment that was favorable and
sensitive to spiritual elements. Such an environment would allow leadership to encourage
workers to express, utilize, or share their spirituality, and prompt employees to use
emotion, intuition, and compassion in the workplace (Daniel, 2015; Hong, 2011).
Rationale for the Theory of Humanocracy Framework
The rationale for selecting the theory of humanocracy for the theoretical
framework for this study lies in the foundational components of the theory that relate it to
the practice of human resources in the organization. The theory of humanocracy was
developed by practitioners in human services; however, Aldridge et al. (1982) expanded
the application of their theory to the field of human resources and studied the relationship
between organizations and the flexibility human resource managers needed to employ to
accommodate the diversity and work life environment desired by employees. The
researchers’ assessment was that organizations should not only be cost-effective, but also
care-effective with the core component of the theory being focused on the humanness of
workers (Aldridge et al., 1982). Research has shown that when institutions design the
work environment with an intention to fulfill the basic needs of their employees,
including their spiritual well-being, the result can be healthy employees who acquire the
skills and knowledge needed to reach the organization’s goals (Aldridge et al., 1982;
Golandaz, 2005).
Relationship of the Theory of Humanocracy to the Current Study and Research
Questions
The theory of humanocracy was selected as the foundational theoretical
framework for this study since it related directly to the variables in the study. The
research questions build upon the existing theory, which acknowledges that employees
bring their whole selves to the workplace in the form of their social, emotional, and
spiritual needs, which may have a positive influence on job attitudes (Aldridge et al.,
1982). Employees are no longer viewed as machines as they were in the scientific
management theory era (Wren & Bedeian, 2009), and organizations are designing
workplaces that are more tolerant of the soft skill elements, such as the emotional and
spiritual well-being of employees. Eliminating bureaucracy in the organization allows
personal development, self-actualization, fulfillment, meaning, and spiritual well-being to
be present in the workplace (Aldridge et al., 1982; Golandaz, 2005). Employees have
needs in the workplace that extend beyond their job duties and tasks and they desire to
experience more than routine monitoring, the administration of rules and regulations, and
minimal autonomy over the parts of their job that provide meaning to their work
(Golandaz, 2005).
Viewing the research study variables of engagement and meaningfulness of
human resource managers in the workplace through the lens of the theory of
humanocracy acknowledges the need for the inquiry and validates the gap in the literature
that is the basis for this study. A growing body of research is beginning to focus on a
workplace dimension that has less to do with policies and management ideas and more to
do with meaning, purpose, and a sense of community. The quest for employees to find
meaning in their work is not a new one (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Houghton, Neck, &
Krishnakumar, 2016). Employees are desiring to express their spiritual essence in the
workplace and want employers to acknowledge both their inner and outer lives (Ashmos
& Duchon, 2000). Benefiel, Fry, and Geigle (2014) asserted that an employee’s
relationship to work is an integral part of their self-concept, which greatly affects not only
their quality of life in the workplace but also at home.
Interest and research in spirituality, spiritual well-being, and workplace
spirituality by numerous scholars has continued to increase over the last decade (Benefiel
et al., 2014; Jurkiewicz & Giacalone, 2004; Krishnakumar et al., 2015). Research on the
concept of workplace spirituality has expanded to include progress toward focused
definitions and meanings of multiple views of workplace spirituality; the potential benefit
for employees and organizations; ways that spirituality can be encouraged and
implemented in the workplace; and views from scholars who argue that workplace
spirituality can be misused or misappropriated for an employee’s benefit or for
managerial control (Gotsis & Kortezi, 2008; Houghton et al., 2016; Lips-Wiersma, Dean,
& Fornaciari, 2009). Historical information detailed by scholars has provided a
springboard for building on existing theories and for understanding religion and
spirituality in different contexts.
Historical Perspectives
Early American Religion, Workplace Spirituality, and the Protestant Work Ethic
The earliest mention of workplace spirituality was by St. Benedict in the sixth
century and his emphasis on the integration of work and prayer into the discipline of the
daily lives of the monks (Benefiel et al., 2014; Schutte, 2016). Benedict viewed work and
prayer as complementary of one another because both provided discipline for the body
and soul. He considered the work that the monks did just as holy as their regular prayer
times in their daily routine. At the time of the reformation, Martin Luther reaffirmed
“holiness through the discipline of working faithfully” for all workers regardless of their
calling (Benefiel et al., 2014, p. 176).
The Protestants also affirmed the concept of a calling and connected their faith to
the workplace through the development of the Protestant Work Ethic, which brought
spiritualization into the work environment during the Industrial Revolution (Buchholz &
Rosenthal, 2003; Ewest, 2015). The Protestants, unlike the Catholics who reserved the
idea of a calling for priests and workers in the church, expanded their definition to
include work in other areas and in a secular environment (Benefiel et al., 2014; Ewest,
2015). Early Americans saw religious values as motivating and instrumental in their work
environment. Numerous scholars contend that religious beliefs and values laid the
foundation for the attitudes and behaviors that early Americans had regarding their work
and that those values formed the Protestant Work Ethic still apparent in some workplaces
today (Ewest, 2015). The belief was that hard work and sober and modest lifestyles led to
workplace success, which was a sign of God’s pleasure, blessing, and provision (Ewest,
2015). This belief perpetuated the motivation to include a religious component in the
workplace to ensure economic success.
Historical Perspectives and Perceptions in Spiritual Well-Being and Workplace
Spirituality Research
The history of spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace is a relative
term to be kept in perspective since the study and discussion of the concepts do not go
back more than a few decades. Early research was conducted primarily by scholars in
related fields who had a personal interest or curiosity about the topic. Most people do not
think of the term spiritual when they think of the corporate or business environment.
McKnight (1984) referenced an early research study conducted by Sheehy (1981) in
which the author surveyed 60,000 Americans to discover the characteristics associated
with general well-being and satisfaction in various areas of the respondents’ lives.
Sheehy (1981) identified 10 characteristics of well-being that separated those who
were satisfied with their lives from those who were not. The critical factor found to be
characteristic of those who experienced satisfaction in most areas of their life was
whether their life had meaning and direction (Sheehy, 1981). The author referred to this
crucial factor as the purpose of purpose, and McKnight (1984) posited that purposeful
employees who experienced well-being and a level of spirituality in the workplace would
be more productive, be more committed to the organization, experience less stress on the
job, and make their employer more profitable.
While it is important to understand the perspective of scholars and business
leaders on the subject of workplace spirituality or spiritual well-being in the work
environment, the perceptions of employees are equally important for understanding in the
business context. Vasconcelos (2013) explored the perceptions of spirituality in the
workplace from the perspective of employees and found that they are pursuing greater
meaning in their work but that they associated workplace spirituality with a variety of
meanings, definitions, and perceptions. Vasconcelos’ phenomenological inquiry sought to
elicit the meanings, essences, opinions, and perceptions of the participants’ experiences
with the intention of broadening the understanding of workplace spirituality from the
perspective of the worker. The participants responded to an emailed questionnaire made
up of open-ended questions about spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace.
The final sample consisted of 22 respondents who were Brazilian workers and
entrepreneurs with an average age of 44.4 from a variety of professional backgrounds.
The author identified themes and patterns in the participants’ responses and
compared the results to previous studies, when possible. The open-ended questions
explored perceptions of the Brazilian workers from both an individual and organizational
perspective. Twelve themes emerged from Vasconcelos’ (2013) study that were also
identified in Marques, Dhiman, and King’s (2007) research with an American sample of
participants: trust, openness, kindness, honesty, morals and ethics, a sense of peace and
harmony, aesthetically pleasing work environment, team orientation, understanding, faith
in God, respect, and truth. The results of Vasconcelos’ study showed that employees had
a strong commitment to religious and spiritual tenets that guided and formed their
perceptions about their spiritual well-being and the place that spirituality has in the
workplace. The respondents’ views were framed by the lens of religion despite the
contrast and distinct differences between religion, spirituality, and spiritual well-being
(Vasconcelos, 2013).
Historical theories of management. The concepts of spiritual well-being and
workplace spirituality are threaded throughout early theories of management. Prior to the
influence of the Protestant Work Ethic on the Industrial Revolution, Henri Fayol and
Frederick Taylor established the scientific management theory, which focused on the
standardization of all organizational tasks through specificity and measurement (Locke,
1982; Schutte, 2016; Wren & Bedeian, 2009). While the scientific management theory
espoused the elements of specification, quality, carrying out orders, and individualization
as opposed to group or team work, it also allowed for the employee-friendly components
of shorter working hours and work weeks, rest breaks, and incentives to be present
(Locke, 1982).
Max Weber expanded the scientific management theory and introduced
bureaucracy into the workplace through hierarchies, authority, detailed procedures for
routine tasks, and manager control (Olum, 2004; Wren & Bedeian, 2009). The
impersonality and negative reaction to the bureaucratic management movement allowed
the formation of the Protestant Work Ethic to gain a foothold in the work environment
where workers were rewarded intrinsically for their hard work and believed that they
received God’s blessing on their efforts (Ewest, 2015; Wren & Bedeian, 2009).
The human relations movement that followed allowed for more attention to be
given to the individual worker and the unique capabilities that they could offer in the
workplace. The deeper consideration on the needs of the worker rather than on the task,
and the role of management as the provider for these needs, was a reaction to the
dehumanizing effects of the scientific and bureaucratic management theories (Wren &
Bedeian, 2009). Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow, and Douglas McGregor were the
primary theorists who influenced the development of the human relations management
theory and movement, which included the belief that organizations would prosper if the
needs of the individual workers were provided for and were aligned with those of the
organization (Olum, 2004; Wren & Bedeian, 2009). The outgrowth of the human
relations movement was the formulation of continually progressive management theories
and the incorporation of training programs to cultivate the skills of delegation, career
development, coaching, and mentoring that led to employee-friendly and supportive work
environments. The focus on a nurturing and supportive work environment emphasized the
potential value for businesses, society, and employees (Benefiel et al., 2014).
The faith at work movement. The antecedents of the current focus on spiritual
well-being and workplace spirituality reach back to the historical management theories
and movements. The bridge between the historical management theories and the recent
interest in the influence of spiritual well-being on job meaningfulness and workplace
engagement was the faith at work movement (Benefiel et al., 2014). The faith at work
movement emphasized the importance of religion and its potential benefit to workers who
were not in the church environment and “offered compelling new arguments for the depth
and breadth of spirituality at work” (Benefiel et al., 2014, p. 177). Workplace conditions
of constant change have led to a desire on the part of employees to integrate their faith
and their work in an effort to bring more stability to their lives. Employees are no longer
content to “park their souls at the door,” and instead seek to bring their whole selves,
body, mind, heart, and soul, to work (Benefiel et al., 2014, p. 177).
While researchers continue to analyze the scope and benefits of spirituality at
work, there are many scholars who argue that the reality within organizations should be a
wall of separation between personal beliefs and the work environment (Ewest, 2015).
Scholars identified the drivers for change toward spiritual well-being and workplace
spirituality to be external such as economic downturns and layoffs that caused employees
to turn to their faith for support (Benefiel et al., 2014). Scholars also acknowledged an
understanding that the emphasis on many current management practices were not
organizationally sustainable to foster employee engagement and create job
meaningfulness (Long & Driscoll, 2015; Miller & Ewest, 2013).
According to Ewest (2015), who cited Pew research, Americans are becoming
more aware of their Title VII religious and spiritual rights but are also becoming less
religious. Specifically, Americans are less Christian than in prior decades with an
increase in those who choose not to affiliate with any particular religious sect or tradition.
Houghton, Neck, and Krishnakumar (2016) suggested that as employees examine the
dilemma of the divergence of spirituality in the workplace, organizations will be willing
to partner with employees and take responsibility to ensure religious freedom. For human
resource managers, this may be a paradigm shift to focus on spiritual values and spiritual
well-being as opposed to religion and religious values, which have been taboo in
traditional human resource practice. While religious values are endemic to humanity,
spiritual values may have personal motivating factors that create positive effects on
organizations and their cultures (Ewest, 2015; Long & Driscoll, 2015; Miller & Ewest,
2013).
In contrast with Ewest’s (2015) findings that Americans are becoming less
religious, Morgan (2016) conducted a study and described his findings that people are
embracing religion in the twenty-first century and that “people are turning to religion for
comfort, guidance, solace, and identity” (p. 446). He stated that, “Unquestionably, the
USA is a faith-based nation” where religion impacts areas such as debates involving
political issues at the national level, economic decision-making at the family level, and
moral issues at the individual level (Morgan, 2016, p. 446). Morgan explored the
interrelationship between business and religion in the contexts of culture, law, and
management. His intention was to provide understanding and inform organizational
leaders about how to respond to, and even embrace, an environment where employees
can integrate their spiritual and work identities and find greater meaning in what they do.
The strength of Morgan’s (2016) approach was his thorough exploration into areas
of religion, faith-based practices, and religious tolerance in American culture. His deep
exploration of the statistics and orientation of religion from the business, legal, and
cultural perspectives provided a great deal of information from which business leaders
could draw to help them design a more spiritually compatible work environment.
However, a weakness in Morgan’s research was the lack of an empirical study that could
have garnered qualitative data regarding the lived experiences of business leaders or those
in the legal field about religion or spirituality in their work environment, or a case study
of an organization and their lack of, or presence of, workplace spirituality. In addition,
quantitative data could have been obtained through a study correlating the religious or
spirituality practices with organizational outcomes in one selected workplace. Morgan
concluded that a more religious environment would create additional challenges for
organizations, but that the current American business culture is poised for the continuing
emergence of religious tolerance and acceptance and “well-suited for the continuing
evolution of the faith-based experience” (p. 462).
Ewest’s (2015) research highlighted a philosophical shift in organizations toward
the acceptance and understanding of the concept of workplace spirituality. This
philosophical shift is reflected in emerging sociological paradigms and the scholarly
interest in workplace spirituality and the desire of employees to merge their religious and
spiritual beliefs, values, and emotions at home and at work (Ewest, 2015; Houghton et al.,
2016). Sandelands (2015) addressed this shift in his research and pointed out that the
focus is no longer on work and spirit as separate concepts. We are called upon to live and
merge two lives; one of work in an organizational setting on the weekdays, and the other
of spirit in a church or other place of worship on designated days apart from the work
week (Sandelands, 2015). Regardless of the research method or findings, evidence shows
that individuals have associated spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace with
a variety of different meanings and perceptions (Benefiel et al., 2014; Marques, 2008;
Vasconcelos, 2013).
Definitions, Explanations, and Context of Terms
Houghton et al. (2016) acknowledged that “a number of definitions and
perspectives of spirituality appear within the literature” (p. 178). The definition section in
Chapter 1 described some of these terms succinctly for the reader to be on common
ground with how they are used in my study. Karakas (2010) suggested that the
“fuzziness, ambiguity, and the complexity of the construct makes spirituality a difficult
research topic to investigate” (p. 91). Terminology and concepts found in the literature
review that are necessary for understanding the context, and that require discussion and
expanded explanation, are the differences among religion, religiosity, and calling;
spirituality, religion, and faith; the concepts of employee engagement, workplace
meaningfulness, and spiritual well-being; and the understanding of workplace spirituality.
It is important to differentiate between the meanings of these inter-related words and
concepts and how they are used in this study to understand the potential relationship,
conclusions, and results of the study.
Religion, Religiosity, and Calling
Research studies and scholars’ findings reflect crossover, and at times confusion,
among the terminologies in the study of spirituality in the workplace. Initial assumptions
about the topics of spiritual well-being and workplace spirituality primarily are toward
the idea and concept of religion. The focus of this study was not on religion, or its
synonymous elements; however, due to the crossover and the relationship between
spirituality and religion, the concept must be discussed within the context of this research
study.
Religion. Religion, in whatever way it is practiced or manifested, has been a
significant influence in society for centuries. Religion involves a belief system in a higher
power that is foundational to how many people think they should live on a daily basis and
can be responsible for influencing their thoughts and behavior. There are few topics that
are as divisive and polarizing as the topic of religion, which may be due to the fact that
people view their religion as the core of their existence (Cole, 2016). Not all philosophers
and scholars view religion in a positive light. Freud (1927) viewed God as an illusion
based on our need for a powerful father figure from our infancy, and discounted religion
in favor of science and reason since religion had been necessary only to help us restrain
violent impulses in the early development of civilization. Hume’s (1757) account of early
religions and religious origins reflected fear, dependence, and ignorance. He concluded
that people sought out religion to find answers to the unknown causes in their life and that
religion created a need in people to continually be suspended between their current state
of life and their idea of eventual death (Hume, 1757).
Religion and spirituality have characteristics in common and spirituality is
required for religion to be present; however, the reverse is not true (Ghazzawi et al.,
2016). Commitment to a particular religion can have a positive influence on employees as
shown in the research findings of Ghazzawi, Smith, and Cao (2016). The authors
researched the five largest religions which are, in alphabetical order, Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, to explore the influence of an organized
religion on workplace attitudes, particularly job satisfaction (Ghazzawi et al., 2016).
Results evidenced that the manifestation of the influence of religion can be seen in the job
satisfaction of workers as well as in employees’ moral framework. Similar findings from
Ewest’s (2015) extensive review of spiritual and religious literature showed evidence of
emotional health and a strong work ethic also referred to as the Protestant Work Ethic.
Detractors who discount the benefit of religious commitment assert that religion should
be regarded as a private matter that has no place in the work environment (Cole, 2016).
Religiosity. Religiosity is different from religion and is described as the outcome
or practice of one’s chosen organized religion. While religion is the belief or faith system
to which a person is affiliated, religiosity is the extent to which a person believes or
practices their religion (Yonker, Edman, Cresswell, & Barrett, 2016). Horvath (2015)
defined religiosity as the “search for the sacred occurring within the realm of a traditional
social structure” (p. 143). Stankov and Lee (2016) conducted a study across 33 countries
that aimed to identify the dimensions of social attitudes, values, and moral foundations,
which they called nastiness, morality, and religiosity. Nastiness was defined as a group of
anti-social attitudes characterized by the acceptance of aggression, violence, and dubious
behaviors to obtain specific outcomes (Stankov & Lee, 2016). The results of the study
showed that morality and nastiness did not correlate with each other, but religiosity
correlated with both morality and nastiness (Stankov & Lee, 2016). The authors used 20
scales, which made the results difficult to process; however, their assessment of
religiosity agreed with other authors’ understanding and definition of the concept.
Stankov and Lee stated that the primary markers of religiosity combined a person’s
feelings related to the role of God or some type of divinity in their lives, with the belief
about the role of their religion in the context of community.
Calling. Scholars have differentiated between spiritual and secular callings. The
origin of spiritual callings coincides with the Protestant Work Ethic (Ewest, 2015), while
a more inclusive explanation of secular callings is found in the writings of Martin Luther
King (Neubert & Halbesleben, 2015). Spiritual callings have a singular focus toward
religion but the broader view of secular callings describes how every person can be called
to do meaningful work, regardless of their position, title, or role in the organization
(Neubert & Halbesleben, 2015). Fachrunnisa et al. (2014) described calling, whether
spiritual or secular, as a job that is very meaningful to the individual, and one that makes
the individual feel “that the work done by the employee is to make other people’s lives
changed” (p. 17). A higher level of job satisfaction and organizational commitment was
associated with spiritual calling in Neubert and Halbesleben’s (2015) research; however,
the results showed that job satisfaction was not necessary for employees to have a
commitment to the organization, partly due to the fact that a spiritual calling provides an
inherent sense of meaning that is separate from the experience of being part of the
organization.
Neubert and Halbesleben’s (2015) research was consistent with Horvath’s (2015)
findings that showed that individuals who perceived a calling to a specific position or
profession were more likely to experience positive outcomes including job satisfaction,
job engagement, meaningfulness, and lower stress and depression. Rawat and
Nadavulakere (2015) found that calling is much broader than merely an employee’s
involvement in their job and includes the sense of meaningfulness and contribution to the
greater good, which extends beyond their job duties and role in the organization. Rawat
and Nadavulakere’s study also showed that employees with a high sense of calling
displayed engagement, job satisfaction, personal fulfillment, empowerment, and greater
life and work meaning in the work place.
Spirituality, Religion, and Faith
The term spirituality has different meanings for each person and frequently is
confused with the concept of religion. This confusion is understandable since there are
similar components in both spirituality and religion, which promote the discussion and
debate. These components include beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions; transcendental
experiences; sense of meaning in existence; belief in the paranormal; and religious
behaviors and practice (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013). With the guidelines for separation of
church and state, and the inability to pursue questioning related to religion during the
hiring process in most organizations, it is not surprising that the concept of spirituality is
taboo in many organizations, particularly among human resource managers.
The concepts and definitions of religion and faith are often confused with
spirituality. Religion is an organized system of beliefs and worship in a concept, being, or
controlling power (Van Cappellen et al., 2016); and faith is a complete trust or confidence
in someone or something (Ghazzawi et al., 2016). In contrast, spirituality is the
integration of all aspects of one’s life and the feeling of being connected to one’s self,
others, and the universe by looking inward to find meaning and purpose (Marques et al.,
2007). According to Marques (2005), just as every organization has a culture, “every
organization has a spirituality, whether it realizes it or not” (p. 27). An organization with
a spirituality can create an environment where employees find meaning and purpose in
their work and feel connected to others and the organization’s mission. Spirituality in the
broadest sense can be communicated through the goals, values, and mission of the
organization (Marques, 2005).
Employee Engagement
Employee engagement is a critical component in an organization. Research shows
a strong correlation between organization strategy and success, human resource strategy,
productivity, profitability, and the engagement levels of employees (Jiang, Lepak, Hu, &
Baer, 2012). Employees who feel a strong sense of commitment to the organization will
perform at higher levels, have higher job satisfaction and morale, higher retention rates,
and a desire to impact the bottom line positively (Schein, 2013). However, employee
engagement is more than just the happiness or satisfaction level of workers (Bersin, 2014;
Weir, 2013). It encompasses how employees feel about the mission and values of the
organization and whether or not they can support them, as well as their fit for their
position (Fachrunnisa et al., 2014).
Engagement makes a difference in the lives and productivity of employees but
also in the overall performance of the organization. Schein (2013) cited statistics for
employee engagement and its relationship to organizational results. The statistics showed
that in 2010 operating income for organizations with high employee engagement
improved 19% while it declined 33% over the same period for organizations with low
employee engagement (Schein, 2013). The concept of employee engagement can be
difficult to identify, but the results of highly engaged employees are apparent in
organizational outcomes as revealed in the statistics. Additional results on which high
engagement has an effect are retention, morale, and commitment and loyalty to the
organization (Abu-Shamaa, Al-Rabayah, & Khasawneh, 2015; Jiang et al., 2012; Shuck,
Twyford, Reio, & Shuck, 2014).
Workplace Meaningfulness
Increasing a sense of meaningfulness at work is one of the most compelling and
underutilized ways to increase productivity, engagement, and performance (Alas &
Mousa, 2016). Workplace meaningfulness takes engagement one step further and is a
result of finding purpose in one’s work, and satisfaction from and commitment to
increased performance in our work settings (Monnot & Beehr, 2014; Ramlall et al.,
2014). Ramlall, Al-Kahtani, and Damanhouri (2014) explained that jobs have “flow” and
are distinguished by three kinds of work orientations: a job that provides a paycheck at
the end of the week; a career that entails a deeper personal investment in work; and a
calling, which is a passionate commitment to work for its own sake. The way that people
see their work is highly predictive of their individual thriving, their self-defined purpose,
and whether they derive meaning from their work and organizational culture (Alas &
Mousa, 2016).
Spiritual Well-Being
In the literature, well-being is often connected with spirituality. The connection of
these two terms brings together the positive and meaningful aspects of an individual’s life
and an interconnectedness with those around them, their environment, or a higher power,
also known as spirituality. Many scholars have conducted research on well-being and
reported findings on the relationship with spirituality (Agrawal & Khan, 2015; Elosua,
2015; Pawar, 2016), religion (Van Cappellen et al., 2016), ethics, and morality
(Alatartseva & Barysheva, 2015). Ethics and morality are two constructs shown to be
associated with spiritual individuals (Alatartseva & Barysheva, 2015). Agrawal and Khan
(2015) assessed the role of emotional intelligence and spirituality on employee’s levels of
well-being and found that the participants’ well-being was enhanced when practices of
workplace spirituality were introduced. The authors’ findings prompted them to suggest
that the intent of an organization should be to engage the whole person in the workplace
and to acknowledge employees as spiritual beings (Agrawal & Khan, 2015). Pawar’s
(2016) empirical research showed that fostering spiritual well-being among employees
enhanced their functioning and organizational experiences, increased morale, and
decreased work stress and burnout. Pawar contended that the spiritual well-being of all
employees has emerged as one of the most important elements in positive-based
management research.
Workplace Spirituality
There are three crucial concepts related to workplace spirituality. The concepts are
that spirituality enhances well-being and quality of life, spirituality provides a sense of
purpose and meaning at work, and spirituality offers a sense of connection and
community in the organization (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013; Javanmard et al., 2014).
Scholars define workplace spirituality in several closely related ways and refer to the
concept with varying terminology. Beheshtifar and Zare (2013) described workplace
spirituality as “the effort to find one’s ultimate purpose in life, to develop a strong
connection to co-workers and other people associated with work, and to have consistency
or alignment between one’s core beliefs and values of their organization” (p. 248).
Fachrunnisa et al. (2014) defined workplace spirituality as a “work situation by which
leader and follower have high spirit toward work completion and achievement of
organization objectives” (p. 15).
Javanmard et al. (2014) did not explicitly define workplace spirituality but noted
that the outcomes frequently are job satisfaction, happiness, employee productivity, and
increased morale and commitment. Ashmos and Duchon (2000), noting that workplace
spirituality is a controversial topic, defined it as the “recognition that employees have an
inner life which nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work taking place in the
context of a community” (p. 137). Miller and Ewest (2013) used Ashmos and Duchon’s
meaning as the foundational definition in their literature review of workplace spirituality
research. Ghadi, Fernando, and Caputi (2013) defined workplace spirituality simply as
meaning in work. Scholars, and others who conducted early research, developed a range
of definitions and perspectives of these terms on which future researchers could build.
Early Researchers’ and Current Scholars’ Perspectives of Spiritual Well-Being and
Spirituality in the Workplace
Gupta
Gupta, Kumar, and Singh (2014) defined spirituality as “being positive toward
one’s self and other living beings” (p. 80), and that spiritual knowledge introduces
individuals to their inner selves, showing them aspects they did not know were present.
The authors acknowledged the confusion between spirituality and religion, but identified
and explained that a spiritual person can also be religious, but a religious person is not
always spiritual since it is simple to follow a religion but difficult to be spiritual (Gupta,
Kumar, & Singh, 2014). The researchers conducted a cross-sectional study and surveyed
100 payroll employees in private insurance companies in India to obtain data about the
impact of spirituality in the workplace on job satisfaction. They measured four
components of spirituality in the workplace: meaningful work, sense of community,
organizational values, and compassion.
The results of the correlation analysis indicated a positive relationship between the
dimensions of spirituality and job satisfaction (Gupta et al., 2014). A regression analysis
revealed that the two most important components in terms of employee satisfaction levels
were a sense of community and organizational values (Gupta et al.,
2014). The researchers’ findings demonstrated that in a workplace where the employees
found meaning in their work, had a feeling of working in a community, felt that
compassion was present in the workplace, and discerned respect for organizational
values, they experienced a sense of spirituality in the work environment (Gupta et al.,
2014). Employees who work in this type of environment report feeling worthwhile,
useful, and valuable, and work at their full capacity with higher levels of engagement
(Fachrunnisa et al., 2014; Gupta et al., 2014; Hassan, Nadeem, & Akhter, 2016;
Javanmard et al., 2014; Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016).
Burack
Burack (1999), an early contributor to the developing research of workplace
spirituality, did not have a singular definition for the concept of spirituality or spiritual
well-being, but used descriptors such as soulfulness, rediscovering the soul, managing
with love, creating a more hospitable work-life environment, and enriching human
experience. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) connected with the soulfulness and hospitable
work-life environment aspects of Burack’s description and defined workplace spirituality
as “the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community” (p. 137). The motto in
business has been lean and mean but is moving more toward lean and meaningful with
the focus on meaning, community, and work with a purpose (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000;
Benefiel et al., 2014).
Ashmos and Duchon
Early scholars and researchers referred to spiritual well-being and workplace
spirituality in general descriptions and conceptualizations as opposed to specific
terminology. In an early research study, Ashmos and Duchon (2000) conducted a study of
spirituality and meaning in the workplace among 696 participants in four hospital
systems, one in the Midwest, one in the mid-South, and two in the Southwest. The
participants were an average of 43.2 years of age, had worked in their current
organization for 7.9 years, and had held their current job for 5.05 years (Ashmos &
Duchon, 2000). The participants were 74% female of whom 64% had attained at least a
bachelor’s degree and 33% held a graduate or professional degree (Ashmos & Duchon,
2000).
The researchers used a questionnaire based on a 7-point Likert-type scale that
ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. The researchers developed the
questionnaire to address the participants’ attitudes about three different constructs: their
attitude about themselves and their individual work environment, their work unit
function, and their work organization as a whole. Before being used in the research study,
the instrument was reviewed by a panel consisting of people from academia, an
organizational development specialist, a former executive leader from a large hospital,
and several members from the business community (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). The
instrument developed by the researchers enabled them to measure the concept of
spirituality in the workplace in three constructs that revealed three dimensions for the
measurement of spirituality in the context of the work environment: inner life,
meaningful work, and community.
The researchers asserted that developing an instrument and a way to measure
workplace spirituality is important to observe the phenomenon in the context of the
workplace with the long term goal of understanding how spirituality can contribute to
more productive work environments (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). The purpose of the
article was to define and conceptualize spirituality in the workplace and present empirical
support for a measurement tool that the researchers created. The findings were consistent
with the expectations of the researchers and exhibited a correlation between workplace
spirituality and conditions for community, meaning at work, and inner life (Ashmos &
Duchon, 2000). The researchers concluded that the data supported the concept that
spirituality in the workplace involved all three dimensions of inner life, meaningful work,
and a sense of community at the individual, work unit, and organizational levels (Ashmos
& Duchon, 2000).
Marques
Marques (2005, 2008) is a leader in the scholarly exploration of spirituality in the
workplace including in the context of human resources. She conducted extensive research
in related areas that included the influence and benefit of spirituality to the field of human
resources, which is a topic with limited research and results. Marques’ information is
primarily qualitative; however, her research highlighted two important findings. The first
finding was that spiritual well-being or enlightened behavior was not only for those in
religious orders or places of business, but for those in any organization or part of society.
The second finding was that while spiritual well-being or spiritual behavior is a
“significant durable option in our increasingly diversifying global work force” (p. 26),
employees must be cognizant of the fact that spirituality in the workplace is not readily
accepted everywhere. The process from individual beliefs to organizational practice is
still in transition in many organizations. Marques’ research depicted a model based on the
responses of 225 participants in a series of six Los Angeles-based workshops about
challenges and alternatives for workers in an environment that lacked spirituality
(Marques, 2008). The model, as shown in Figure 1, reflected the issues faced by
spiritually-impoverished workers and the alternatives available to them as they became
more spiritually attuned (Marques, 2008).
Figure 1. Challenges and alternatives for workers in a spiritually-lacking environment.
The inclusion of spirituality in the workplace may benefit individuals and organizations
alike through interconnectedness, increased motivation, enhanced overall performance,
and organizational excellence (Marques, 2008).
Mitroff and Denton
Like Marques (2005, 2008), Mitroff and Denton (1999) studied spirituality in the
workplace in the context of human resources. They conducted an empirical study of
spirituality in the workplace through interviews with senior human resource executives
and from questionnaires sent to human resource practitioners. The researchers mailed
2,000 questionnaires to senior human resource executives on the U.S. west coast and
conducted qualitative interviews with groups of executives who answered the
questionnaire. The participants drew a strong differentiation between religion and
spirituality, and expressed a desire to be able to show their spirituality in the workplace
(Mitroff & Denton, 1999). The participants tied what gave them meaning in their jobs to
their ability to express their spirituality in the work environment. The results of the study
evidenced that although compensation is an important part of a person’s work life,
beyond a certain monetary threshold, employees have a greater desire to have basic
internal needs met. When the participants were asked what gave them meaning in their
work, the primary answer was “the ability to realize my full potential as a person”
(Mitroff & Denton, 1999, p. 85).
From their research, Mitroff and Denton (1999) determined that people can have
four different orientations toward religion and spirituality. Figure 2 is a visualization of
the various orientation combinations that may be present.
Figure 2. The four orientations toward religion and spirituality.
The four orientations can be positive about both religion and spirituality, negative about
both concepts, positive about religion over spirituality, or positive about spirituality over
religion (Mitroff & Denton, 1999). From the interviews with the senior executives, the
researchers found that organizations have similar models of spirituality and religion
(Mitroff & Denton, 1999). Each model is valid from an individual or organization’s
perspective and reflects how humans and places of business find meaning and purpose in
their lives in the workplace. Mitroff and Denton’s (1999) findings substantiated the
conclusions of other scholars, such as Fachrunnisa et al. (2014) and Javanmard et al.
(2014), about the value to the organization of allowing employees to express their
spirituality in the workplace. Employee orientations toward religion and spirituality, and
their perceptions about whether they are enabled to express their spirituality in the
workplace, has been shown to have an influence on individual performance as well as
organizational outcomes (Albuquerque, Cunha, Martins, & Sa, 2014).
Influence of Individual Spiritual Well-Being and Spirituality on Organizational
Outcomes and Performance
The influence that spiritual well-being and spirituality have on the organization
and its leaders was integral to my research study. In an effort to increase effectiveness,
productivity, quality, efficiency, and adaptability, organizational leaders have started to
focus on the concept of workplace spirituality and its context within their specific work
environment (Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon, 2015; Ke, Qiu, & Jiang, 2015). For the last
decade, researchers have studied spirituality and spiritual well-being in the context of the
workplace, which has been referred to by a variety of terms including organizational
spirituality, spirituality at work, workplace spirituality, spirit at work, and spirituality in
business (Albuquerque et al., 2014; Mahakud & Gangai, 2015). Findings from a research
study conducted by Albuquerque, Cunha, Martins, and Sa (2014) with health care
workers from four separate work groups, showed that both measured and perceived
organizational performance were predicted by a sense of community, which is one of the
three dimensions the researchers identified of spiritual well-being and workplace
spirituality in addition to inner life and meaningful work.
In contrast to the study and findings by Albuquerque et al. (2014), Daniel and
Chatelain-Jardon (2015) identified two dimensions of transcendence, the psychical world
and connectedness to the physical world, in their review of the literature and
corresponding research study about the impact of individual spirituality in societies. The
authors conducted a quantitative research study with 139 full-time and part-time students
from a University located in the Southeast area of the United States, as well as
government employees and workers from the healthcare, banking, education, and
automotive industries. They used structural equation modeling to analyze the data, which
provided information on more complex relationships among the variables of individual
spirituality, organizational commitment, and individual innovative behavior (Daniel &
Chatelain-Jardon, 2015).
Results showed that individuals with high levels of spirituality and spiritual
wellbeing developed a higher level of commitment toward the organization, and that
those with higher levels of spiritual well-being could create, develop, and implement
ideas in the workplace (Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon, 2015). Results from a correlation
study conducted by Ke et al. (2015) substantiated Daniel and Chatelain-Jardon’s (2015)
findings related to organizational commitment and employees’ performance in the
organization. Data collected from 347 employees in various corporations showed a
correlation between the variables when corporate philanthropy or service was an option
for employees, which is a contributing factor to meaningfulness in the workplace (Ke et
al., 2015; Lee, Lovelace, & Manz, 2014).
Mahakud and Gangai (2015) used the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire
and the Spirituality at Work Scale to obtain responses from workers in India that showed
a relationship existed between spirituality and organizational commitment, and that
employees with increased age were more spiritual and committed to their organization
than those in younger age groups. Mahakud and Gangai used a descriptive research
design to compare the presence of spiritual well-being and the workplace spirituality
commitment of 120 males and females, which suggested that emotionally males are more
committed to their job than the female respondents. The majority of studies referenced in
the review of the literature for this study did not use gender or age as mediating factors in
spiritual well-being or spirituality, so Mahakud and Gangai’s study provided initial
statistical information for further inquiry.
The presence of individual spirituality and spiritual well-being in the workplace
has been linked in previous studies to multiple visible outcomes in the organization
including organizational commitment and individual innovative behavior (Daniel &
Chatelain-Jardon, 2015); organizational commitment, job performance, and job
satisfaction (Albuquerque et al., 2014; Fanggida, Rolland, Suryana, Efendi, & Hilmiana,
2016; Ke et al., 2015; Mahakud & Gangai, 2015; Salehzadeh, Pool, Lashaki, Dolati, &
Jamkhaneh, 2015); organizational development, productivity, and efficiency (Kumar &
Kumar, 2015); and embedded organizational elements such as culture, values, beliefs,
and attitudes (Alas & Mousa, 2016; Brophy, 2015; Stokes et al., 2016). Organizational
leaders are quick to say that their employees are their most valuable resource, and
research has shown that dissatisfied employees have a negative influence on the
productivity and effectiveness of the organization through increased turnover and training
costs, absenteeism, and disengagement (Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon, 2015). Additional
outcomes of spiritual well-being and spirituality in the workplace are the presence of
workplace ethics (Ayoun, Rowe, & Yassine, 2015; Shah & Sachdev, 2014); higher job
involvement and satisfaction (Gupta et al., 2014; Javanmard et al., 2014; Paul, Dutta, &
Saha, 2015); and employees who report greater work life balance, quality of life at work,
and experience high levels of motivation in the workplace (van der Walt & Swanepoel,
2015).
Workplace Ethics
Shah and Sachdev (2014) found that when spirituality and religion were present in
an organization, regardless of the industry, the crucial link was with ethics. Business
ethics refer to the moral principles that define right and wrong in a work environment
(Ayoun et al., 2015). Shah and Sachdev defined spirituality in the organization as
“making sense of one’s own existence in the larger context, reflecting upon the impact of
our actions on others and being connected with a higher purpose thereby transcending our
own ego” (p. 872). From this definition, values and morals, sometimes referred to in the
literature as principles, would be present in the workplace when employees were
cognizant of the impact and effect their actions would have on others in the organization.
It would create a situation where employees would respond based on something that was
bigger than themselves and outside of their individual realm and ego. Shah and Sachdev
found that when values were practiced consistently, they became habits or virtuous acts.
The researchers described virtuous acts as a characteristic of a person since it is a choice
that he or she makes and something that becomes part of who they are and how they live
(Shah & Sachdev, 2014).
Employees are multi-dimensional and have physical, spiritual, moral, and ethical
dimensions that make up who they are in their personal and professional lives. Shah and
Sachdev (2014) administered a survey in four different organizations to explore the
relationship between the values espoused by the organization and employee-related
outcomes such as spirituality, ethical behavior, and engagement. The results indicated
that when there is a high level of ethical behavior and adherence to values in the
organization there was a correlation with the employee behaviors of increased
engagement and ethics (Shah & Sachdev, 2014).
Conversely, Ayoun et al. (2015) explored the potential association between
spirituality and business ethics in a sample of hotel workers through an online survey of
717 potential participants and found no statistically significant correlation between
spirituality and the four variables the authors used to measure ethics: perceived moral
intensity, ethical perception, ethical judgment, and ethical intention. The researchers
noted two significant weaknesses in their study that they acknowledged might have
impacted the results. The first weakness was the sampling technique that was used. The
authors used the snowball sampling technique that resulted in only 165 analyzable
responses from an initial email to 717 potential participants. The second weakness was
that all but one of the spirituality correlations reflected the anticipated relationships to the
ethical variables as they were worded (Ayoun et al., 2015). As a result, the direction of
the relationship was observed but not strong enough to be considered statistically
significant. Differing results from studies of similar topics provides an opportunity for
further inquiry in this area of research.
Job Satisfaction and Job Involvement
Job satisfaction is a topic studied frequently in the literature, and according to
Gupta et al. (2014) is “one of the most important employee attitudes in organizational
research, principally because of its importance” (p. 81). Many managers equate an
employee’s satisfaction level to their performance in the workplace. Studies have related
job satisfaction to workplace behaviors such as retention, attrition, absenteeism, and
commitment to the organization, and satisfied employees have been found to be more
committed to their organization and loyal than dissatisfied employees (Gupta et al.,
2014).
Research related to spiritual well-being, spirituality, and workplace spirituality is
transitioning from the conceptual and theoretical to the empirical. As a result, few
empirical studies have established the relationship between spirituality in the workplace
and work-related behaviors and attitudes such as job satisfaction (Ghazzawi et al., 2016;
Gupta et al., 2014). However, similar work attitudes, including job satisfaction, have been
identified in studies related to the impact of workplace spirituality or when it is explored
as a mediating factor (Hassan et al., 2016). Javanmard et al. (2014) conducted a
correlation research study with 1,915 participants to determine the relationship between
workplace spirituality and job satisfaction and found a statistically significant positive
relationship between the two variables.
From this result, Javanmard et al. (2014) concluded that “organizations must seek
ways to improve their spirituality in the workplace to improve the internal environment of
the organization, such as job satisfaction of staff to provide effective behavior” (p. 74).
The authors offered the following suggestions that human resource managers could
implement in the organization to foster increased job satisfaction: job rotation,
enrichment, and empowerment; cooperation between employees rather than competition,
which will strengthen relationships within the organization; and the administration of
clearly defined goals and values in the organization (Javanmard et al., 2014).
Job involvement is a work-related attitude studied more recently and is seen in
employees who are satisfied in the workplace and exhibit specific performance-related
behaviors in the work environment (Abu-Shamaa et al., 2015; Van der Walt &
Swanepoel, 2015). Van der Walt and Swanepoel (2015) conducted the first study of its
kind when they investigated the relationship between job involvement and workplace
spirituality using a South African participant sample. They found minimal research about
job involvement in general, and as far as they could establish, no studies conducted
within the South African sample. Van der Walt and Swanepoel conducted a quantitative,
cross-sectional research study at two organizations and measured workplace spirituality
using the Organizational Spiritual Values Scale, and job involvement using the Job
Involvement Questionnaire.
Van der Walt & Swanepoel (2015) found that a statistically significant positive
relationship existed between workplace spirituality and job involvement. They referenced
similar results by Huang and Lin, Pawar, and Milliman et al. from which one might
conclude that if an organization focuses on spirituality in the workplace, it may lead to
employees becoming more involved in their jobs (Van der Walt & Swanepoel, 2015).
The results of the multiple regression analysis provided support that workplace
spirituality predicted job involvement, which may lead one to conclude that to enhance
positive workplace attitudes and behaviors, a spiritually-friendly work environment
should be allowed, to whatever extent possible or appropriate, in the organization (Van
der Walt & Swanepoel, 2015).
Work Life Balance and Quality of Life at Work
The amount of control that employees feel they have over their lives at work and
the quality of their experience in the workplace are critical for engagement and for
finding meaning in one’s job (Paul et al., 2015). The separation of an employee’s work
life, personal life, and spirituality creates feelings of separation, dissatisfaction, and
affects work-related outcomes negatively (Karim, Bibi, & Aftab, 2016; Paul et al., 2015).
Work-life balance, also called quality of life at work, refers to the ability of an individual
to merge their work life with their personal life and the related obligations, activities, and
responsibilities with minimal effort (Paul et al., 2015). Scholars have explored the
concept of work-life balance and found that it is related positively to job satisfaction,
engagement, positive job-related attitudes, and employee well-being (Colichi, Bocchi,
Lima, & Popim, 2016; Karim et al., 2016; Paul et al., 2015).
Paul, Dutta, and Saha (2015) conducted a study of women executives in the
information technology field and observed that work interfered with family more than the
family dynamics interfered with work. Conflict between an employee’s home and work
life was found to be associated with lower employee job satisfaction, lower performance,
higher turnover, and increased stress (Paul et al., 2015). The researchers concluded that
enabling spirituality in the workplace improved organizational performance, profitability,
and work-related attitudes such as job satisfaction and engagement (Paul et al., 2015).
These conclusions aligned with results from Karim, Bibi, and Aftab’s (2016) research
that suggested that satisfaction with one’s work-life balance was positively related to
overall job satisfaction when spirituality and religiosity were fostered in the organization.
An integrative review of the literature conducted by Colichi, Bocchi, Lima, and
Popim (2016) analyzed 83 articles written between 2011 and 2016 on the general topics
of quality of life at work and family functionality. Their analysis included research from
multiple countries, six types of research methods, and 11 multidisciplinary journals. The
themes addressed in the articles were job and life satisfaction, burnout and stress, intent to
leave, organizational commitment, and factors that influenced levels of work engagement
(Colichi et al., 2016). Conclusions from the researchers on their analysis of the research
studies revealed a lack of information and data on the influence of the family dynamic on
the work environment, which substantiated the findings of Paul et al. (2015) who found
that work interfered more with family life than the reverse. Karim’s et al.
(2016) conclusions identified religiosity, the outcome of one’s spirituality or spiritual
well-being, as a significant component of work-life balance.
The influence of spiritual well-being on organizational performance and outcomes
is well-documented in the research (Albuquerque et al., 2014; Daniel & Chatelain-Jardon,
2015; Kumar & Kumar, 2015). A great deal of research has also been conducted on the
constructs of engagement and job meaningfulness. The extent to which these constructs
exist in the organization and how they are experienced by employees has been widely
researched by scholars in the fields of business, human resources, and organizational
development through qualitative and quantitative inquiry.
Engagement, Job Meaningfulness, and Spiritual Well-Being Research
Engagement, meaningfulness in the workplace, and spiritual well-being are
concepts that have been widely researched by scholars; however, there is less research in
the literature specifically about the engagement levels and the meaningfulness that human
resource managers experience from their jobs. The percentage of employees in the United
States who are engaged in their work has remained consistent over the last fifteen years
with the last five years reflecting engagement levels of 29% in 2011, 30.3% in 2012,
29.6% in 2013, 31.5% in 2014, and 32% in 2015 (Adkins, 2016). Engaged employees are
involved, enthusiastic, innovative, and committed to their work; whereas, disengaged
employees are less vigilant, do the minimum required for their job, and are more likely to
miss work (Adkins, 2016; Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016; Purcell, 2014).
Meaningful work is defined by Lips-Wiersma, Wright, and Dik (2016) as “the
subjective experience of work as purposeful and significant and linked to a sense of
identity with a positive valence that is principally growth- and purpose-oriented rather
than pleasure-oriented in nature” (p. 534). Recent research has focused on exploring and
measuring individual variables to identify workers’ perspectives on how they connect
their work with something greater than themselves (Atienza & Santiago, 2015;
LipsWiersma, Wright, & Dik, 2016). Research findings have also shown a potential link
between the spiritual well-being of employees and their engagement levels and the
meaningfulness they derive from their role in the organization (Agrawal & Khan, 2015;
Pawar, 2016; Truss et al., 2013).
Although there are some interconnections, spirituality and spiritual well-being are
related but separate constructs. Spiritual well-being is the consequence of experiencing
spirituality. Spiritual well-being does not reflect religious beliefs only, although for many
people of faith, their religious beliefs are at the core of their experience and overall
wellbeing (Tejeda, 2015). Spiritual well-being is reflected through the desire to find
purpose, meaning, and a sense of community that stems from the influence of an
individual’s sense of a divine or higher power (Marques, 2005). Tejeda (2015) cited
research that found that spiritual well-being was significantly related to employee
performance. The findings supported the relationship of spiritual well-being to
engagement and job meaningfulness as opposed to the overall well-being of individuals
with the inclusion of the Spillover theory as the theoretical framework for the study
(Tejeda, 2015). The Spillover theory hypothesizes that the elements that make up an
individual are not segmented but that they spill over into multiple areas of an individual’s
life. The Spillover theory was used originally in quality of life and family-work tension
research but has been applied recently as a measurement for spirituality and work
(Tejeda, 2015).
The spiritual well-being element was measured using the Spiritual Index of
WellBeing, which is a 12-item self-reporting measure that defines spiritual well-being as
“a sense of life purpose or meaning from a transcendent source” (Tejeda, 2015, p. 176).
The scale was developed to assess the specific attribute of transcendence to identify
spiritual well-being and differentiate it from overall well-being (Tejeda, 2015). Spiritual
wellbeing focuses on inner spiritual resources and has been observed to be helpful during
times of stressful life events, psychological trauma, and as a moderating factor between
the relationships of work overload and job satisfaction (Ghazzawi et al., 2016; Gupta et
al., 2014; Tejeda, 2015). Job satisfaction, as well as other positive work behavior
attitudes, have also been connected to the construct of engagement (Alfes, Shantz, Truss,
& Soane, 2013; Purcell, 2014).
Engagement
Scholars have researched the topic of engagement in the workplace from one of
two perspectives; either by describing and exploring work engagement or attempting to
measure behavioral engagement (Purcell, 2014). Work engagement refers to an
individual’s state of mind while they are in the workplace and is the subject of the
majority of academic research on engagement (Purcell, 2014). Behavioral engagement is
more commonly labeled employee engagement and is an employee’s response to the
practices of management to foster engagement in the workplace (Purcell, 2014). Purcell
(2014) cited research conducted by Truss who explained the difference by defining
employee engagement as “an approach taken by organizations to manage their workforce,
rather than a psychological state experienced by employees in the performance of their
work” (p. 242). The difference is whether an organization is doing something to create
engagement in their workforce or if employees are experiencing an engaged state of mind
while they are at work. The difference is a subtle but important differentiation in the
research and in how it is manifested in practice in the workplace.
The research on engagement reveals positive outcomes that can be observed in the
workplace or in the individual. Krishnaveni and Monica (2016) conducted research on the
impact of engagement at the individual, team, and organizational levels and identified the
primary drivers for developing engagement among employees. The drivers identified in
the study were job characteristics, good supervisor, good coworker relations, training and
development, and rewards and recognition (Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016). The authors
concluded that when these drivers were reinforced in the workplace it would promote
engagement in the minds of the employees (Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016). The
researchers developed a conceptual framework based on an extensive literature review
that began with the work of Kahn whose grounded theory of engagement and
disengagement was recognized as the foundational research in this area (Kahn, 1990;
Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016). The findings also suggested that meaningfulness in the
form of an employee’s fit with their organizational role and job-enrichment showed the
strongest relationship with engagement levels (Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016).
Early research and approaches to engagement in the workplace. For many,
the term engagement has become the next buzz word in the management field. Research
conducted recently has made the concept popular although there are still unanswered
questions about the theory behind engagement and how to measure it and define it (Saks
& Gruman, 2014). The difficulty with defining engagement may be due in part to the
overlap of identifying the concept apart from other work attitudes such as job satisfaction,
work involvement, and organizational commitment (Saks & Gruman, 2014).
The first major study conducted on employee engagement was Kahn’s (1990)
ethnographic research where he explored the work attitudes and perceptions that
influenced engagement and disengagement in the workplace. Kahn selected two diverse
populations for his study in order to increase the generalizability of his results. The first
research site selected by Kahn for his ethnographic study was a summer camp in the West
Indies that consisted of a sample of 16 counselors, nine men and seven women, ranging
from 20 to 35 years of age. The second research site was an architectural firm in the
northeastern United States. Kahn collected data on 16 members of the architectural firm,
10 men and six women ranging from 24 to 54 years of age, with varying job positions
represented among them as well as different lengths of tenure in the organization. The
research method in both studies was qualitative. Kahn used observation, document
analysis, self-reflection, and in-depth interviewing to collect data in the summer camp
setting, and in-depth interviews ranging from 40 to 90 minutes with the architectural firm
participants.
Kahn’s (1990) findings identified three themes from the in-depth interviews,
observations, and self-reflection obtained through the data collection. The first theme was
meaningfulness, which was experienced by the participants as feeling worthwhile,
valued, and able to give and receive from others and the work environment in the course
of their work (Kahn, 1990). The second theme was safety, which was reported by the
participants as being able to trust that a situation was secure, predictable, and clear in
terms of behavioral consequences (Kahn, 1990). The last theme identified from the
collected data was availability, which represented a sense of possessing the physical,
emotional, and psychological resources needed to perform their role and invest their inner
selves into their work (Kahn, 1990). Kahn’s research was largely ignored in the first 20
years after the studies were completed. However, with an increased focus on engagement
over the last five to 10 years, and a variety of surveys available to measure engagement in
various ways, there is a renewed focus on the concept of engagement in the workplace.
According to Google Scholar Citations (2017), the article has been cited 4,433 times with
the majority of the citations occurring in the last five years. Between 1999 and 2011 the
article was cited 1,177 times, and between 2012 and 2016 the article was cited 3,256
times.
Since the time of Kahn’s (1990) research, engagement has been connected with
positive and improved organizational outcomes, which may be one reason for the
increased interest in the topic (Saks & Gruman, 2014). A study conducted by Jenkins and
Delbridge in 2013 examined two approaches to promote employee engagement at work.
The authors used the terminology of soft approach and hard approach (Jenkins &
Delbridge, 2013). The researchers conducted a qualitative study of two contrasting
organizations to explore and identify different management approaches within the
organization to engage employees in the workplace. The soft approach centered on
promoting a positive work environment and relationships between employees and
management to enhance the employees’ feelings of well-being in the workplace. The hard
approach sought to engage employees in their work by focusing on productivity to
increase the organization’s competitive advantage and organizational performance
(Jenkins & Delbridge, 2013). The researchers found that engagement was significantly
influenced by the organization’s approach to people management and whether the
employees felt that they could exercise the feelings, cognitions, and behaviors of their
whole selves in the workplace (Jenkins & Delbridge, 2013). Schutte (2016) noted that the
element of employees feeling that they can bring their whole selves to the workplace was
identified as a link between high spirituality in the workplace and organizational
outcomes such as increased commitment, increased honesty and trust, greater kindness
and fairness, increased profits, and higher levels of productivity and performance.
Engagement studies conducted in various professions. Scholars connected the
concepts of engagement and meaningfulness in other studies as well, including religious
workers and church leaders. Miner, Bickerton, Dowson, and Sterland (2015) conducted a
quantitative research study on work engagement, as defined by Purcell (2014), and found
engagement to be a positive indicator of well-being and meaningfulness in religious
workers. The researchers measured work engagement by using the Utrecht Work
Engagement Scale (Roof, 2015), which is also one of the instruments that will be used in
my study (Schaufeli, Bakker, & Salanova, 2006). Similarly, Bickerton, Miner, Dowson,
and Griffin (2014) found a significant relationship between work engagement and
spiritual well-being, labeled spiritual resources in their study, when they conducted a
longitudinal study among 496 Australian religious workers at three points in time over a
period of 18 months. The researchers also used the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
(Roof, 2015) to obtain results reflecting three underlying work engagement dimensions
measured by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Bickerton, Miner, Dowson, & Griffin,
2014). The results of their study suggested that spiritual well-being should be considered
an independent and important factor in the workplace for religious workers, and the
researchers recommended that future studies should encompass other professions and
industries.
Iyer (2016) conducted a non-experimental, cross-sectional quantitative study
among teachers in India to explore engagement, particularly the differences in
engagement levels between male and female teachers. The teachers’ work engagement
levels were measured using the short form of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (Roof,
2015; Schaufeli et al., 2006). The results of their study showed a significant difference
between the work engagements of male teachers as compared to female teachers. The
engagement of male teachers was higher with the results reflecting no differences
between the tenure of the two groups (Iyer, 2016). Iyer noted that the drivers for
engagement were individual to each group of participants but did not specify the specific
drivers identified in the study (Iyer, 2016). Krishnaveni and Monica (2016) identified five
drivers of engagement in their study, and further exploration to recognize these drivers in
other population samples may provide further insight into what enhances engagement in
employees in various work environments.
Engagement and human resource management practices. The practice of
human resource management influences all areas within an organization due to the
interaction that human resource managers have with employees. In a study focused on
how human resource management practices incorporating engagement influenced
organizational outcomes, Albrecht, Bakker, Gruman, Macey, and Saks (2015) created a
model that shows how a strategic focus on engagement through human resource
management policies and practices could lead to a competitive advantage for the
organization. The researchers asserted that in order for engagement to result in positive
organizational outcomes and influence the perception of organizational culture, it needs
to be embedded in the human resource management system of policies, practices, and
procedures (Albrecht et al., 2015). The researchers’ model for creating such a system is
consistent with the research findings of Kahn (1990) for what influenced the
psychological conditions for engagement to be present. Their model also identified
mediating approaches and drivers for engagement that paralleled Krishnaveni and
Monica’s (2016) research for sustaining engagement already present in the workforce.
While the links between engagement and organizational outcomes and
performance are not well established, and how to define and measure engagement is still
debated among many scholars, the model designed by Albrecht et al. (2015) identified
individual, team, unit, and organizational outcomes that can be measured. The model also
identified which outcomes may be more directly influenced by higher engagement (Saks
& Gruman, 2014). Shuck, Twyford, Reio, and Shuck (2014) examined engagement
through the lens of social exchange theory as a framework to understand employees’
intention for turnover from the organization. According to Shuck et al., human resource
management practices could have an influence on voluntary turnover by developing
higher levels of work engagement. However, the gap explored by Shuck et al. was
whether employee perceptions of the human resource management practices did in fact
affect performance outcomes such as turnover intentions.
The results suggested that the relationship between the perception of the human
resource management practices to influence engagement and turnover intention was
strong (Shuck et al., 2014). The researchers also found that employees who felt supported
and encouraged by the organization in their development, learning opportunities, and
career goals were less likely to report that they wanted to voluntarily leave the
organization (Shuck et al., 2014). The results of the study by Shuck et al. (2014) and the
findings of Albrecht et al. (2015) suggested that embedding work engagement within
human resource management practices, policies, and procedures may create a work
environment that is positive for employees as well as human resource managers, and
contribute to successful organizational outcomes and a competitive advantage for the
organization.
Workplace Meaningfulness
People work not only for compensation but also to find meaning in what they do
and to feel that what they spend so much time doing each day makes a difference
(Yeoman, 2014). Scholars have identified meaningfulness as a basic human need and one
of the results that employees experience when they have person-job fit (Pattakos &
Dundon, 2017; Tims, Derks, & Bakker, 2016). Yeoman (2014) argued that meaningful
work is not a preference but a fundamental human need and cited four needs that people
have for meaning to be present: a sense of purpose, a sense of efficacy, the ability to view
oneself as having positive value, and a sense of positive self-worth. Tims, Derks, and
Bakker (2016) contended that when an employee experienced a fit with their position
they felt a sense of purpose and that they brought value to the organization, which was a
concept reported frequently in other studies by employees as meaningfulness.
Lips-Wiersma et al. (2016) conducted a study among blue-, pink-, and whitecollar
workers to investigate the frequency with which they experienced meaningfulness in their
various roles and the importance they placed on finding meaning in their work.
No differences were found among the workers on the importance they placed on finding
meaning in their jobs. However, the frequency of experiencing meaning in their work
differed greatly among the three types of workers with white-collar workers reporting
feelings of meaningfulness more frequently through unity with coworkers and being able
to realize their full potential in their role (Lips-Wiersma et al., 2016). The value and
purpose of meaningfulness that employees experienced in their role was an important
aspect of this research since data evidenced that the absence of these components leads
employees to feel disconnected and disengaged from their jobs (Lips-Wiersma et al.,
2016; Pattakos & Dundon, 2017).
The argument for job meaningfulness. When employees espouse one set of
values in the workplace and another set of values in their personal life they become
fragmented and do not experience having their whole selves present in either situation
(Atienza & Santiago, 2015). Yeoman (2014) argued that it is extremely difficult for most
individuals to feel completely whole from only their personal lives due to the amount of
time they spend at work, the role it plays in their lives, and the importance they place on
the social aspect of the work environment. Hagler, Hamby, Grych, and Banyard (2016)
conducted a mixed-methods study and researched the ways that work enhanced the
meaningfulness and well-being of employees. The researchers found three themes that
were consistent in their qualitative research about how employees found meaning in their
work: by providing income, by providing autonomy and satisfaction, and by providing
opportunities through work to benefit and assist themselves and others (Hagler, Hamby,
Grych, & Banyard, 2016). Consequently, if meaningfulness has been defined by scholars
as a basic human need, organizational leaders must contribute to strategies that facilitate
the structure for meaningfulness to occur for all employees, including human resource
managers.
Meaning in work and meaning of work. In the literature, a differentiation is
made in research studies between finding meaning in the work that an employee does as
part of their job or role, and experiencing meaning from the work of the organization as a
whole. According to Saks and Gruman (2014), meaningfulness at work is more likely to
be influenced by factors associated with the organization rather than an individual’s job
duties, which supports Kahn’s (1990) concept of psychological meaningfulness. Kahn
identified psychological meaningfulness as “a feeling that one is receiving a return on
investments of one’s self in a currency of physical, cognitive, or emotional energy” (p.
703).
There are professions such as those in the medical field that are viewed as having
a high degree of meaningfulness; however, that does not ensure that individuals in those
professions experience meaningfulness in their work from their job duties. Pattakos and
Dundon (2017) found that employees who experience meaning of their work may still
have difficulty finding meaning in their work due to interpersonal issues, intrapersonal
challenges, budgetary constraints, or the perception of a lack of support in the
organization. As a result, even when leaders strive to design a meaningful workplace,
there may still be individuals who do not experience meaningfulness in their specific role
due to elements in the workplace that are not within their control.
Spiritual Well-Being
With studies linking spiritual well-being to organizational effectiveness and
individual performance, organizational leaders have shown an increased interest in its
presence and development in their workplace environment in recent years (Tejeda, 2015).
Scholars have conducted studies about the influence of spiritual well-being and the
potential relationship to areas such as job satisfaction (Tejeda, 2015), emotional
intelligence (Agrawal & Kahn, 2015), spiritual resources (Bickerton et al., 2015), and
positive emotions (Van Cappellen et al., 2016). The lack of empirical evidence that links
some organizational outcomes to spiritual well-being provides a gap that warrants further
study in this area.
Internal and external influences of spiritual well-being. Agrawal and Khan
(2015) recognized that employees do not work only with their hands or heads, but also
with their heart and their spirit. A broad description of spiritual well-being is to have a
positive engagement with others, self, and the environment around us (Guillen, Ferrero,
& Hoffman, 2014). Alatartseva and Barysheva (2015) revealed two levels of well-being,
which they labeled internal (subjective) and external (objective). They described internal
well-being as an individual’s association with their personal characteristics, features, and
emotions; and external well-being as an individual’s perception and perspective of others
and the world around them (Alatartseva & Barysheva, 2015). Four attributes that
Alatartseva and Barysheva identified that constituted overall well-being included being in
harmony with others and the environment, having an intrinsic understanding of what was
good for them and the desire and knowledge about how to achieve it, having the ability to
realize their individual potential, and allowing an environment to exist so that the first
three attributes could be present and flourish.
Business outcomes of spiritual well-being. Tejeda (2015) explored the
relationship between spiritual well-being and job satisfaction in a group of managers who
were experiencing adverse working conditions. Tejeda’s findings were consistent with
those of Van Cappellen et al. (2016) whose evidence depicted that spiritual well-being
appeared to have beneficial effects on job attitudes and work outcomes, was associated
with lower perceptions of job frustration and work stress, and had a spillover effect even
during adverse working conditions. Studies suggest that fostering the well-being of
employees in the workplace may be beneficial for employers as survey results from
newer generations of workers reflect the desire to have their basic needs met and to
obtain less tangible results from their work experience (Hagler et al., 2016).
As a precursor to putting their whole selves into their work, human resource
managers need to feel that their basic needs are being met as well, that they are
contributing to the mission of the organization, and that they have the opportunity to
develop and grow along with other employees (Hagler et al., 2016; Truss et al., 2013).
Spiritual well-being gives meaning to an individual’s life at work and leads to behaviors
such as having awareness of their connection with others in the workplace, understanding
the significance of their actions, and believing in something outside of themselves for the
benefit of the organization (Agrawal & Khan, 2015; Bickerton et al., 2015). But even
with the beneficial effects of spiritual well-being identified in many research studies,
there is also criticism and caution about its place in the organization noted by some
researchers.
Criticisms and Detractors of Spirituality and Spiritual Well-Being in the Workplace
The wariness and criticism toward spirituality in the workplace is due, in part, to
the confusion between the constructs of spirituality, religion, and religiosity (Schutte,
2016). The fact that human resource managers may be wary of the concept of spirituality
in the workplace is understandable with the desire to separate religion from the work
environment in the current political and social climate (Cole, 2016). Religion can create
conflict and separation between individuals and groups, but spirituality is a desire for
meaning and purpose at work and the alignment of the personal and professional values
of an individual (Schutte, 2016). The ongoing debate, research, and interest on the subject
of workplace spirituality all but guarantee that the discussion will continue as
organizational leaders explore the potential benefits and positive outcomes for their
workforce (Schutte, 2016). However, current approaches to foster an environment where
spirituality can be present in the workplace were criticized and dismissed as recently as
20 years ago (Gotsis & Kortezi, 2008).
Early Critical Approaches to Spiritual Well-Being and Workplace Spirituality
Spirituality in contrast to religion. As far back as the sixth century when St.
Benedict combined spirituality with the work of the monks, and the Reformation when
Martin Luther King referred to daily work as holy, there were some that continued to
believe that spirituality belonged only in church and in religious settings (Benefiel et al.,
2014; Schutte, 2016). However, Gotsis and Kortezi (2008) balanced religion and
spirituality with the premise that religion is a component that is so closely related to
spirituality that the construct of having or fostering spirituality in the workplace cannot be
explored without taking religion into account, at least on a minimal level. Tejeda (2015)
concurred, but cited a lack of robust empirical evidence as justification for the gap in
understanding and the differing views on the effects of spirituality in a secular workplace.
Tejeda researched the potential effects of spirituality on employee attitudes and behaviors
beyond those identified in previous research and found that spiritual wellbeing appeared
to contribute significantly to job satisfaction even in the presence of adverse work
conditions. The findings of Tejeda’s research were consistent with the earlier results of
Altaf and Awan (2011) regarding the effect on job attitudes, and
Ashmos and Duchon’s (2000) research that suggested spiritual well-being may counteract
the negative effects of workplace happenings such as reductions in force and
restructuring, which can lower employee morale.
The dark side of workplace spirituality. Lips-Wiersma, Dean, and Fornaciari
(2009) were transparent in their assessment that there are times that workplace spirituality
may be harmful and provide an opportunity for employees to misuse the concept for their
benefit or for management to misappropriate spirituality in the workplace as a control
mechanism. It was not the position of Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) that the presence of
spirituality or spiritual well-being in the workplace was inappropriate, merely that there
are two potentially negative mechanisms through which workplace spirituality can be
exploited. Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) created a matrix to identify what they referred to as
the dark side of workplace spirituality where potential harm can be done to the
organization. Harm may take the form of manipulation, dishonesty, or evangelization
(Lips-Wiersma et al., 2009).
Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) identified the two constructs of control and
instrumentality as ways that spirituality could be misused or misappropriated by
managers, which could result in manipulation, dishonesty, or evangelization. Control
referred to the extent and level of direction that the organization used to manage the work
of the employees. Workplace spirituality mismanagement can occur when managers
abuse their scope of power or the organizational structure to manipulate culture, attitudes,
or outcomes (Lips-Wiersma et al., 2009). The negative effects on employees of
mismanagement of spirituality identified by Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) included
challenges in work-life balance, lack of organizational unity, and the presence of
leadership dominance (Lips-Wiersma et al., 2009).
The researchers defined instrumentality as the extent to which management
treated employees as a means to an end or as a way to accomplish specific organizational
goals (Lips-Wiersma et al., 2009). Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) referred to using
employees inappropriately as a tool to enhance the bottom line or meet productivity
goals, without also considering the needs of the employee’s, as the dark side of
spirituality. The results of the dark side of spirituality in the workplace may keep
employees from experiencing meaningful work and engagement in the workplace.
LipsWiersma et al. (2009) stressed that organizations must find the point where balance
occurs between spirituality and organizational outcomes. Spirituality by itself cannot
sustain an organization and “even avowedly spiritual organizations must turn a profit”
(Lips-Wiersma et al., 2009, p. 291).
Lack of objectivity, definitions, and accurate measurement of the spirituality
concept. The primary detractor and criticism of spiritual well-being and spirituality in the
workplace is that it cannot be defined adequately, measured appropriately, or quantified.
Krahnke, Giacalone, and Jurkiewicz (2003) conducted a point-counterpoint discussion in
the early years of spirituality in the workplace research and were divided on the stance
about whether the construct was a viable concept or the newest buzz word. Due to the
increasing popularity and interest in the topic at that time, the researchers felt justified to
initiate the discussion and pursue evidence that spirituality and spiritual well-being may
provide positive employee benefits and contribute to organizational effectiveness
(Krahnke, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2003). In the course of the discussion, Giacalone and
Jurkiewicz (Krahnke et al., 2003) stated their position that research revealed that
organizations high in workplace spirituality outperformed organizations without it by
86%. Organizations high in workplace spirituality had higher growth, productivity, and
returns on investments as well as beneficial outcomes for employees such as lower stress
levels, increased personal growth, and a higher view of their self-worth (Krahnke et al.,
2003).
For the counterpoint, Krahnke’s (Krahnke et al., 2003) position was that while
scientific knowledge has its place and has created enlightenment on many topics,
measuring or quantifying spirituality in the workplace is not possible or practicable since
the construct is influenced by bias and merely a part of the whole. Krahnke suggested that
future research delve into the benefit of how business can be part of or service the
employee’s spiritual development as opposed to the idea that employees bring their
spirituality with them to the workplace and the organization must acquiesce to the
employees on an individual level. The division between the researchers’ points of view
identified the separation between differing schools of thought in the early years of the
research on spirituality and its place and acceptance in the work environment. While
Krahnke conceded that the scientific method had value, he believed that spirituality is an
end in itself and that “meaning arises out of personal, interpretive knowledge that is just
as valid or more so than knowing the percentage of spiritual organizations that succeed”
(p. 404). Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (Krahnke et al., 2003) stated simply that “the
empirical approach is preferable to personal experience” (p. 403). Regardless of criticism
from some researchers and scholars, interest in the topic of spiritual well-being and its
place in the work environment has grown beyond the early scholarly studies and
continues to be relevant for employees and organizations (Schutte, 2016).
Current Approaches to Spiritual Well-Being and Spirituality in the Workplace
Lips-Wiersma and Mills (2014) referred to the last two decades of research as “an
explosion of interest” (p. 148) in the literature and in practice, and Schutte (2016)
declared that the trend toward spiritual organizations would continue and referred to the
desire for meaningful, fulfilling, and engaging work as a “grass roots movement” (p. 4).
Lips-Wiersma and Mills conducted a case study over five months in a tertiary education
institute they called Lancelot to contrast positive workplace spirituality, critical
workplace spirituality, and existential workplace spirituality. A significant finding
revealed that the responses captured from the participants to the question, “Is my work
still meaningful?” was a leading indicator of the level and acceptance of spiritual
wellbeing among the employees in the organization (Lips-Wiersma & Mills, 2014).
Additional themes obtained through the qualitative case study analysis included
the participants feeling more in touch with their inner self, feeling a connection with their
coworkers, and being able to articulate their place and role in the organization
(LipsWiersma & Mills, 2014). There were no quantitative results, and levels of
meaningfulness and connection were not measured in this study. However, the findings
suggested that when spiritual well-being is present, consistent with the themes identified
in the study, and when employees perceive that they can bring their whole selves to work,
spirituality in the organization can make a substantial contribution to management theory
and practice, which can lead to positive outcomes in the organization (Lips-Wiersma &
Mills, 2014). The researchers’ findings aligned with the conclusions of Schutte (2016)
who found that while spirituality in the workplace is not the solution to all organizational
problems, practical human resource management must acknowledge the influence of each
employees’ spiritual well-being and the practical implications for each industry specific
environment.
Implications for Human Resource Managers
Few studies have focused solely on human resource managers in terms of
quantifying their levels of spiritual well-being, engagement in their role or in the
organization, or the meaningfulness they derive from performing their work. Ahmed,
Arshad, Mahmood, and Akhtar (2016) argued that in the current global, fast-paced
business environment, the role of human resource managers is becoming more strategic
and critical to the organization’s business processes, overall success, and sustainability.
Ahmed et al. (2016) contended that as organizations continue to experience setbacks and
uncover negative employee behavior such as theft, dishonesty, violations of privacy,
release of confidential information, and manipulation, the spiritual quotient, or spiritual
well-being, has been a missing link and should be considered an important factor for the
role of human resource managers. Research conducted by Ahmed et al. led the
researchers to state that the lack of a holistic approach that included the spirituality
component would result eventually in a negative outcome for human resource managers,
human resource development initiatives, and the organization. It is incumbent upon
human resource managers to identify ways to enhance their spiritual well-being or their
spiritual quotient and be present in the workplace with not only their mind, but also with
their heart and inner self (Ahmed et al., 2016; Suarez, 2015).
Effects of Spirituality and Spiritual Well-Being in the Workplace
If leaders want employees to give their all to the organization, they must be
willing to accept everything that makes the employee whole, including their mind, body,
and spiritual essence (Mitroff & Denton, 1999; Suarez, 2015). Suarez (2015) conducted a
review of workplace spirituality literature that recognized a positive relationship between
spirituality and effects on employees. Based on a review of studies conducted by
workplace spirituality researchers and the literature on spirituality theory, Suarez
concluded that when employees feel fulfilled in the workplace and find meaning in their
work, their productivity will increase, they will have more energy and enthusiasm, and
their contribution both at home and at work will be enhanced. Ahmed et al. (2016)
included fulfillment and meaning in his proposed holistic human resource management
model that consisted of spiritual-based elements such as transcendence, values of
integrity, honesty, respect, humanization, meaning, compassion, and connectedness.
Schutte (2016) argued that when leaders are strategic about the inclusion of the
spiritual quotient into the workplace it can have a positive effect on their daily operations.
Kalyanasundaram and Balasubramanian (2014) researched the effect of task performance
as a result of spiritual well-being, while controlling for gender, and found that employee
performance in the organization was significantly related to spiritual well-being and
spiritual quotient irrespective of gender. To that end, human resource management
initiatives may be more successful if human resource managers explore the practical
implementation of spirituality in the workplace for all employees, including themselves
(Schutte, 2016).
Human Resource Management Practices
Although there are fewer studies specific to the job attitudes of human resource
managers, there are multiple studies related to human resource management practices and
development, and their relationship to engagement, job meaningfulness, and workplace
spirituality. Shuck et al. (2014) used Social Exchange theory as the framework to
research possible links between human resource management practices and employee
levels of engagement and intentions to leave the organization, while Albrecht et al.
(2015) explored a model that connected human resource management practices to
engagement, meaningfulness, and job demands. Shuck et al. noted that while a great deal
of research had been conducted about the outcomes and results of overall employee
engagement, there are fewer empirical studies that have explored the relationship or
impact of human resource management practices on employee development, individual
levels of employee engagement, and the influence on the retention of employees (Shuck
et al., 2014).
Shuck et al. (2014) administered an internet-based survey to collect data from a
convenience sample of 207 health care workers, a population known to have high
turnover rates. Findings from the study provided empirical support for the connection
between human resource management and job attitudes in the work environment,
particularly engagement and employee development (Shuck et al., 2014). Shuck et al.
stated that the study findings connected the work of human resource managers to the
construct of engagement and job attitudes such as turnover intentions through human
resource management practices. The findings of Albrecht et al. (2015) identified practical
implications for human resource managers. The researchers concluded that while
engagement may lead to higher employee productivity and performance, human resource
managers should move past traditional and repetitious engagement surveys. In their
study, the researchers offered guidelines for embedding strategic human resource
management practices into all facets of the human resource function such as recruitment
and selection, performance management, development, training, and job resources
(Albrecht et al., 2015).
Human sigma is a strategic human resource management concept that has been
developed over the last decade and is defined as a managerial philosophy that strengthens
an organization’s performance by focusing on and maximizing the human side of the
business (Batra, 2016). The motivation behind the concept of human sigma is to optimize
the human factor in an organization to increase employee engagement, improve customer
service, and achieve a sustainable competitive advantage for the business that cannot be
replicated easily (Batra, 2016). Similar outcomes identified by Ahmed et al. (2016) also
may be accomplished by focusing on the human element in the organization through
spiritual well-being or the spiritual quotient. Batra (2016) cited core principles of human
sigma that may benefit human resource managers in their interaction with employees as
well as in their role to increase their engagement levels and provide greater
meaningfulness in their job. Focusing on the human element in the organization may
provide benefits beyond those related directly to the organization’s bottom line. The
benefits may also extend to human resource managers and be reflected in their
engagement, job attitudes, and job meaning (Albrecht et al., 2015; Batra, 2016; Shuck et
al., 2014).
Summary and Conclusions
A growing body of scholarly research is beginning to focus on how employees
find meaning in the work that they do as well as in the environment where the work is
performed. The themes in the literature review began with an historical perspective that
recorded the earliest mention of the discipline of work now being referred to as
spirituality in the workplace. The progression of research about the concept of spirituality
at work has tracked how scholars conducted studies on the spiritual well-being of
employees and its importance to the individual and workplace outcomes evident in the
current business environment. The inclusion of spirituality in the workplace, through the
Protestant Work Ethic and the Faith at Work Movement, has progressed in tandem with
management theories that have expanded to be more employee friendly. Early
contributors and scholars offered opinions, assumptions, criticisms, and support in their
research into the spirituality at work concept. Their findings provided the foundation for
the current discussion and debate on the construct of spirituality in the workplace and its
relationship with religion and religiosity, its influence on employee attitudes and
organizational outcomes, and the potential benefits to all employees.
My study explored the relationship between spiritual well-being, engagement
levels, and job meaningfulness for human resource managers, which is a group of
employees not represented specifically in the literature in relation to the research
variables. The findings from my study may extend knowledge in the field of human
resource management for leaders, human resource managers, human resource
organizations, as well as other practitioners in human resource-related areas. In order to
determine if a relationship existed and to what extent between the variables, I conducted a
quantitative study using survey research to obtain participant responses. Chapter 3
provides an overview of the research method and design, as well as the rationale for the
research method and its appropriateness for my study. Chapter 3 also summarizes the
population and sampling strategy, and the process for recruiting participants. In addition,
data collection procedures and the analysis plan, survey instruments and
operationalization are summarized. Chapter 3 concludes with an explanation about any
potential reliability, validity, or ethical issues.
Chapter 3: Research Method
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to determine if a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization and the strength of that relationship. Information is limited about the effects
of spiritual well-being on employee attitudes for managers in the human resources
specialization. A quantitative method utilizing a correlation design was used to collect
data from participants drawn from a randomized probability sample. Correlation research
describes the nature of a relationship between two or more variables and can indicate a
pattern but does not identify causality (Becker et al., 2016). Using a representative sample
of the population of human resource managers enabled the results of the study to be
generalized to the population of all human resource managers as a whole. Data were
collected through a web-based survey and analyzed utilizing a statistical software
program called the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
Chapter 3 includes a discussion of the research method, design, rationale for the
chosen method, and a description of the research study variables. The chapter also
includes a description of the population, the sampling method, how the data were
obtained, participant confidentiality, and informed consent procedures. The data analysis
process as well as the survey instruments that were used to collect the data are described
in Chapter 3 along with the validity and reliability of the instruments. An explanation of
potential ethical concerns is presented as well as the steps I took to reduce bias in the
study.
Research Design and Rationale
This quantitative study was conducted using a correlation research design to
explore the relationship between spiritual well-being (the independent variable) and the
job attitudes of engagement and workplace meaningfulness (the dependent variables) of
human resource managers. A correlation study examines differences or relationships in
two or more variables and measures the extent to which one variable is different from or
related to another variable (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). A correlation exists if the variables
increase or decrease in a predictable pattern (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). Correlation
research involves the exploration of potential associations or relationships of variables or
characteristics and examines them in their natural state with no modification by the
researcher (Isaac & Michael, 1997). Correlations between variables denote association
and do not imply or identify causation (Isaac & Michael, 1997; Leedy & Ormrod, 2015).
The quantitative research method was appropriate for my study since I explored
the relationship between variables to determine if a correlation existed and to what extent.
Zyphur and Pierides (2017) claimed that “all ways of doing quantitative research operate
in an ethical domain” (p. 1), and the measurement of variables or characteristics provide a
stable foundation for investigating “serious worldly problems” (p. 2). Quantitative
research is used to measure phenomena or characteristics through a search for facts and
reports results in numbers that answer what questions (Barnham, 2015), and are
appropriate when factual data are necessary to respond to problem statements or to
answer research questions (Hammarberg, Kirkman, & de Lacey, 2016). Conversely,
qualitative research is associated with deeper levels of interrogation and strategies that
probe perceptions, answer why questions (Barnham, 2015), and obtain responses from
participants about experience, meaning, and perspective (Hammarberg et al., 2016).
Qualitative research can be used to enrich or substantiate quantitative conclusions
and explore the why behind the results or responses obtained from the participants (Toro
& Yoshikawa, 2016). The qualitative method was not appropriate for my study since the
research questions indicated the need for the identification of a relationship between
variables, which required a quantitative correlation research design. The quantitative
method is inexpensive and does not necessitate a large number of resources or time
constraints such as those that may be required for a longitudinal study. The design choice
was efficacious in identifying if a relationship existed and to what extent between the
research variables. The quantitative method and design may advance the knowledge in
the field of human resources about the correlation between the spiritual well-being and
the engagement levels and job meaningfulness of human resource managers. In addition,
the quantitative research method is described as reproducible research, which will enable
other researchers to replicate my study for further exploration in the field that may benefit
human resource managers and other leaders (Brunsdon, 2016).
Methodology
Population
The initial population base for this study were the members of a local association
of the Society for Human Resource Management located in the Midwest. The local
association is an organization designed to meet the needs of human resource professionals
in the surrounding communities and provide an avenue for education, human resource
credentialing, and networking. The association’s membership base was comprised of
approximately 800 human resource professionals. Nearly 80% of the current members
were human resource practitioners at all levels with a variety of job titles represented, and
from multiple company sizes and industry types. The other 20% of the members were
students, affiliate members or vendors, and human resource professionals in transition.
The demographics of the population base included human resource professionals
from a variety of company industries and sizes. Twenty percent of the members worked
for organizations with less than 50 employees, 31% worked for companies with 50-250
employees, 17% worked for companies with 251-500 employees, and 30% worked for
companies with more than 500 employees. Thirty percent of the human resource
professionals in the membership base were directors or senior vice presidents, 28% were
managers, and the remaining members had a variety of job titles including president,
consultant, specialist, administrator, assistant director, or legal counsel. Ultimately, there
were not enough participants from the initial association’s population base who
responded to my survey to allow me to obtain the required number of responses, so I
reached out to additional local HR associations in the area and in other states until the
required sample size was met.
Sampling and Sampling Procedures
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of a population for the purpose of
generalizing behaviors, characteristics, and responses to the population as a whole (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2015; Taylor-Powell, 1998). The representative sample for this study was
drawn from the population of the initial association’s members who practiced human
resource management in a transactional or strategic capacity. This sampling method
enabled practitioners who did not have the specific title of manager, but who would still
qualify for the study, to be included in the survey. Drawing a representative sample from
this population enabled the results of the study to be generalized to a larger group of
operational and functional human resource practitioners.
The type of sampling procedure used for the study was probability sampling.
Probability sampling uses a random process to ensure that all members of the population
have a chance of being selected for the study. Variations of probability sampling that are
popular for quantitative research studies include random sampling, stratified sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster random sampling, and multistage random sampling (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2015). The variation of probability sampling used in my research study was
simple random sampling. Probability sampling is considered more accurate than
nonprobability sampling and introduced less bias into the study (Taylor-Powell, 1998).
Nonprobability sampling methods do not rely on randomization for the sample selection
process and create an opportunity for increased bias in the study. Types of nonprobability
sampling commonly used in research are convenience sampling, purposive sampling,
modal instance sampling, expert sampling, proportional and non-proportional quota
sampling, diversity sampling, and snowball sampling (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015).
I utilized random probability sampling for the collection of data to ensure a
random representation of the population. The sample size was determined from a
population base of 800 members of the initial local Society for Human Resource
Management association utilizing the following parameters: a confidence level of 95%, a
confidence interval or margin of error of 4.32, and an effect size of .50. The target sample
size that was identified from the calculation was 313 respondents (Creative Research
Systems, 2012). While a 25% return rate on survey research is desirable, 20% is typical
of internet-based survey research. A 20% return rate of internet-based surveys would
necessitate receiving a minimum of 160 responses based on the identified population.
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection
Participants were recruited from the membership base of the local chapter of the
National Society for Human Resource Management association. The president of the
local chapter coordinated an electronic mailing to the members since I did not have
access to their private and confidential database. The email included the subject and
purpose of the research study and instructions for accessing and completing the online
survey, which provided information about the confidentiality of the data; the security,
safe storage, and destruction of the results; and how the participants can find out about
the results of the study following its completion. A copy of the instructions and
information provided to the potential participants can be accessed in Appendix A. The
participants were sent one reminder email two weeks after the initial electronic mailing in
an effort to obtain a maximum response rate. A copy of the reminder email is in
Appendix B. Completion of the online survey constituted informed consent for the
information to be used for research study purposes. The information and instructions
provided to the participants confirmed their understanding of the nature of the study,
affirmed that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the
study at any time, and explained the confidentiality measures associated with the research
study.
The members were instructed that their participation in the research study was
voluntary and that they may exit the study at any time by not continuing to answer the
questions in the online survey. Demographic data about the participants was part of the
survey and included responses about age, gender, education level, years of work
experience, job title, type of organization, and industry. Participants were assured that
their anonymity, privacy, and confidentiality would be protected through safe storage of
the data by the researcher. The participants were given information about how the surveys
would be kept secure for the requisite amount of time and then destroyed after a period of
five years. A copy of the survey that the participants completed can be found in
Appendix C.
Instrumentation and Operationalization of Constructs
The spiritual well-being scale. Spiritual well-being was measured using the
Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWBS) developed in 1983 by Ellison and Paloutzian (2009).
The Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWBS) was appropriate for the current study as it is a
general indicator of perceived spiritual well-being in an individual’s life and provides a
self-assessment of an individual’s sense of overall satisfaction with life and a sense of
their life purpose (Bufford, Paloutzian, & Ellison, 1991). Written permission was
received from the authors to use the published instrument for this research study. The
permission letter is included in Appendix D.
A weakness of the Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWBS) is the presence of ceiling
effects in identified religious populations that have used the scale (Bufford et al., 1991).
Since the population for my research study was not an identified religious group, this
weakness should not affect the results of my study. Test-retest reliability is above .85
(.93, .96, and .86) in three samples after one, four, and ten weeks (Bufford et al., 1991;
Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009). Coefficient alphas, a measure of internal consistency, was
above .84 in seven samples suggesting sufficiently high reliability for this scale (Bufford
et al., 1991; Ellison & Paloutzian, 2009). Concurrent validity has been difficult to identify
with the SWBS since there are only a few measures of spiritual well-being that measure
self-reported perceptions of spiritual well-being. Face validity and content validity are
sufficient for the SWBS even with the small number of items.
Ellison and Paloutzian (2009) reported correlations between the subscales for the
20 item scale of .32(p<.001), (r = .90) for the correlation between the religious wellbeing
subscale (RWB) and the spiritual well-being subscale (SWB), and (r = .59) between the
existential well-being subscale (EWB) and the spiritual well-being subscale. Construct
validity is one of the strongest points of the SWBS. A factor analysis revealed that all of
the constructs loaded on each of the two subscales, and further evaluation of the
instrument by other researchers showed that the participants equated and grouped the
concepts with the corresponding constructs (Bufford et al., 1991). The SWBS has been
used with a variety of populations and groups including men and women; high school and
college students, senior citizens, and young adults; single and married persons; religious
and nonreligious people; people residing in large cities, rural areas, and small towns;
counseling situations; medical patients in a variety of health care environments; and
convicts in the state penitentiary (Bufford et al., 1991). A copy of the SWBS can be
found in Appendix E.
The Utrecht work engagement scale. Job engagement was measured using the
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) developed in 1999 by Schaufeli and Bakker
(Schaufeli et al., 2006). The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) is the most widely
used scale to measure workplace engagement globally (Roof, 2015; Schaufeli et al.,
2006) and was appropriate for this study since the engagement levels of the sample
population were assessed. The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) has been widely
used for research, including dissertation research. There was no need to obtain permission
from the author to use the instrument since the information on the website confirmed that
it was available to be used for research if the results were shared with the author after the
research study was completed and not used for commercial purposes.
Information about the public domain use of this scale is included in Appendix F.
The original UWES has been shortened and validated as a 9-item scale referred to
as the UWES-9, which is the scale that was used for my study. The UWES-9 measures
the constructs of vigor, dedication, and absorption, and factor analysis has supported the
definitions and corresponding subscales within the instrument (Roof, 2015). The UWES9
has good construct validity shown in data drawn from five different studies totaling 9,404
participants, including a three-year longitudinal study with 2,555 samples (Seppala et al.,
2009). Cronbach alpha values for the individual subscales have consistently exceeded .70
and resulted in a .92 alpha when combined with the second tier engagement construct
(Roof, 2015).
The UWES has been used in multiple countries and with a variety of populations
including men and women; employees in permanent, part-time, and temporary work;
workers with varying lengths of tenure; and employees in various industries such as
health care, management, education, social work, and for profit and nonprofit
environments (Schaufeli et al., 2006). Reliability, internal consistency, and stability of the
UWES-9 for the total 9-item scale exceeded the value of .70 and varied between .85
and .92 across 10 countries (Schaufeli et al., 2006). The correlations between the scales
exceeded .90 in all countries except France (r = 83). A copy of the UWES-9 can be found
in Appendix F.
The work and meaning inventory. Job meaningfulness was measured using the
Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) developed in 2011 by Steger, Dik, and Duffy
(2012). The Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) was the most appropriate scale for
this study to measure the variable of job meaningfulness among the sample population
since there were no other multidimensional, subjective measures that solely captured job
meaningfulness perceptions. The current landscape of interest in meaningful work
combined with a disparate number of ways to measure the concept prompted the
researchers to develop a scale focused on the single construct of how employees derive
meaning from their work (Steger et al., 2012). There was no need to obtain permission
from the authors to use the instrument. The disclaimer for public domain use included on
the inventory states that “the Work and Meaning Inventory (WAMI) can be used in
research and educational capacities without restriction. Permission for commercial or
revenue-generating applications of the WAMI must be obtained from the author prior to
use” (Steger, 2012). A copy of the inventory that includes the disclaimer for public
domain use is included in Appendix G.
The researchers developed the scale and assessed the reliability and construct
validity using a sample of university employees (N = 370) who represented diverse
occupations. The occupations represented in the survey included administrative
assistants, faculty/instructors, accounting professionals, research associates, student
affairs professionals, information technology specialists, facilities management personnel,
librarians, and extension agents and foresters (Steger et al., 2012). Contact with the
employees was restricted to one email and the response was low based on that
requirement (11%). The resulting meaningful work scores correlated in predicted ways
with general well-being scales and inventories and identified variances beyond the
common indicators usually seen for general work and life satisfaction (Steger et al.,
2012).
The WAMI consists of three subscales for positive meaning, meaning-making
through work, and greater good motivations to create a composite meaningful work score
(Steger et al., in press). Cronbach alpha values for the individual subscales range from .82
to .89 with .93 for a total score (Steger et al., in press). Validation showed that the scores
correlated in expected directions with measures of well-being, job satisfaction, work
motivation, withdrawal intentions, organizational commitment, and days absent from
work (Steger et al., in press). The WAMI is the first measurement of meaningful work
developed since the Job Characteristics Model in 1979 and provides the foundation for a
reliable and valid measure of an employee’s perception of meaningfulness at work
(Steger et al., 2012; Steger et al., in press).
Operationalization of Variables
Operationalizing a variable is the means by which the variable is defined and
measured in the research study (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). Variables can be measured in
different ways in similar studies so it is important to define the specific definition that is
applicable in each study. The independent, or predictor, variable in this study was
spiritual well-being. Spiritual well-being is a construct identified by the ability to
experience and integrate purpose in life, positive emotion, engagement, meaning,
personal accomplishment, positive relationships, and connectedness with self and others
(Elosua, 2015). The independent variable, spiritual well-being, was measured using the
SWBS developed by Ellison and Paloutzian (2009). The scale is comprised of 20 items
(two 10-item subsets) and took the participants approximately 5-10 minutes to complete.
The assessment is a self-reporting questionnaire that is constructed in a Likert-type scale
ranging from Strongly Disagree (value of 1) to Strongly Agree (value of 6). To score the
test, the totals of each of the two subsets were summed for a total spiritual well-being
value. Higher scores reflected a higher individual perception of spiritual well-being and
lower scores reflected a lower perception of an individual’s spiritual well-being.
The two dependent variables were engagement levels and job meaningfulness.
Engagement is the simultaneous employment and expression of a person’s preferred self
in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others, personal presence
(physical, cognitive, and emotional), and active, full role performance (Kahn, 1990). The
dependent variable, job engagement, was measured using the short version of the UWES,
which is the most widely used scale to measure workplace engagement globally (Roof,
2015; Schaufeli et al., 2006). The previous version has been shortened and validated as a
nine item scale now called the UWES-9. The UWES-9 took the participants
approximately 5 minutes to complete and used a Likert-type scale with seven responses
ranging from Never (value of 1) to Always (value of 7). The responses from the nine
items were summed and higher scores represented higher engagement in the workplace
and lower scores represented lower workplace engagement.
The dependent variable, job meaningfulness, was measured using the WAMI
developed by Steger et al., (2012). Workplace meaningfulness pertains to the positively
valenced construct that refers to the amount of significance that people experience in their
work (Lips-Wiersma, Wright, & Dik, 2016). The inventory is a measure of meaningful
work and is comprised of 10 statements constructed on a Likert-type scale with five
responses ranging from Absolutely Untrue (value of 1) to Absolutely True
(value of 5). The inventory took the participants approximately 5 minutes to complete.
The inventory contained three subscales: positive meaning (statements 1, 4, 5, & 8),
meaning-making through work (statements 2, 7, & 9), and greater good motivations
(statement 3, which is a reverse-scored item). The response for statement three can be
subtracted from statement six, then added to the responses for statements six and ten for
the greater good motivations subscale score. The subscale scores were summed for the
meaningful work total score.
Data Analysis Plan
The research questions guiding this study included the following quantitative
questions and the corresponding null hypotheses (H0) and alternative hypotheses (Ha):
Research Question 1: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization?
H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Ha1: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Research Question 2: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization?
H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their
role in the organization.
Ha2: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization.
Data collected from the online survey relative to the research questions were
analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The statistical tests
that were used to test the hypotheses were correlation and linear regression. Correlation is
a measure of relationship that can reflect the strength and the direction of an association
between two or more variables and the degree to which one variable can be predicted
from another variable (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). A correlation design was
used to determine if there was a relationship and to what extent between the spiritual
well-being of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their
role in the organization and their engagement levels in the workplace. A causal inference
cannot be determined from the results of the correlation; however, the strength and
direction, or the covariation, of the relationship can be identified through statistical
analysis.
A correlation can be used to predict the value of one variable based on the value
of another variable (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). The appropriateness of
conducting additional statistical tests was determined following the summary of the data
from the correlation analysis. Since a correlation was identified between the variables in
the study, linear regression was conducted to determine the power of the relationship and
the direction of the relationship between the spiritual well-being and the engagement
levels and job meaningfulness of human resource managers. The results of the analysis
were interpreted based on the presence or absence of a correlation, the direction of the
relationship, statistical significance, the confidence interval, the power of the relationship,
and potential trends identified in the data.
Threats to Validity
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to
measure. In quantitative research, validity is viewed from the perspective of prescribed
and proven research designs, the specific research procedures employed, and the
instruments selected for measurement (Maxwell, 2016). The validity of a measurement
affects the extent to which the researcher can obtain new information about the
hypotheses under investigation, obtain statistically significant data for analysis, draw
meaningful results and conclusions from the data, and generalize to larger populations
(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008; Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). There are three types
of validity that are important to quantitative inquiry: external validity, internal validity,
and construct validity.
External Validity
External validity is concerned with the extent to which the results of the study for
a particular sample can be generalized to a larger population (Frankfort-Nachmias &
Nachmias, 2008). Threats to external validity arise when researchers make incorrect
assumptions or inferences from the results obtained from the research sample to
individuals who do not have the same characteristics as the participants; to past or future
situations not included in the research study; or to individuals in different circumstances,
positions, or settings than the participants (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). The sample for my
study drawn from the larger population of the local Society for Human Resource
Management association membership was representative of human resource professionals
in other chapters of the National Society for Human Resource Management organization
since all local chapters are set up under similar bylaws, requirements, and professional
qualifications.
Research plans must include steps that minimize threats to external validity,
particularly for the participant demographics and the variables under investigation in the
study. The initial sample for my study was drawn from the membership database of a
local Society for Human Resource Management association in the Midwest, which
included human resource professionals from a variety of work environments and settings,
as well as those who worked in human resource related fields. For example, there were
lawyers and vendors who market to human resource professionals for resource needs such
as software and human resource information system programs who were also members of
the association. If these individuals had been included in the survey, it would have
constituted a threat to the external validity of the research study. The survey for my study
was designed for human resource professionals who worked in an operational,
management area of influence. Obtaining survey responses from human resource
professionals who were not in the operational setting or management function, or from
those who were not working in the human resource field directly, would have
compromised the data analysis as well as the results and conclusions. I addressed the
threat of external validity by including in my study only the human resource professionals
that were in an operational setting or management function.
The dependent variables chosen for exploration in the research study were
constructs that were specific to human resource managers and well-known to those who
work in the functional areas of operations and management. Engagement and
meaningfulness are soft skill constructs that are familiar to human resource managers.
The specificity of the variables, as well as the instructions, descriptions, and explanation
of the study given to the participants, should streamline the survey process for the
respondents. The validity of the three instruments that were combined to design the
survey was discussed in the instrumentation and operationalization of constructs section
of Chapter 3.
Internal Validity
Threats to internal validity minimize the possibility that a relationship exists
between the independent and dependent variables (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias,
2008). The areas of internal validity about which the researcher must be cognizant are
history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression, selection, mortality, and
contamination (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008; Maxwell, 2016). The internal
validity of my research study was more straightforward and not as threatened as if I had
conducted an experimental study, done pre- and post-testing, incorporated control groups,
or investigated phenomena in a time series or a longitudinal study. The sample for my
study consisted of one group of randomly selected participants who completed the survey
at one point in time with a commitment of approximately 10-15 minutes. I was the only
researcher conducting the survey and working with the instrumentation, so there was no
risk of two different instructions being given to the participants or separate procedures
being conducted that would threaten the internal validity of the study. There was the
possibility that a confounding variable may influence the outcome of the study results;
however, I included detailed instructions for the participants to minimize the potential of
that occurring.
Construct Validity
Construct validity refers to the degree to which inferences are made from the
study variables to the theory or theories upon which the variables are built or from which
they are understood (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). Construct validity is present in a research
study when the theoretical pattern of how the variables are tested or explored aligns with
the observed pattern of how the variables are measured (Frankfort-Nachmias &
Nachmias, 2008). External validity aligns the generalization of the study results to other
similar populations or locations. Construct validity aligns the generalization of the study
results to the concept in the study that is being measured (Frankfort-Nachmias &
Nachmias, 2008).
Threats to construct validity include an inadequate description of the operational
constructs; restricted generalizability; evaluation apprehension; researcher expectancies;
hypothesis guessing; and interaction of different treatments, tests, and methods (Trochim,
2006). I addressed the threats to construct validity by providing to the participants an
accurate description of the terminology and concepts related to the research study. I
included instructions and information about the purpose of the study so that the
participants would not have to guess what it was about and how it would be used. I used
the known-groups technique (Rokeach, 1960) to minimize the threat to construct validity
since I administered the survey to a group of human resource professionals with similar
and known attributes who were familiar with human resource concepts and constructs.
Ethical Procedures
Access to Participants
The population from which I drew my initial sample was a local association of the
National Society for Human Resource Management in the Midwest. I received verbal and
written commitment from the President of the chapter to coordinate an electronic mailing
to send my survey to the members of the local Society for Human Resource Management
association’s database. Since I did not have direct access to the database, the current
president of the organization coordinated the forwarding of my research information and
survey access from their office to the members via electronic mail. I also forwarded them
a reminder email to send to the members two weeks after the initial email communication
in an effort to maximize the response rate to the survey. Since there were not enough
participants from the initial local association who responded to my survey to obtain the
required number of responses, I reached out to additional local human resource
associations in the region and in other states until the required sample size was reached.
The same electronic mail procedures were used to reach out to the additional human
resource associations.
Treatment of Human Participants
The participants were notified of the opportunity to participate in the survey
through an email from the local Society for Human Resource Management association’s
office. I had no direct access to the participants before, during, or after the survey.
Institutional permissions and approvals. Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approval was needed prior to conducting my research. Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approval ensured that my research study would comply with the university’s ethical
standards as well as any applicable U.S. federal regulations. Institutional Review Board
(IRB) approval ensured that the benefits of the research study outweighed the risks to
participants and that the ethical principles were upheld in the areas of beneficence,
justice, and respect for persons. The IRB approval number for my research study was
1214-17-0406124.
Recruitment materials and processes. The survey included demographic data so
there was no other data or materials requested from the participants. I did not have access
to the database information or the participants during the recruitment process since the
information was sent from the local Society for Human Resource Management
association’s office. The participants’ confidentiality was maintained throughout the
research study process.
Withdrawal from the study. The survey respondents were instructed that their
participation in the research study was voluntary and that they could exit the study at any
time by not continuing to answer the questions in the online survey. The respondents
were also informed that since their participation was voluntary, no incentives or tangible
compensation would be provided beyond the altruistic remuneration of providing
information that may benefit the field of human resources and the advancing education of
a peer. While I was a member of the National Society for Human Resource Management
association for continuing education, networking, and recertification purposes, I had
never served on the board, on a committee, or in any leadership capacity with a local
Society for Human Resource Management association so the risk of ethical concerns by
my being a part of the organization or having a conflict of interest was minimal.
Treatment of Data
Anonymity and confidentiality. Participants received an introductory email
assuring them that their personal information and responses would be kept confidential
and anonymous. Neuman (2009) contended that it is essential to maintain the
confidentiality and anonymity of the participants in order to increase the response rate in
survey research. No additional information or data was collected from the participants
other than what was included in the online survey.
Protection and storage of data. No one other than the researcher had access to
export the collected data from the surveys. The collected data was securely stored on a
laptop computer that was password protected and used only by the researcher. The
information will be stored on a backup device that will be kept in a locked fireproof safe
unless it is needed in the event of a primary computer failure or crash. After a period of
five years, the electronic data will be deleted from the computer storage and all of the
collected data in any form will be destroyed. No individual survey responses or raw data
will be shared with any respondent or participating organization.
Summary
The purpose of my quantitative correlation study was to determine if a
relationship existed and to what extent between spiritual well-being and the engagement
levels and meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in
the organization. Chapter 3 contains an explanation of the research method and design
that was used to select participants and collect and analyze data for the quantitative
inquiry. Chapter 3 includes the reliability and validity of the instruments that were used
as well as the ethical issues that were present in the study. The participants were drawn
from local Society for Human Resource Management association’s member database and
they completed a survey comprised of three subscales for spiritual well-being, work
engagement, and meaningfulness at work. Correlation analyses were calculated on the
collected data to determine if there was a relationship and the strength of the relationship.
Chapter 4 will report the results from the data collected utilizing the method and design
described in Chapter 3.
Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to determine if a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization and the strength of that relationship. The participants were drawn from local
Society for Human Resource Management associations in the Midwest region and several
other states. The participants completed a survey comprised of three subscales for
spiritual well-being, engagement, and workplace meaningfulness. Descriptive statistics
were calculated and simple linear regression analyses were conducted to answer the
research questions and test the null hypotheses. The following research questions and
hypotheses were addressed and tested in the analyses:
Research Question 1: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization?
H01: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Ha1: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
Research Question 2: Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization?
H02: There is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
wellbeing of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their
role in the organization.
Ha2: There is a statistically significant relationship between the spiritual wellbeing
of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization.
Chapter 4 provides a presentation of the analysis results. This chapter includes a
discussion of the recruitment procedures, data collection process, and survey response
rates, including discrepancies in the data collection plan detailed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4
also includes a presentation of the demographic characteristics of the sample population
followed by the presentation of summary statistics for the study variables of spiritual
well-being, engagement, and workplace meaningfulness. This chapter also provides the
results of the correlation and linear regression analyses conducted to test whether there
was a relationship between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization and the strength of that relationship. Chapter 4 includes a summary of the
answers to the research questions and a transition to Chapter 5.
Data Collection
Recruitment and Response Rates
Initial recruitment of participants was from the membership base of a local
association of the National Society for Human Resource Management in the Midwest.
The president of the local association coordinated an electronic mailing to the members
that included the subject and purpose of the research study; instructions for accessing and
completing the online survey; information about the confidentiality of the data; the
security, safe storage, and destruction of the results; and how the participants would be
able to obtain the results of the study following its conclusion. The participants were also
sent one reminder email two weeks after the initial electronic mailing to obtain a
maximum response rate. An explanation of the confidentiality measures associated with
the research study were given to the participants and they were informed that their
participation in the research study was voluntary and that they could exit the study at any
time by not continuing to answer the questions in the online survey. Participants were
assured that their anonymity, privacy, and confidentiality would be protected through safe
storage of the data by the researcher for the requisite amount of time and then destroyed
after a period of five years.
During the 15-week data collection period, 325 responses were received, which
equated to a 7.77% response rate. Reported elements that contributed to such a low
response rate included survey fatigue, competing priorities inherent in the cyclical nature
of human resource functions, association and job duty constraints, and the reticence of
some decision makers to involve their members in a “religious” based activity due to the
inclusion of the spiritual well-being variable. Two organizations did reverse their decision
to not participate in the survey for this reason after they reached out for additional
information and understood that spiritual well-being did not equate to a foundation in any
particular religion.
Data Collection Discrepancies
The primary data collection discrepancy from the information presented in the
data collection plan in Chapter 3 was the number of human resource associations I needed
to contact to obtain the required number of 313 survey responses. The data collection
plan in Chapter 3 identified the local Society for Human Resource Management
association in the Midwest as the association from which the majority of potential
participants would be drawn. My data collection plan identified secondary associations
from which I would obtain additional participants, if needed. Since not enough
participants were obtained through the primary local Society for Human Resource
Management association initial email and follow-up reminder email, I reached out to the
secondary associations.
The data collection plan was revised the first time to identify additional local
human resource associations within the immediate region since not enough responses
were obtained through the initial local Society for Human Resource Management
association. When I did not receive the required number of survey responses from the
additional regional associations listed in my first change request, I began to expand the
boundaries of the immediate region to neighboring states. As a result, I submitted three
change requests to the IRB, adding more associations each time, which enabled me to
obtain the required number of 313 responses after 15 weeks of data collection activities.
I contacted a total of 43 state Society for Human Resource Management council
associations to advocate for their survey participation. Of those, one email was
undeliverable to that association’s email address, three associations declined to
participate due to association constraints, 18 associations did not respond to either my
initial email or to my second request, three associations responded with out of office
emails, one association responded one week after my survey had closed, and 17
associations agreed to participate in my research study and distribute the survey. Most
state council representatives distributed the survey to their council members and the state
Chapter Presidents; however, it was the decision of the state Chapter Presidents whether
they wanted to distribute the survey to their chapter membership. Many of them did not
send it to their chapter members, which accounted for my need to continue to expand the
boundaries of my geographic area for data collection. The method of distribution by the
Society for Human Resource Management state councils and chapters to the expanded
geographic areas led to the survey being sent to a total of 4,179 potential participant
human resource professionals, which resulted in a survey response percentage of 7.77%.
Demographic Characteristics
A total of 325 participants were gathered for the study. Table 1 represents the
demographics regarding the participants’ organizations. Among the 325 participants, 157
participants (48.3%) belonged to the private sector while 69 participants (21.2%)
belonged to the public or government sector. A total of 52 participants (16.0%) were from
a not-for-profit organization while three participants (.9%) were from a faith-based or
religious organization. Four participants (1.2%) were retired or unemployed while 24
participants (7.4%) refused to provide an answer.
Table 1
Participants’ Organization Demographics
Sector of Organization Retired or currently unemployed 4 1.2
Public/Government 69 21.2
Private 157 48.3
Not-for-profit 52 16.0
Faith-based/Religious 3 .9
Other 16 4.9
Missing 24 7.4
Total 325 100.0
In terms of industry category, the participants were representative of multiple
industries as shown in Table 2. Fifty-three participants (16.3%) were from manufacturing
organizations, 36 participants (11.1%) were from healthcare organizations, 28
participants (8.6%) were from government or public organizations, 24 participants (7.4%)
were from adult education organizations, and 20 participants (6.2%) were from social or
human services. The rest of the participants were from other industries including
computer/technology/software, finance/insurance, hotel/food services, retail, scientific or
technical services, transportation, and utilities. Three participants (.9%) were retired or
unemployed while 6 participants (1.8%) refused to provide an answer.
Table 2
Participants’ Industry Categories
Frequency Percent
Frequency Percent
Industry Category Retired or Currently Unemployed 3 .9
Other 35 10.8
Agriculture 5 1.5
Arts/Entertainment/Recreation 5 1.5
Computer/Technology/Software 7 2.2
Education -
Elementary/Secondary
5 1.5
Education -
College/University/Adult
Education
24 7.4
Education - Other 6 1.8
Finance/Insurance 19 5.8
Government/Public
Administration
28 8.6
Healthcare 36 11.1
Hotel/Food Services 15 4.6
Information Services/Data
Processing
1 .3
Legal Services 5 1.5
Manufacturing 53 16.3
Publishing 2 .6
Real Estate 3 .9
Retail 7 2.2
Scientific or Technical Services 8 2.5
Social/Human Services 20 6.2
Telecommunications 6 1.8
Transportation 13 4.0
Utilities 9 2.8
Wholesale 4 1.2
Missing 6 1.8
Total 325 100.0
Table 3 presents the demographic characteristics pertaining to the participants’
position, title, or role in the organization. Ten participants (3.1%) held president
positions, 15 participants (4.6%) held vice-president positions, 62 participants (19.1%)
held director positions, and 70 participants (21.5%) held managerial roles. The majority
of the participants’ positions related to the traditional human resource roles and titles
found in most organizations (n = 248, 76.31%). These traditional roles included human
resource generalist, human resource business partner, compensation and benefits
administrator, recruitment/talent acquisition, employee relations, and training and
organizational development.
Table 3
Participants’ Organizational Position/Role
Position/Role in
Organization
Retired or currently unemployed
President
3
10
.9
3.1
Vice President 15 4.6
Director 62 19.1
Manager 70 21.5
HR Generalist 83 25.5
HR Assistant/Administrative 24 7.4
HR Business Partner 24 7.4
HRIS Administrator 7 2.2
Compensation/Benefits/Total
Rewards
20 6.2
Employee Relations 33 10.2
Frequency Percent
Recruitment/Talent Acquisition 24 7.4
Training/Organizational
Development
33 10.2
Other 33 10.2
Most of the participants had many years of work experience in the field of human
resources. There were 60 participants (18.5%) who had more than 25 years of work
experience, 40 participants (12.3%) who had 21 to 25 years of work experience, 51
participants (15.7%) who had 16 to 20 years of work experience, 55 participants (16.9%)
who had 11 to 15 years of work experience, and 50 participants (15.4%) who had 6 to 10
years of work experience. Only a total of 39 participants (12.0%) had 5 years or fewer
work experience as shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Participants’ Work Experience
Years of Work
Experience
0 - 2 years
3 - 5 years
16
23
4.9
7.1
6 - 10 years 50 15.4
11 - 15 years 55 16.9
16 - 20 years 51 15.7
21 - 25 years 40 12.3
more than 25 years 60 18.5
Missing 30 9.2
Total 325 100.0
Frequency Percent
Table 5 shows the highest level of education with 120 participants (36.9%) who
held a Bachelor’s degree and 111 participants (34.2%) who held a Master’s degree.
Forty-seven participants (14.5%) possessed either a high school or equivalent degree, or
an Associate’s degree.
Table 5
Participants’ Highest Level of Education
Highest Level of
Education
High School or equivalent
Associates Degree
22
25
6.8
7.7
Bachelor's Degree 120 36.9
Master's Degree 111 34.2
Doctoral Degree 9 2.8
Professional Degree (M.D., J.D.,
etc.)
3 .9
Other 6 1.8
Missing 29 8.9
Total 325 100.0
Table 6 presents demographic information for participants’ gender and age. For
gender, the majority of the participants were females (n = 240, 73.8%). For participants’
age group, 82 participants (25.23%) were 40 years old or younger, 197 participants
(60.62%) were 41 to 65 years old, and 10 participants (3.08%) were above 65 years old,
while 36 participants (11.1%) preferred not to answer.
Table 6
Participants’ Gender and Age Group
Frequency Percent
Gender Male 51 15.7
Frequency Percent
Female 240 73.8
Prefer not to answer 2 .6
Missing 32 9.8
Total 325 100.0
Age 21 - 25 years of age 2 .6
26 - 30 years of age 16 4.9
31 - 35 years of age 27 8.3
36 - 40 years of age 37 11.4
41 - 45 years of age 35 10.8
46 - 50 years of age 47 14.5
51 - 55 years of age 39 12.0
56 - 60 years of age 44 13.5
61 - 65 years of age 32 9.8
66 - 70 years of age 6 1.8
71 - 75 years of age 4 1.2
Prefer not to answer 36 11.1
Total 325 100.0
Data Analysis Results
Descriptive Statistics Summary
Survey responses were collected from participants using the SurveyMonkey
survey tool. Three questionnaires combined into a single survey were used in the study.
The questionnaires included the WAMI, the UWES-9, and the SWBS to measure
workplace meaningfulness, engagement, and spiritual well-being respectively. The
summations of the participants’ responses for the questionnaire items were calculated to
determine the scores for each variable. The descriptive statistics of the study variables are
presented in Table 7.
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables
N Minimum Maximum Mean SD
WAMI 319 19.00 70.00 54.85 9.44
UWES 325 18.00 63.00 49.15 8.88
SWBS 288 19.00 90.00 45.65 18.99
Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were also conducted to determine whether the data followed a
normal distribution. For the WAMI scores, the range of values was from 19 to 70 with a
mean of 54.85 (SD = 9.44) indicating that the work meaningfulness of participants was in
midrange or moderate level. For the UWES-9 scores, the range of values was from 18 to
63 with a mean of 49.15 (SD = 8.88) indicating that the work engagement of participants
was also in midrange or moderate level. For the SWBS scores, the range of values was
from 19 to 90 with a mean of 45.65 (SD = 18.99) indicating that the spiritual well-being
of participants was low.
Required Assumptions of Parametric Statistical Analysis
Prior to conducting the simple linear regression analysis to address the two
research questions of the study, the tests for the required assumptions of a linear
regression were conducted to ensure that the use of simple linear regression was
appropriate. The required assumptions include no presence of outliers and the normality
of data of the study variables. The following sections provide the results of the different
tests for the required assumptions of the statistical analysis.
Outliers. The first required assumption tested was no presence of outliers since
the linear regression analysis is sensitive to the effects of the presence of outliers. Outliers
were explored using scatterplots of the data of the different study variables of workplace
meaningfulness, engagement, and spiritual well-being. The scatterplots are shown in
Figure 3. The scatterplots showed that there was no presence of outliers in each of the
data set of the study variables of workplace meaningfulness, engagement, and spiritual
well-being since there were no data points in the extreme ends of the scatterplots. The
result is that the
a
ssumption of no presence of outliers was not violated.
Figure 3. Scatterplots of data of study variables.
Normality. The second required assumption tested was normality of the data of
the study variables. This is a required assumption of the regression analysis as the data of
the study variables involved should show a normal distribution. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test was conducted to determine whether the data of the study variables of workplace
meaningfulness, engagement, and spiritual well-being were normally distributed. The
results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test are presented in Table 8. Based on the tests
conducted, it was observed that all three study variables of workplace meaningfulness
(D(282) = 0.14, p = 0.00), engagement (D(282) = 0.10, p = 0.00), and spiritual well-being
(D(282) = 0.10, p = 0.00) were not normally distributed (p < 0.05). A non-parametric test
should be conducted if there is a violation of the normality assumption; however, there is
no non-parametric version of the regression analysis. Simple linear regression analysis
was still conducted to address the research questions of the study.
Table 8
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Normality Tests
K-S Test df p
WAMI 0.14 282 0.00
UWES 0.10 282 0.00
SWBS 0.10 282 0.00
Simple Linear Regression Analysis Results for Research Question 1
To address research question one, a simple linear regression analysis was
conducted to determine if a relationship existed between spiritual well-being as the
independent variable and the engagement levels that human resource managers
experience from their role in the organization as the dependent variable. A level of
significance of 0.05 was used in the simple linear regression analysis to determine
whether to reject the null hypothesis. The results of the simple linear regression analysis
to determine the relationship between spiritual well-being and engagement scores are
presented in Table 9.
Table 9
Linear Regression Analysis of Spiritual Well-Being and Engagement
Model B SE (B) Β t Sig.
1 (Constant)
SWBS
57.10 -0.16 1.20
0.02 -0.37
47.57 -
6.68
0.00*
0.00*
Note. F(1, 286) = 44.61, p < 0.001, R Square (R2) = 0.14, N = 288
a. Dependent Variable: UWES
b. Predictors: (Constant), SWBS
*Significant at level of significance of 0.05
The linear regression results indicated that the model fit of the regression model
(F(1, 286) = 44.61, p < 0.001) generated was statistically significant indicating that the
regression model in predicting engagement had an acceptable model fit. This means that
spiritual well-being significantly predicts engagement levels. The r2value of the
regression model was only 0.14, which points out a low effect size, meaning that the
impact of spiritual well-being captured a low variance of 14% in predicting the
engagement levels of human resource managers.
Investigation of the individual relationships of the variables showed that spiritual
well-being and engagement were significantly related (t(287) = -6.68, p < 0.00). There
was significant relationship between spiritual well-being and engagement levels since the
p-value was less than the level of significance value of 0.05. Investigation of the
unstandardized beta coefficient (B) showed that spiritual well-being (B = -0.16) had a
significant negative relationship with engagement. This means that a higher score for
spiritual well-being would result to a lower score for engagement. A one increase in the
score of spiritual well-being will result in a 0.16 decrease in the score of engagement
levels. This result indicates that there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis,
which states that there is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
well-being of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization.
The result of the simple linear regression supported the alternative hypothesis for research
question one, which states that there is a statistically significant relationship between the
spiritual well-being of human resource managers and their engagement levels in the
organization.
Simple Linear Regression Analysis Results for Research Question 2
To address research question two, a simple linear regression analysis was
conducted to determine if a relationship existed between spiritual well-being as the
independent variable and the meaningfulness that human resource managers experience
in their role in the organization as the dependent variable. A level of significance of 0.05
was also used in the simple linear regression analysis to determine whether to reject the
null hypothesis. The results of the simple linear regression analysis to determine the
relationship between spiritual well-being and workplace meaningfulness scores are
presented in Table 10.
Table 10
Linear Regression Analysis of Spiritual Well-Being and Workplace Meaningfulness
Model B SE (B) Β t Sig.
1 (Constant)
SWBS
55.98 -
0.03
1.46
0.03 -0.07
38.23 -
1.12
0.00*
0.26
Note. F(1, 280) = 1.26, p = 0.26, R Square (R2) = 0.004, N = 282 a.
Dependent Variable: WAMI
b. Predictors: (Constant), SWBS
*Significant at level of significance of 0.05
The regression results indicated that the model fit of the regression model (F(1,
280) = -1.12, p = 0.26) generated was not statistically significant indicating that the
regression model in predicting workplace meaningfulness did not have an acceptable
model fit. This means that spiritual well-being does not significantly predict workplace
meaningfulness. The r2value of the regression model was only 0.004, which points out a
very low effect size, meaning that the impact of spiritual well-being captured a very low
variance of 0.4% in predicting the workplace meaningfulness of human resource
managers.
Investigation of the individual relationships of the variables showed that spiritual
well-being and workplace meaningfulness were not significantly related (t(202) = -1.12, p
= 0.26). There was no significant relationship between spiritual well-being and workplace
meaningfulness since the p-value was greater than the level of significance value of 0.05.
This result indicates that there is no sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis,
which states that there is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual
well-being of human resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their
role in the organization.
Summary
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to determine if a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in their role in the organization
and the strength of that relationship. Information is limited about the effects of spiritual
well-being on employee attitudes for managers in the human resources specialization. A
total of 325 participants were gathered and asked to complete a survey comprised of three
questionnaires to measure work engagement, job meaningfulness, and spiritual wellbeing
of participants. Simple linear regression analyses were conducted to determine whether a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in their role in the organization
and the strength of that relationship. For research question one, the results of the simple
linear regression analysis determined that there was a significant negative relationship
between spiritual well-being and job attitudes of engagement of human resource
managers. For research question two, the results of the simple linear regression analysis
determined that there was no significant relationship between spiritual wellbeing and the
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization.
Chapter 4 described the data analysis and the results of the research questions and
the related hypotheses. The purpose of Chapter 5 is to interpret the results of the research
findings and present conclusions. Findings related to the significance of the relationships
between spiritual well-being, engagement, and job meaningfulness are discussed. The
limitations of the study, recommendations for future research, contributions to the body
of knowledge, implications for human resource managers, and contributions to positive
social change are also discussed.
Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations The purpose
of this quantitative correlation study was to determine if a relationship existed between
spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and meaningfulness that human resource
managers experience in their role in the organization and the strength of that relationship.
Chapter 5 focuses on my discussion of the results from Chapter 4 in relation to the
existing literature on how spiritual well-being may be related to the engagement levels
and meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in the workplace. In this
chapter, I provide the results in the context of the two research questions presented in
Chapter 1. Chapter 5 includes the interpretation of the findings, the limitations of the
study, recommendations for future research, implications for stakeholders and positive
social change, and the study conclusions.
Workplace spirituality in the organization may possess the potential to affect the
organization’s bottom line positively; enhance work-life balance, well-being, and
engagement; and provide a meaningful work experience for employees (Fachrunnisa et
al., 2014). Spiritual well-being and workplace spirituality have been shown to have a
beneficial influence on the job satisfaction of employees (Fachrunnisa et al., 2014;
Javanmard et al., 2014). A total of 325 participants were gathered for my study. The
participants were asked to complete a survey comprised of three questionnaires: the
UWES, the WAMI, and the SWBS. Correlation analyses were conducted to determine
whether a relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels
and meaningfulness that human resource managers experience from their role in the
organization and the strength of that relationship. The null hypothesis, which stated “there
is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual well-being of human
resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization” was rejected. The
findings showed that there was a significant negative relationship between spiritual well-
being and the engagement scores of participants. The null hypothesis, which stated
“there is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual well-being of human
resource managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the
organization” was not rejected. The findings showed that there was no significant
correlation between spiritual well-being and the workplace meaningfulness scores of
participants.
Interpretation of Findings
Two research questions were addressed in my study. The interpretation of
findings and the results of my study are organized by aligning the research questions with
the context and framework of the existing literature.
Research Question 1
Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of human resource
managers and their engagement levels in the organization?
Spiritual well-being has been researched and shown to have a positive impact on
the job satisfaction of employees (Fachrunnisa et al., 2014; Javanmard et al., 2014).
Workplace spirituality, which can be influenced by spiritual well-being, may demonstrate
the potential to enhance engagement and provide meaningful work experience for
employees in the work environment (Fachrunnisa et al., 2014). Previous research
identified a significant correlation between organization strategy and success, human
resource strategy, productivity, profitability, and the engagement levels of employees
(Jiang et al., 2012). High employee engagement has been linked to improved operating
incomes for organizations (Schein, 2013). Additionally, high engagement has a beneficial
effect on retention, morale, commitment, and loyalty to the organization (Abu-Shamaa et
al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2012; Shuck et al., 2014).
Research has shown that for engagement to result in positive organizational
outcomes and influence the perception of organizational culture, it needs to be embedded
in the human resource management system of policies, practices, and procedures
(Albrecht et al., 2015). This means that for engagement to have a beneficial outcome the
organization, primarily the human resource managers, need to create and implement
policies, practices, and procedures of the same. While a majority of the participants were
associated or directly in charge of their organizations from a human resources
perspective, information on their policies or practices were unexplored during the study.
This is one plausible reason that might explain why spiritual well-being affected job
attitudes negatively. The research focused on human resource professionals who conduct
operational and functional human resource activities as their primary job regardless of
their job title. However, analysis of the data did not take into consideration their specific
activities, and if any of the activities they were involved in would ensure high
engagement levels.
The findings from my study demonstrated a significant negative correlation between the
spiritual well-being of human resource managers and their engagement level in the
organization. This means that a higher score for spiritual well-being would result in
lower engagement scores for human resource managers. Job engagement among human
resource managers may stem from sources other than their job functions or role in the
organization. Research has shown that perceptually engagement may be confused with
job satisfaction and linked to elements that are more superficially related to an
employee’s position (Arrowsmith & Parker, 2013). Participants may have attributed their
engagement levels in the workplace to factors such as job environment, working
conditions, relationship with their direct manager or supervisor, successful team
dynamics, recent increase in pay, or other perks of their specific job or role. Engagement
has been a major topic in the human resources profession for the last several years and
has resulted in contrasting views of what it means to be engaged in one’s job and what
level of engagement signals appropriate commitment to one’s role (Purcell, 2014).
During analysis, the UWES was used to measure the engagement values of the
participants. The scores showed that work engagement of the participants was in the
midrange or moderate level, meaning that the participants had average work engagement
levels within the organization. Previous research has shown the amount of control that
employees feel they have over their lives at work and the quality of the work experience
is critical for engagement in one’s job (Paul et al., 2015). Additionally, previous research
found that the work engagement of the male employee in comparison to female
employees was rated higher (Iyer, 2016; Mahakud & Gangai, 2015). Over 70% of the
participants in the study were female and only 15% were male. The impact of a
substantial number of female participants could constitute another reason why the
engagement scores were average in comparison to previous studies.
Research has indicated that employees with increased age were more spiritual and
committed to their organization than those in younger age groups (Mahakud & Gangai,
2015). While the engagement values were in the midrange those of spiritual well-being
were lower than the engagement levels. More than half (72%) of the participants in the
study were over 40 years of age. This means that the engagement values and the spiritual
well-being should have scored higher than the average shown. This again could be
explained by the presence of a higher percentage of female participants. This could mean
possibly that while more senior employees will tend to foster higher participation and
engagement levels within their organizations, the aspect of gender needs to be taken into
consideration regardless of age. External factors not studied in the current research may
cause the engagement of more senior female employees not to be as high as perceived by
the research.
The findings showed the spiritual well-being of all participants as slightly lower
than the midrange. Pawar (2016) found that fostering spiritual well-being among
employees allowed for workplace spirituality to be present and enhanced their
functioning and organizational experiences, increased morale, and decreased work stress
and burnout. Workplace spirituality is defined as “the effort to find one’s ultimate
purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other people associated
with work, and to maintain consistency or alignment between one’s core beliefs and
values of their organization” (Beheshtifar & Zare, 2013, p. 248). Most of the participants
in the study fostered a below average connection with their organization and their
coworkers. Perceptions of how spiritual well-being and workplace spirituality may or
may not be a fit in the organization may have influenced the participants’ responses to the
questions in the survey used to measure levels of spiritual well-being. Although the
survey instructions indicated that the participants should frame the questions through the
lens of their concept of God or the higher power with whom they identified, the study
findings indicated that the terminology and religious references included in the survey
instrument may have influenced the participants’ responses and impacted the study
conclusions.
The study by Mahakud & Gangai (2015) showed that more senior employees
tended to be more spiritual. According to the study by Mahakud & Gangai, male workers
were emotionally more committed to their jobs than females; however, the study did not
go further and find out if indeed gender was a mediating factor in spiritual well-being.
This was similar to the current study, where the study had a larger number of female
participants but below average spiritual well-being among all participants.
The relationship between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels of the
participants showed a significant relationship between the two. Below average levels of
the spiritual well-being of the participants negatively affected the levels of engagement
within the organization. Gupta et al. (2014) conducted a study that indicated a positive
relationship between the dimensions of spirituality and job satisfaction. This was
inconsistent with the results of the current study that showed a negative implication of
spiritual well-being on workplace engagement. An area for future research may be to
explore a potential link between job satisfaction and job engagement as employees who
are satisfied in their role may also show higher engagement in the workplace.
With the null hypothesis being rejected by the findings, it is worth noting that
gender and age of the participants had an influence on the spiritual well-being and their
engagement levels. This could be explained by the fact that the gender representation was
skewed toward female and there were older respondents than in previous research (Iyer,
2016; Mahakud & Gangai, 2015). The study used randomly selected participants to avoid
bias. This random selection led to more participants being part of one group. As such,
studies showing that a positive relationship existed between spiritual well-being of
participants and their engagement levels within organizations could not be replicated.
Research Question 2
Is there a relationship between the spiritual well-being of human resource
managers and the meaningfulness they experience in their role in the organization?
Workplace meaningfulness takes engagement one step further and is a result of
finding purpose in one’s work and satisfaction from, and commitment to, increased
performance in work settings (Monnot & Beehr, 2014; Ramlall et al., 2014). Work
meaningfulness of the participants was recorded as midrange or moderate level. The
findings indicated no statistical significance between spiritual well-being and workplace
meaningfulness, meaning that spiritual well-being does not significantly predict
meaningfulness in the workplace. There is the potential that the job meaningfulness
assessment defined meaningfulness too narrowly and in the absence of a qualitative
component to the research study, further exploration is needed to determine the
participants’ perception and understanding of terminology critical to the study. Soane et
al. (2013) found that meaningful work increased engagement with work, which suggests
that further exploration of the relationship of the dependent variables in my study may
provide additional insight into their relationship with spiritual well-being.
Over 60% of the participants had a work experience of over 10 years in their field.
With a meaningfulness level that was average, this was low as it would be expected that
the higher the number of years of work experience the higher the level of meaningfulness
in their work. An explanation may be poor job or position fit, which created low
meaningful levels in their work. In addition, over half of the participants were drawn
from an educational background of a bachelor’s degree and higher. It would be a
possibility that higher educational backgrounds and more work experience demonstrated
a lower impact on the meaningfulness level of the participants.
Conclusions Based on Findings
Theoretical Framework
The theory of humanocracy developed by Aldridge et al. (1982) was used to
inform the study. The premise of the theory of humanocracy is that the organization
should maximize the quality of the human experience for employees while they are in the
workplace. Aldridge et al. stated the need for the structure of an organization to be
designed in a way that provides managers to have interaction with smaller groups of
employees within a larger work environment. Based on the general population from
which the study sample was gathered, about half the members of the local Society for
Human Resource Management associations worked in organizations with more than 250
employees. However, information on the organization size was not recorded on the
sample that was gathered. The presence of this information may have explained why the
engagement levels were average.
Additional principles that support the framework of the theory of humanocracy
are related to the decision-making latitude of employees and the control they perceive
they have over a broader area of information and skill sets. With a job meaningfulness
score related to the work environment that was average, participants may derive meaning
from other areas in their life in which they feel that they do have decision-making latitude
and a certain amount of control over the events. Thus, the meaningfulness that they would
derive from their work experience becomes less impactful. The lack of ability to
participate in these functions at work may have contributed to the low meaningfulness
scores if participants draw on other areas of their life from which to experience
meaningfulness.
Relationship of the Dependent Variables
While the null hypothesis for the first research question was rejected, that of the
second research question was not rejected. However, with the first research question, the
spiritual well-being of the human resource managers had a negative effect on the
engagement they experience in their role in the workplace. Factors like age and gender
have an impact on spiritual well-being and impacted the engagement levels directly.
The relationship between meaningfulness and engagement levels was unexplored.
Purcell (2014), using the UWES, found engagement to be a positive indicator of
wellbeing and meaningfulness. Previous studies have also suggested that meaningfulness
in the form of an employee’s fit with their organizational role and job-enrichment shows
the strongest relationship with engagement levels (Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016).
Engagement and meaningfulness as such co-exist and are intertwined. Absence or low
levels of one would impact the other. A study conducted by Suarez (2015) concluded that
when employees feel fulfilled in the workplace and discover meaning in their work, their
productivity increases, they have more energy and enthusiasm, and their contribution
both at home and at work is enhanced. Findings from the study showed the results of
work meaningfulness and engagement levels almost similar. This replicated findings
conducted previously that showed the relationship that exists between work
meaningfulness and engagement levels (Krishnaveni & Monica, 2016; Purcell, 2014).
Research findings have demonstrated a potential link between the spiritual
wellbeing of employees and the meaningfulness they derive from their role in the
organization (Agrawal & Khan, 2015; Pawar, 2016; Truss et al., 2013). The current study
showed that participants’ spiritual well-being levels were below average. This was seen
to be impacted by both the gender and age of the participants. A similar study conducted
by Tejeda (2015) that targeted spiritual well-being and job satisfaction between groups of
managers was consistent with Van Cappellen et al. (2016) that showed that spiritual
wellbeing had beneficial effects on job attitudes and work outcomes. The current study
did not factor in job attitudes and work outcomes, which may be an area for further study
incorporating a qualitative component.
Negative Side of Workplace Spirituality
While research conducted previously has shown the benefit of spiritual well-being
in the workplace, studies conducted by Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) explored the potential
negative impact or the dark side of workplace spirituality. The current study exhibits
some parallels with the theory as shown by a negative correlation between spiritual
wellbeing and workplace engagement and no significant correlation with meaningfulness.
The study by Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) showed that there are times that workplace
spirituality may be harmful and provide an opportunity for employees to misuse the
concept for their benefit or management to misappropriate spirituality in the workplace as
a control mechanism. Lips-Wiersma et al. (2009) referred to using employees
inappropriately as a tool to enhance the bottom line or meet productivity goals, without
also considering the needs of the employees, as the dark side of spirituality. The results of
the dark side of spirituality in the workplace may keep employees from experiencing
meaningful work and engagement in the workplace. This, in turn, explains that an
increase in spiritual well-being results in a decrease in work meaningfulness of
participants. This was similar to the current study that showed that a higher score for
spiritual well-being led to lower engagement levels.
Demographic Findings
It is noted that age and gender had an impact on the spiritual well-being and the
meaningfulness levels of the participants. However, the null hypothesis could not be
rejected and as such the relationship between the two could not be established. The
results demonstrated a negative correlation between spiritual well-being and engagement,
which could be explained by the dark side of spirituality. The relationship between
engagement and workplace meaningfulness was unexplored during the study and as such,
the effects, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, could not be determined.
The relationships found between the participant demographics and the study
variables were limited and provided no additional insight into the negative correlation
result. Workplace spirituality does not seem to resonate with the participant group of
human resource managers related to the demographic categories obtained for this study of
age, gender, years of experience, job industry, position, or role in the organization.
Further research that includes a qualitative component may be able to explore the
variables related to specific demographic categories and provide conclusions specific to
the human resource manager population.
Limitations of the Study
Several limitations were observed after data analysis of the study results. The
study used a quantitative method to collect data, and a correlation data analysis was done
to find the relationship between spiritual well-being, workplace meaningfulness, and
engagement within an organization. While a quantitative method was a practical method
and provided substantial numerical data, a better method would have been a combination
of both quantitative and qualitative methods. A qualitative method would have allowed
an understanding of the reasoning behind a participant’s answer and whether personal
experience influenced their answer choices. As such, a mixed method research study may
have provided a more in-depth understanding of the participants’ lived experiences with,
or perception of, spirituality, meaningfulness, and engagement.
The sampling method was a limitation as it limited the study to participants who
could participate in the survey voluntarily. The study was conducted online, and it led to
an influx of participants who were mostly female, which impacted the results. This biased
the results due to unbalanced gender selection. An equal representation of both genders
may have provided different findings and allowed for further exploration of responses
based on gender-influenced perception.
The demographic variables of each participant were not a consideration. The
responses were based on an individuals’ understanding of the questions and did not factor
in individual perspectives. Participants may have interpreted the questions, definitions, or
concepts differently according to their perspectives. This may have caused the results to
skew toward a negative correlation for the first research question.
One major delimitation of the study was that the study was delimited to the
independent and dependent variables selected for the study and their relationship to one
another. During the study, relationships were sought only between spiritual well-being
and meaningfulness and spiritual well-being and engagement in the workplace. However,
a more crucial relationship between workplace meaningfulness and engagement in the
workplace was unexplored. Findings seemed to suggest the two were mutually exclusive;
however, this was unexplored.
Bias may have been present since the study focused only on members of the
Society for Human Resource Management. Bias can affect the validity and reliability of
findings by distorting the truth. The participants were all selected from a society with
which they identified and their responses may have been tailored due to their being
members of the society or the training and education associated with the human resources
role. Additionally, the over-representation of female participants may have been due to
the society having more female members than male; however, this was unexplored during
the study. External validity would have been ensured by selecting participants from
within and outside the Society for Human Resource Management.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, several recommendations for future research are proposed.
The proposed recommendations are based on gaps identified during the study, limitations,
and delimitations. Recommendations are also derived from issues not explored during the
study, but that would be important for future research. The recommendations are intended
to expand the body of knowledge and to further illuminate issues that have been
developed in this study.
The findings of the study did not give an indication why spiritual well-being had a
negative correlation with engagement levels. This was in direct contradiction to studies
that have demonstrated a beneficial impact on spiritual well-being and job engagement.
Further studies are needed to replicate the presence of a negative correlation. In addition,
future studies should explore the impact of the demographic variables of the participants
on the relationship, specifically for the role of human resource managers in the
organization.
While the study replicated previous studies that showed female engagement as
being lower than that of male participants, the study did not explore further the age group
of participants in relation to their work engagement levels. Age and gender may be
external factors that affect workplace meaningfulness and engagement levels. Further
research to ascertain the impact of the two variables would be necessary to understand the
variables in relation to spiritual well-being.
In addition, the study did not factor in the mutually inclusive relationship between
workplace meaningfulness and that of engagement levels in the organization. Both
workplace meaningfulness and engagement levels were analyzed in relation to spiritual
well-being. Previous research has shown a relationship between workplace
meaningfulness and engagement and as such, further research may offer insight on why it
produced a negative correlation for the first research question and showed no significant
relationship for the second research question and why.
Further studies need to be conducted to discover the role of the female human
resources manager, their spirituality, and its impact on workplace meaningfulness and
engagement. In addition, factors like the demographics, personal experiences, and
specific organizational role would need to be explored. The scope of the current study did
not make it possible to explore the participants’ demographic details.
Due to the scope of the study, data obtained did not include participants who did
not have an internet connection or an email address, or individuals who were not
members of the Society for Human Resource Management. Subsequent studies will need
to broaden their scope and allow for a manual collection of data to capture individuals
who would rather answer printed surveys as well as capture data from human resource
practitioners who are not members of the Society for Human Resource Management.
The absence of a significant correlation between spiritual well-being and
workplace meaningfulness is an area for further exploration to examine how the human
resource management system of policies and procedures may influence the job
meaningfulness of human resource managers in the organization. The specific job
functions of operational human resource managers would need to be explored to
determine if the creation and implementation of policies, practices, and procedures that
benefitted the organization would also impact the meaningfulness that human resource
managers experience in their role in the organization.
Finally, potential comparable studies need to employ a mixed method approach
that integrates both quantitative and qualitative designs. This approach will ensure that
the participants’ perspectives are captured on their thought process, their understanding of
the various survey questions, and the definitions of the variables. Employing a mixed
method approach will aid the researcher in capturing both personal experience and
numerical feedback from the participants.
Implications
Human Resource Management Practice
Based on the results of the analysis, several implications for spiritual well-being,
workplace meaningfulness, and engagement have emerged, as well as for the practice of
human resource management. The implications of the results are meant to provide
information on the relationship between the three variables and how both engagement and
meaningfulness in the workplace can be increased positively in the area of human
resource management. The suggestions proposed may also improve or influence
implementation of policies and practices in the workplace.
Previous studies (Iyer, 2016) have shown engagement of male participants being
higher than that of their female counterparts. The current study was able to show a similar
conclusion where a higher number of females showed average engagement levels.
Initiatives or programs that deliberately target female employees to increase their
engagement levels and meaningfulness need to be explored. Spiritual well-being had a
minimal impact on the participants, most of whom were female. Therefore, spiritual
wellbeing may not necessarily have a significant impact in increasing the levels of the
two variables. Further research is needed to explore how participant demographics, other
than gender, may impact the outcome of a similar study or replicate the results of the
current research.
The results indicated that there was a negative impact on spiritual well-being to
engagement in the workplace. This result was in direct contradiction to studies that
showed a beneficial impact and reinforcement to engagement by spiritual well-being
(Agrawal & Khan, 2015; Pawar, 2016; Truss et al., 2013). This was reputed in the current
study and as such, organizational leaders may need to rethink their strategy and proceed
with caution when implementing policies or programs that target spiritual well-being with
the goal of increasing engagement within the workplace. Further research is needed to
determine what other variables may influence the engagement that workers experience in
the workplace and how leaders can structure the work environment for optimal benefit for
both employees and the organization.
Results tended to bear similarities with the study conducted by Lips-Wiersma et
al. (2009) who explored the potentially negative or dark side of spirituality. Their results
showed that in some cases workplace spirituality may be harmful and provide an
opportunity for employees to misuse organizational resources and time. The results
identified a negative correlation between spirituality and engagement. In turn, initiatives
directed toward spirituality need to be done so at the purview of management and in
consideration that while spirituality may improve work outcomes, it may also be used in
such a way that creates negative outcomes in the organization. While the current study
did not replicate previous studies conducted that have shown a relationship between
spirituality, meaningfulness, and engagement, it pointed out that spirituality may have a
negative impact in the organization. While studies have been conducted on the dark side
of spirituality, these have not been conducted exhaustively and additional research may
provide more information.
A critical component of the current study, and an area for further exploration and
research, is the study population. According to the results of my study, the concept of
spiritual well-being or workplace spirituality does not resonate with those in the human
resources field. One reason may be the constraints that surround the topics of religion and
spirituality in the workplace for this group of professionals. Workplace spirituality is a
topic not widely discussed in many work environments. In addition, spiritual well-being
is often confused with religion. Other than in faith-based organizations, the subject of
religion in the workplace generally is off-limits for those in the field of human resources.
Further research should explore whether workplace spirituality has a place in the work
environment or whether we are investigating a concept that does not have an impact on
either engagement or meaningfulness for any group in the organization. Seeking to
understand the lived experiences of human resource managers may show that while the
concept and outcomes of workplace spirituality may be desirable, it may be necessary for
the terminology to be changed in order for the concept to be accepted in the workplace.
Most of the participants in the study had many years of work experience in the
field of human resources. In the presence of confusion with the concept of religion, this
may account for the lack of identification that this group has with the concept of spiritual
well-being as it relates to the work environment. A qualitative component that seeks to
understand the lived experiences of human resource managers in combination with the
current quantitative results may illuminate the thought processes and motivations of this
group as they relate to the variables in my study, the definitions of the terminology
included in my study, and the concepts explored.
Social Change
The results of my study showed a negative correlation between engagement and
spiritual well-being and no significant correlation between job meaningfulness and
spiritual well-being. The findings created opportunity for future research to explore a
potential link between engagement and meaningfulness and whether these are the right
combination of variables with which to investigate a relationship with workplace
spirituality. There is the potential for this research study to affect positive social change
in human resource management if the findings from the research can be used by leaders
and human resource managers to identify alternate ways to increase engagement and
meaningfulness and create an environment that enables spirituality in the workplace to be
present. When the benefits of workplace spirituality in the organization are understood
and known clearly, human resource managers may be able to design work environments
where employees, and themselves, feel whole, are engaged, and find meaning in their
work.
Human resource managers are not the only group that could learn from the results
and information obtained from this study. Researchers may benefit from the results of my
study as it creates additional areas for further exploration in the areas of workplace
spirituality, engagement, and workplace meaningfulness as they relate to human resource
managers. Additional stakeholders who can take the results of this study and create
positive social change through the appropriate implementation of the concept of
workplace spirituality in their workplaces are organizational leaders, executives, and
employees. Human resource organizations, on both the local and national levels, may
benefit from information gained from this study as they interact with human resource
professionals at many levels and strive to support them in improving workplaces for
employees, increasing opportunities for their engagement, and creating more satisfying
and meaningful work environments for themselves in their roles. Future qualitative
research related to the personal or lived experiences of human resource managers could
explore the factors that impact engagement levels and meaningfulness for human
resource managers and provide additional opportunities to create positive social change
for multiple stakeholders.
Human resource managers oversee what organizational leaders state consistently
is their greatest asset: a productive, engaged, highly-trained, socially-responsible, and
committed workforce. If human resource managers are not engaged in their work or do
not find meaning in their daily operational duties, this may impact the entirety of the
workforce negatively. Human resource managers play a central role in engagement,
ethics, the values creation process, and in the area of social responsibility in the
organization. When employees feel that they can bring their whole selves to the
workplace, these elements become an integral part of their lives both at work and at
home. If spiritual well-being does not have a positive correlation with engagement levels
and meaningfulness at work for human resource managers, further research should be
conducted to identify what factors do contribute to or impact their engagement and
meaningfulness in their work environment.
The role of human resource managers is to ensure that the organization gets the
most out of its employees and that the return on the organization’s investment in its
people is equally high and rewarding from both their perspectives. When human resource
managers have low or average levels of job engagement and do not experience
meaningfulness in the workplace, their influence may have a negative impact on the
organization’s bottom line, employee productivity and job satisfaction, turnover rates,
and the competitive advantage of the organization in society. Engagement and
meaningfulness in the workplace are fundamental human needs that demand that
organizational leaders develop capabilities and opportunities in the work environment
that allow employees to flourish and create positive outcomes for the organization.
Conclusion
The purpose of this quantitative correlation study was to determine whether a
relationship existed between spiritual well-being and the engagement levels and
meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in their role in the organization
and the strength of that relationship. The theory of humanocracy was the foundational
theoretical framework of the study as it related directly to, and supported, the variables of
the study. Two research questions guided the study to discover the relationship between
spiritual well-being, meaningfulness, and engagement in the workplace.
A sample of 325 participants were gathered during the study to obtain insights on
workplace engagement, meaningfulness in the workplace, and spiritual well-being. Of the
325 participants, 248 were in positions related to the traditional human resource roles and
titles found in most organizations. During analysis of the data, the null hypothesis that
stated “there is no statistically significant relationship between the spiritual well-being of
human resource managers and their engagement levels in the organization” was rejected.
On the other hand, the null hypothesis that stated “there is no statistically significant
relationship between the spiritual well-being of human resource managers and the
meaningfulness they experience in their role in the organization” was not rejected. A
conclusion of the first research question demonstrated a negative correlation between
spiritual well-being and engagement.
Results showed that while more senior employees tended to foster higher
participation and engagement levels within their organizations, the aspect of gender needs
to be taken into consideration regardless of age. With previous studies demonstrating an
increase of spirituality with age in the workplace, this was not the case in the current
research. Additional studies need to be conducted on the role of spirituality, specifically
in female employees. Additional research needs to be conducted to clarify the
relationship between work engagement and workplace meaningfulness. Understanding
this relationship may provide insight into the implementation of initiatives or programs
that may lead to higher productivity levels and engagement of employees. The findings
led me to believe that further research may provide more information on the relationship
between engagement and meaningfulness and additional means by which human resource
managers and others in the organization derive meaning from their work.
Ongoing research and examination of the relationship between spiritual wellbeing,
engagement, and meaningfulness in the workplace may provide additional strategies for
leaders to implement to increase the benefits for employees and the organization. My
study is a contribution to the expanding body of literature and demonstrates that further
research is necessary to understand the concept of workplace spirituality and its potential
influence in the organization. If spirituality in the workplace does not affect engagement
and job meaningfulness for human resource managers, we need to identify what does
affect it and work to maximize that in order to effect positive social change. My study
may contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field of human resources by
addressing the concept of spiritual well-being and its relationship to the engagement
levels and job meaningfulness that human resource managers experience in their role in
the organization, whether that relationship is positive or negative.
Findings showed that the study variables were difficult to quantify and a
qualitative component is needed to explore the lived experiences of human resource
managers and what contributes to their engagement levels and meaningfulness in their
work environment if it is not their spiritual well-being. Further study is needed to identify
the variables that enable workplace spirituality to be present in the work environment for
human resource managers. Based on the findings, alternative factors that impact job
engagement and meaningfulness for human resource managers must be explored. Factors
such as job satisfaction, years of experience, gender, and a deeper understanding of
workplace spirituality should be considered to expand engagement levels and job
meaningfulness for human resource managers.
The results of my study can be used to guide future research in identifying the
specific variables that impact engagement and meaningfulness for human resource
managers and to explore whether workplace spirituality has a place in the work
environment. While the concept and outcomes of workplace spirituality may be desirable,
it may be necessary for the terminology to be changed in order to create acceptance at the
organizational level. The findings of this study make apparent the urgency to rethink the
definition of spirituality and its application to the workplace and employee engagement.
The workplace today is often a barometer of societal norms and values. Understanding
the need for new ways to view engagement, spirituality, and meaning has the potential to
extend beyond the organization to the communities and society the organizations exist
within and serve.
