Introduction Strategic Communications

A fairly recent innovation in the teaching of undergraduate mass

communications, strategic communications combines the teaching of business

principles alongside campaign theory and the older, more established discipline of

integrated marketing communications (IMC) skills, to achieve a prepared student

(Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Vercic, D., & Sriramesh, K., 2007).

The comprehensive approach brings, among other advantages, knowledge,

credibility and self-efficacy to the communications classroom (Ragas & Culp,

2014). The teaching of strategic communications also draws from other traditional

mass communications disciplines including public relations and advertising.

One of the areas where the advantages of adopting a strategic

communications outlook is most prevalent is in the student-run agency. This

research investigates the definition of strategic communications with the hope

that it will assist educators in providing an undergraduate curriculum that

embraces strategic communications as a part of the student-run agency

experience.

As a way to begin this exploration of defining strategic communications,

Table 1.1 offers a series of definitions used throughout the rest of the research.

Table 1.1 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Research

Terminology Definition

Academic Service Learning

(Service Learning)

A teaching and learning strategy that

integrates meaningful community

service with instruction and reflection to

enrich the learning experience, teach

civic responsibility, and strengthen

communities. (Kearns, Puglisi, &

Shelton, 2014)

Active/Experiential Learning Students work outside the classroom on real

projects or activities requiring higher-order

thinking like analysis, synthesis and

evaluation as well as reflection.

(Bonwell & Ellison, 1991)

Advertising Advertising is a paid form of persuasive

communication that uses mass and

interactive media to reach broad

audiences in order to connect and

identify sponsor with buyers (a target

audience) and provide information about

products (goods, services, and ideas).

(Moriarity, Mitchell, & Wells, 2009)

Convergence A multi-dimensional phenomenon that

stretches from the ways news is

reported in contemporary society, to

aspects of behavior in a widely diverse

selection of audiences and operators.

(Grant, 2009)

Information/Social Marketing

Campaigns

To risk the incidence of risky behaviors

or to promote social causes important to

the betterment of the community.

(Hallahan et al., 2007)

Integrated Communication The combining of communications efforts to

maximize communication dollars, speak with

one voice and communicate with one sight,

one sound. (Schultz, 1993)

Integrated Marketing

Communication

A subset of integrated communications,

“IMC is a communications process that

entails the planning, creation, integration

and implementation of diverse forms of

marcom (advertisements, sales

promotions, publicity releases, events, etc.)

that are delivered over time to a brand’s

targeted customers and prospects.”

(Shimp, 2010)

Integrative Learning Connecting skills and knowledge from

multiple sources and experiences. Applying

theory to practice in various settings utilizing

diverse and even contradictory points of

view. Understanding issues and positions

contextually. Integrative experiences occur

as learners address real-world problems,

requiring multiple areas of knowledge and

multiple modes of inquiry, ultimately offering

multiple solutions. (Huber & Hutchings,

2004)

Marketing Communication

Create awareness and promote sales of

products and services. Also, attract and

retain users and customers, including

intermediaries in distribution channels.

Among nongovernmental organizations and

other not-for-profit organizations, marketing

communications incorporates fundraising

and development communications.

(Hallahan et al., 2007)

New Media “New media” most commonly refers to

content available on-demand on the

Internet, accessible on any digital device,

usually containing interactive user feedback

and creative participation. Common

examples of new media include websites

such as online newspapers, blogs, or wikis,

video games, and social media. A defining

characteristic of new media is dialogue.

(Vogt, 2011)

Political Communication

Build political consensus or consent on

important issues involving the exercise of

political power and the allocation of

resources in society. This includes efforts to

influence voting in elections as well as

public policy decisions by lawmakers or

administrators. On the international level,

this includes communications in support of

public diplomacy and military stabilization.

(Hallahan et al., 2007)

Public Relations

Establish and maintain mutually beneficial

relationships with key constituencies. This

includes consumers and customers, as well

as investors and donors, employees and

volunteers, community leaders, and

government officials. (Hallahan et al., 2007)

Student-run Firms

Student-run agencies are modeled after

professional firms, giving students

opportunities to work on real campaigns for

real clients in a professional environment

(Bush, 2009)

Strategic Communications To facilitate the orderly operations of the

organization. Also, to promote

understanding of an organization’s mission,

vision, and goals: and to supply information

needed in day-to-day operations including

customer and vendor transactions and

customer and staff training. (Hallahan et al.,

2007)

Technical Communication

Educate employees, customers and others

to improve their efficiency. It involves

reducing errors and promoting the effective and satisfying use of technology

when performing tasks important to organization.

(Hallahan et al., 2007)

Because strategic communications incorporates so many other disciplines

in its definition, this study addresses the need for a more pragmatic description of

strategic communications. The research strives to identify a measure for

evaluating a move to a strategic communications orientation in terms of

instruction and training (Hallahan et al., 2007; Holtzhausen & Zerfass, 2013,

2015; Tindal & Holtzhausen, 2011) through original inquiry of existing faculty

members currently teaching in the strategic communications discipline and/or

three other related disciplines: integrated communication, public relations and

advertising. Ultimately this new strategic communications measure (definition)

would be applied to the teaching/advising of student-run agencies and other

integrative learning applications and situations.

This chapter contains two parts. Part 1 explores definitions related to this

study that help frame the research. Part 2 discusses social cognitive theory and

applied service or integrative learning. It includes discussion of the relative

benefits of student-run agencies and internships, and suggests them as

candidates for incorporation of the teaching of strategic communications.

Part 1 A Pragmatic Definition of Strategic Communications

A combination of business acumen and multi-tiered communications skills,

the study of strategic communications at an undergraduate level provides

opportunities for professional education, which encourages students to become

more business savvy, and better equipped to answer business questions and

thoroughly prepared to provide cogent counsel in communication. In addition,

strategic communications instruction fosters the ability for practitioners to

articulate and explain their value as part of the bottom line. Students trained in

strategic communications can provide additional value for business and for their

own contributions to it (Public Relations Society of America, 2011).

Similarly, Hallahan et al., (2007) define strategic communications as

deliberate and purposeful communications:

“Six relevant disciplines are involved in the development,

implementation and assessment of communications by

organizations: management, marketing, public relations, technical

communication, political communication and information/social

marketing campaigns. …A growing number of organizations have

recognized that various communications disciplines share common

purposes and that their objectives and strategies for achieving

these objectives are similar. They differ primarily by their tactics and

are being pressed to adapt to changing environment by their

organizations desire to coordinate communications, by the

convergence of media, and by the blurring of communications

genres. Organizations are seeking integration as well as enhanced

effectiveness through synergy, enhanced efficiencies, and reduced

redundancies.” (Hallahan et al., pp. 1, 5)

What is Strategic Communications? It’s Complicated…

There are many types of communications used in the pedagogy, teaching,

and practice of strategic communications. Some are applied knowledge, some

are specialty fields of communication within a larger discipline, and some involve

the development and cultivation of skill and traits. This study mines those

various areas of communications and determines what specific factors should be

included for a successful strategic communications program. More specifically,

this research seeks to define a strategic communications outlook by including

answers to the following areas: What applied communications should be taught

to attain a strategic communications orientation? What specialty communications

aptitudes are necessary to practice strategic communications? Finally, what

individual skills and traits are necessary for practitioners to obtain in order to

succeed in strategic communications?

Why is This Study Important?

This inquiry is important because it addresses a path of instruction for

strategic communications at the undergraduate level. It attempts to identify a

distinguishing differentiator of strategic communications from other mass

communications disciplines (integrated communications, public relations, and

advertising) currently practiced, and provides recommendations as to how other

programs can adopt a strategic communications outlook.

Moreover, distinctions of strategic communications may be moot if they

are not taught in an environment where they can be applied and their value(s)

reinforced. The student-run agency offers an excellent laboratory for building

strategic communications practitioners. More pragmatically, in terms of

employment and future opportunity for college students in many fields of study,

experience has become as important, and in some cases more important, than

academic performance (Thompson, 2014). In other words: “Experience has

become the new GPA.” From teaching hospital models, to externships,

internships, and practicums, a contemporary onus of higher education is to

provide immersive opportunities to students as part of their courses of study. A

popular delivery system to meet this need is based in academic service learning,

which has its roots in social cognitive theory.

Part 2 Social Cognitive Theory, Applied Service Learning and Integrative

Learning with Student-run Agencies

In the field of mass communications (to include public relations,

advertising, and integrated communications) hands-on instructional opportunities

often consist of internships, campaigns classes, or student-run agencies. From a

global perspective, these experiences mimic real world conditions when the

students are provided opportunities for “real work with real clients.” The

arrangement delivers students an experience complete with the challenges,

responsibilities, and successes associated with working in the field.

Described in the literature by various derivatives of academic service

learning, experiential learning or integrative learning (Bush 2009;

BushBacellis,1998; Maben, 2010; Maben & Whitson, 2014; Ranta, 2014a), the

student-run agency concept permits aspiring communicators the opportunity to

run their own firms within the confines of a university setting and under the

supervision of one or more faculty members.

Student-run advertising and public relations agencies represent a unique,

immersive opportunity for soon-to-be practitioners to gain real-world experience in

a controlled environment doing real work for real clients. As noted in table 1.1,

Student-run agencies are modeled after professional firms, giving students

opportunities to work on real campaigns for real clients in a professional

environment. To further define student-run firms for the purposes of this research,

a student-run firm provides “…undergraduate students the opportunity to work as

if they were employed at a professional public relations agency,” (Maben &

Whitson, 2014, pg. 2). While Maben and Whitson only looked at PR, this study

incorporates a broader view and includes advertising and marketing as part of the

definition. As Bush (2009) states, student-run agencies allow journalism students

to apply learning to practical situations “…in which students implement public

relations, advertising and integrated marketing communications programs for

professional clients,” (p. 27).

Student-run agencies develop professionalism, hone tactical skills, and

cultivate strategic thinking and planning while providing strong networking outlets

and portfolio materials. Clients served by student-run agencies may include

notfor-profits, start-ups, NGOs, corporations and even publics within the

university setting (Maben & Whitson, 2014). More importantly, many student-run

agencies have diversified into an integrated or even a strategic communications

agency approach, enfolding public relations, advertising, and marketing

communications functions under one umbrella while adding training and

education on business principles.

Leadership models for student-run agencies are varied, depending upon

the institution. Bush (2009) categorized them into four groups with distinct

characteristics: Accountability, Faculty Involvement, Levels of Learning and Risk

of Dissolution. In a presentation to the Public Relations Society of America

(PRSA) Educators’ Academy, Ranta (2014a) explored best practices for

studentrun agencies. Among those highlighted were strong student-run agency

branding, peer-to-peer training using real world knowledge and experiences,

dedicated

work space, as well as teambuilding and client interaction. A clear organizational

structure and providing students leadership opportunities to serve as both

account executives and team members for varied accounts were also identified

as benefits.

Regarding leadership selection, some student-run agencies elect their

leadership, others appoint or assign leadership, and still others offer competitive,

paid slots for those students most interested in taking on the mantle of leadership

(Bush, 2009; Bush & Miller, 2011; Maben, 2010; Maben & Whitson, 2014;

Swanson, 2007 and 2011).

Internships

Related to the student-run agency experience is the student internship

experience. Internships are seen as a way for students to obtain immersive

experience in performing various tasks for companies on either a full- or a

parttime basis. In the literature, internships are considered a “valuable learning

experience by members of the public relations academy” (Daugherty, 2011, p.

470). Furthermore, “…perhaps no one aspect of public relations education has

generated more discussion and diversity of implementation than the

recommended ‘supervised work experience,’” (The Commission on Public

Relations Education, 2006 p. 57). Some internships are paid, and others are not

(Beebe, Blaylock, & Sweetser, 2009). Expected development in internships

includes skills acquisition, professional experience, real world exposure, and

gaining a better understanding of the field (Daugherty, 2011).

Both student-run agencies and internships are considered by industry,

faculty, and mass communications professional organizations as exceptional

opportunities for gaining experience and equipping students for future work. Both

experiences can also be considered an outward application of academic service

learning theory, which is an evolution, in part, of social cognitive theory.

Agencies, Internships, Academic Service Learning and Social Cognitive

Theory

In 1986, Albert Bandura put forth the idea of social cognitive theory as a

way to provide insight into the processes underlying learning and instruction.

Using various terms including imitative learning, modeling, and self-efficacy, the

researcher held the opinion that learning is accomplished via a complex

collection of behaviors that stimulate recognition, rehearsal and, imitation.

Bandura’s theory lends itself well to the immersive study of strategic

communications competency and the student-run agency. Accepting that some

excellent ways of imparting knowledge (training) are through imitative learning

and accepting that the goal of a successful student agency/internship experience

is to prepare students for real world experience, the student-run agency provides

prime opportunities to impart knowledge via informed instruction and imitation.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes four conditions which must be present

for learning to take place: an environment where the learner has some control

over decisions; a psychology or collection of personal traits that allow for a sense

of well being (with innate knowledge); an overall cognitive ability to effect change;

and finally, a mastery of skills necessary to effect change, (O’Rorke, 2006).

When compared to the classroom actions of student-run agencies, the

work accomplished within delivers upon these conditions. Students are allowed

to have control over decisions. Specific skills and traits are taught and cultivated

as part of the agency, and there is a consistent expectation for beneficial change

on behalf of a client via an exclusive, focused skill set. Moreover, student-run

agency participants are encouraged to take responsibility and work directly with

the client to help determine needs and deliverables. These exercises require

time, planning, communication, self-evaluation, instructor evaluation, and client

evaluation. And, as part of accomplishing beneficial change on behalf of the

client, students are encouraged to provide new ideas, new data and new

executions of those ideas.

Finally, a key purpose of the student-run agency experience is to practice

and implement new and previously acquired skills congruently. When all of these

conditions are met, learning takes place and self-efficacy is developed. Based on

original study and extensive experience as a student-run agency adviser, the

following table addresses how student-run agencies fulfill some of the tenets of

social cognitive/social learning theory (Ranta, 2014a).

Table 1.2 Student-run Agencies/Internships as a Route to Student Social

Cognition

Fulfillment conditions present at

Condition student-run agencies

A positive environment with Student-run agency participants are encouraged

learner control to manage a client relationship, make decisions, plan and

execute deliverables.

Sense of self that permits

cognitive ability to effect

change

Expectations from the client, the adviser, and the

student are to effect positive change for the benefit

of the client and the education of the student

through innovation, creative energy, and best

practices.

Mastery of skills to effect

change

Key purpose is to coalesce skills and knowledge

into meaningful efforts for the client and an

education for the student which is retained

postclassroom.

Non-referenced original content

Figure 1.1 Strategic Communications in Relation to Communications Disciplines

and Practices

Moving Forward

Strategic communications represents a paradigm shift for mass

communications education. It consists of combining the disciplines of integrated

Integrated

Communications

Public Relations

Advertising

Applied

Comms.

Specialty

Comms.

Skills and

Traits

Communication

Principles

Strategic Communications

Communication Practices

communications, public relations, and advertising under a single umbrella. It also

requires mastery of various elements of applied communications, specialty

communications, and specific skills and traits. Figure 1.1 illustrates how these

factors are related for purposes of this research.

Summary

The convergence of mass communication disciplines has demanded the

tearing down of silos and the blurring of lines between traditional disciplines of

integrated communications, public relations, and advertising. Recently developed

as an umbrella discipline, strategic communications offers unique solutions for

the challenge of preparing the next communicator for this changing landscape.

One of the best applications for strategic communications is the

studentrun agency. Hands-on, integrative education offers substantial

opportunities to foster self-efficacy, deliver real-world experience and produce

capable, skilled communicators. However, the exact definition of strategic

communications is still an open issue. A solid measure of what strategic

communications is would be beneficial in terms of how it should be taught to the

next generation of communicators and assist educators in efforts to prepare

students to meet the rising tide of demand for multi-platform communications

professionals.

Navigation for this Document

Chapter 2 continues the discussion of student-run agencies, academic

service learning, and strategic communications with a literature review. It

concludes with a set of hypotheses and research questions addressed in this

study. Chapter 3 discusses methodology used to gather data on the studied

subject. Chapter 4 reports analysis of results. Chapter 5 provides conclusions,

limitations, and recommendations for further study.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review addresses four areas pursuant to incorporation of

strategic communications into education. Part 1 details existing research on

student-run agencies and internships and what roles they fill in preparing

students for work in strategic communications in the outside world. It highlights

the benefits students, faculty and hiring publics receive from the student agency

approach in communications-related fields. Part 2 discusses the appeal of

academic service learning and explores the imitative modeling that takes place

as students are immersed in a capstone experience as well as addresses

pragmatic values of student-run agency and student internship experiences. Part

3 of this literature review addresses the rise of strategic communications within

the communications profession and the perceived need of communications

faculty to continue their efforts to prepare students to compete in the global

marketplace. Part 4 discusses the operationalization of a strategic

communications definition in terms of original research for this study.

Part 1 Student-run Agencies as a Strategic Communications Training

Pathway

Similar to internships, student-run agencies offer a great deal of autonomy

and empowerment to the participating students. Both offer a pathway to Strategic

Communications Training. And, although there are significant differences

between them, for the purposes of this study the shared benefits and challenges

of student run agencies and internships will be addressed.

The number of studies of student-run agencies is limited but growing

(Bush, 2009; Bush & Miller, 2011; Gibson & Rowden, 1994-95; Maben, 2010;

Maben & Whitson, 2014; Ranta, 2014a, and Swanson, 2011). These studies

provide typology of agency structure, best practices of operations, and

discussions of student and adviser experiences.

The Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA) is a strong

supporter of student-run agencies and offers opportunities for them to affiliate

nationally with PRSSA leadership. As a way to train students for the agency

environment and to standardize the efforts put forth by student-run agencies,

PRSSA publishes a student agency guidebook, which provides step-by-step

instructions for student-run agencies to receive national affiliate designation

(Public Relations Student Society of America, 2015). This designation check-list

addresses successful completion of the requirements, along with a self-study of

compliance issues, and includes various management functions including client

contracts, a formalized structure, adherence to the PRSA code of ethics, and

accountability for hours used and clients served. Once completed, a student-run

agency’s affiliation package is sent to PRSSA for evaluation. In 2016, there were

36 PRSSA nationally affiliated student-run public relations agencies in the U.S.

Appendix B part 2 of this document lists those agencies and their associated

universities (Public Relations Student Society of America, 2016).

True to Bandura’s 1986 tenets of modeling, the student-run agency

guidebook is specifically designed to be imitative of practices currently in use at

professional agencies. According to the 2015 Association for Education in

Journalism and Mass Communications (AEJMC) directory, there are 134

universities reporting a student-run advertising agency, a student-run public

relations agency or both (Association for Education in Journalism and Mass

Communication, 2015). Appendix B part 1 of this document lists those

universities.

Student-run Agencies from a Student Perspective

From a student’s perspective, the advantages of participating in a

studentrun agency over general classroom instruction include generating feelings

of leadership/ownership, self-empowerment, providing opportunities to make

significant decisions, and experiencing professional and personal growth by

managing the client/vendor relationship (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000). In addition,

the student agency experience, much like an internship, provides many positive

benefits to the students enrolled including positive effects on GPA, better job

prospecting and faster post-graduate job placement (Astin,1993; Callanan &

Benzing, 2004; English & Koeppen,1993; Fang & Lee, 2005; Gault, Reddington &

Schalger, 2000; Knouse, Tanner & Harris, 1999; Neidorf, 2008).

Researchers Kearns, Puglisi and Shelton (2014) offered some interesting

quotes from their research subjects in a study conducted of students’

experiences and perspectives working with student-run agencies:

“Working with a real client has really improved my

expectations for myself. In other classes I do not put nearly

the same amount of effort as I do with Agency. …I feel that

joining Agency has given me a glimpse on what to expect in an

agency for my internship or potential career…” “I can honestly

say that the class emphasized critical thinking and personal

reflection while encouraging me to gain a sense of

community…I’ve learned that working with real clients

presents unique challenges…I learned, along with my group,

to take often desperate wishes from the client and come up

with solutions which satisfied them…” (Kearns et al., 2014).

(Excerpted from Slides 17-20)

As can be seen from these statements, in the minds of the respondents,

student agency participation contributes significantly to a level of professional

self-efficacy, and student-run agency membership also inspires decision-making,

client expectation management and problem solving.

Student-run Agency/Service Learning Benefits from the Faculty Perspective

From a faculty perspective, a study of advantages of academic service

learning in public relations courses, and as manifested in student-run agencies,

included comments stating the single most rewarding outcome of the experience

is skill development for students. In addition, planned categories of outcomes in

academic service learning courses are real-world application/practical skills; an

increase in teamliness/interpersonal skills; client interactions and civic

responsibility/citizenship (service) (Werder & Strand, 2011; Witmer, Silverman, &

Gaschen, 2009). In addition, Witmer et al. (2009) mentions a general consensus

among faculty respondents that all public relations professors should be involved

in some form of academic service learning in their classroom approach.

In terms of benefits to the communication profession, Bush (2009) states,

“Student-run firms fill a void in the curriculum by exposing students to disciplined

business practices that may be missing in campaigns or service learning

courses.” (p. 35). Similarly, according to Swanson (2011), “While there is no one

answer for maintaining excellence in teaching and learning with fewer resources,

one strategy that has proven successful for public relations programs is the

implementation of a student-run public relations firm,” (p. 499). In addition,

Gibson and Rowden (1995) advocate the student agency model to ”…overcome

the limitations of classroom instruction and provided structured responsibilities

and tasks not always associated with internships,” (p. 30). Hazdovac (2012) also

states student participation in a student-run agency yields an integrative learning

experience with immediate exposure to real-world clients, something “…that

cannot be replicated through hypothetical classroom discussions or case studies,”

(p. 19).

Bush and Miller (2011) point out that student-run agencies also have the

benefit of introducing students to the “convergence and integration” common in

the contemporary public relations professional environment. Bush (2009) also

suggests a larger benefit from student-run agencies is the development of

students’ professional identities. These identities include leadership and

management, team motivation, client negotiation, and professional confidence.

This conclusion mirrors nicely the tenets of Bandura’s perceived self-efficacy

(Bandura, 1998). In a quick snapshot of still more benefits provided to students,

Hazdovac (2012) and others offered the following information in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Faculty Opinions of Positive Effects of Student-run Agency

Participation on Students

Positive Effect Citation

Mutual accountability (client, each other, and

instructor)

Hazdovac, 2012

Gain more confidence through acquiring Gibson & Rowden, 1995 new

skills and refining old ones Swanson, 2014

Portfolio development Gibson & Rowden, 1995

Bush & Miller, 2011

Swanson 2011

Student-run Agencies—the In-House Internship

While they are the preferred vehicles for this research, student-run

agencies are only one of several forms of hands-on training used in

contemporary curricula that may be suitable for teaching strategic

communications. Many universities and institutions of higher learning provide a

variety of hands-on instructional opportunities with an academic service learning

component. Some of these include internships, capstone classes, campaigns

classes, and other electives. This multi-dimensional approach provides myriad

opportunities for interactive service learning and is recommended by the

Association of American Colleges and Universities (2007); the Public Relations

Student Society of America, (2015) and Beard and Morton (1999).

PRSA felt so strongly about the value of internships and the value of

student-run agencies, it released a “Port of Entry” study, which encouraged their

student organization, PRSSA, to provide a national affiliation program

(Commission on Public Relations Education Report, 1999). In addition to the

opportunity for national affiliation, the program also includes best practices in

ethics, client contracts, management of expectations, and even billing and job

sheets (documentation) as points of self-reflection.

The Port of Entry Study also encourages practitioners to embrace the

internship process and improve the overall utility of the internship experience.

Some additional research findings contributing to the successful internship

experience include ensuring a mentorship relationship with leadership;

participation by internship sponsors in the assessment process; a dedicated

location for internship work; a clear idea of the work requirements for internships;

a reflection opportunity for the students; a clear point of contact; coordination

facilitator at the sponsoring university; whenever possible, some sort of

compensation for student work; a periodic review of student work during the

course of the internship; a final reporting opportunity in the form of a portfolio; and

a written report or oral presentation at the conclusion of the internship (Alpert,

Heaney, & Kuhn, 2009; Basow & Byrne,1993; Beebe, Blaylock, & Sweetser, 2009;

Brown & Fall, 2005; and Todd, 2009). Based on these findings, it seems clear that

student-run agencies and internships offer many benefits for students and faculty

in terms of skills development, employability, self-efficacy, and other variables not

obtainable elsewhere.

Part 2 The Appeal of Academic Service Learning in Strategic

Communications Instruction

Service learning roots stretch as early as Campbell (1995) and Dewey

(1938). Relevant learning theories that have developed from service learning and

are attached to student agency creation, management and educational benefits

include experiential learning, applied learning, integrative learning, work

integrated learning, problem-based learning, and academic service learning.

Among those praising academic service learning are the Association of American

Colleges and Universities (2007); Blakeman (2015); Bush-Bacellis (1998); Cohen

and Kinsey (1994); Drake (2000); Jacoby (1999); Strage (2004); and Witmer, et

al., (1998).

In particular, the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU)

praised service learning as a promising, high impact activity, which engages

students and promotes learning. In communications instruction particularly, the

concept of the internship and/or the student agency are well established (Panici &

Laske, 2002). Bush-Bacelis (1998) states: “The use of Academic Service

Learning has enabled students to feel they are spending time wisely. They are

not simply meeting the assignment for the class; they are genuinely

accomplishing needed tasks while meeting class requirements,” (p. 28).

Aldoory and Wrigley (2000), citing Schine (1997), summed up the Academic

Service Learning appeal: “…service learning has attracted support from

practitioners, policymakers, researchers, governments at all levels, and from the

broader community (p. vii).”

From the Real World Perspective, Academic Service Learning = Jobs

Looking at education programs from a pragmatic prism of “real-world”

strategic communications skills, those competencies practiced and perfected in

student-run agencies and in other experiential class offerings were found to be

extremely beneficial by researchers investigating expectations and employability

(Neff, Walker, Smith, & Creedon 1999; Todd, 2014). Benigni, Cheng and

Cameron (2004) found that “…students with considerable ‘real-world’ application

are more competitive in today’s job market” (p. 206). Practical experience was

also seen as critical in the post-graduation job hunt where students who have

student-run agency and/or internship experience generally found jobs faster than

their non-interning colleagues (Benigni et al., 2004). Student-run agencies have

also been historically seen as a solution to the need for students to have more

on-the-job training before they get to actual jobs.

Academic Service Learning: “Hands-on Meets Need, Head-on”

When reviewing studies of public relations pedagogy, it is apparent that

both students and future employers feel new graduates need more training in the

tactical skills than in leadership (Paskin, 2013; Swanson, 2014; and Todd, 2014).

There is also strong evidence, and faculty agreement from the literature, stating

theory is best reinforced with hands-on experience as found in service learning

and in student-run agencies (Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995;

Hazdovac, 2012; Paskin, 2013; Swanson, 2007; and Todd, 2014).

Consider the following quotation from faculty on the need to keep students

current with trends in the industry:

“Those of us who teach public relations within higher education are

always under pressure to provide the most relevant knowledge and

skills to our students. We aim to provide students with an

appropriate balance of theoretical/conceptual skills and ‘hands on’

training. We want new college graduates going out into the public

relations workplace knowing not only what to do, but why they’re

doing it.” Hazdovac (2012) (p.15).

Creedon, Neff, Smith, and Walker (1999) state the most desired skills for

hiring new communicators includes critical thinking, problem solving, writing

skills, practical experience, communications skills, and effective characteristics

of a good attitude and being a self-starter. Further, from a faculty perspective, the

use of real clients in classroom instruction generates many positive benefits as

Table 2.2 details.

Table 2.2. Benefits of Using Real Clients in Classroom Instruction

Student Benefit Explanation

Context

Students learn context and understand relevance

Theory Students see theories in practice—enhance student buy-

in.

Motivation

Students seem to find working with clients interesting,

creative and frustrating which all positively impact

motivation.

Management Teaches strategic planning with real constraints,

Skills budgeting with real money, research before planning and time

management due to client schedules.

Flexibility

Client plans change and students need to learn flexibility,

adaptability and patience.

Empathy Students express understanding for client needs, concerns,

problems, “ups and downs.”

Professionalism

Students are taught how to speak with clients, meet with

the client, dress, ask questions, and present solutions.

Value

Students value their own work and take campaign

planning very seriously.

Economics

Deciding client service based in part on economics.

Psychological

Issues

Deal with loss of autonomy, teamliness, timelines, and

multiple reporting responsibilities.

Client constraints

Manage expectations positively, deal with client

availability, goal articulations, etc.

Negotiation

Teachers and clients have to balance priorities of

coursework and client needs. Students have to budget

time to dedicate to work.

Time

More time is spent preparing for classes and for client

meetings.

Excerpted from Aldoory & Wrigley (2000)

When considering a service learning approach, student-run agencies

resemble a hybrid of capstone campaigns classes and internships in terms of

curricula, benefits, and results. Maben (2010) states, based on the similarity of

internships to student agency work, it is valid to address student-run agencies in

the broader context of internships. “The campus newspaper and public relations

firm are essentially in-house internship programs…” (p. 30).

Similarly, a 2000 study by Dickson, interviewing the CEOs of the top 50

public relations firms, indicated 89 percent felt internships and work experience

were very important to future employment. Fitch (2011) and Schön (1982) point

this out, with Fitch stating as future professionals, students need to learn how to

work in situations with “complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness, and value

conflicts” (p. 14). In short, real-client projects are essential for future practitioners.

Internships—and by default, agencies—are also seen as valuable tools for

employers as they deliver practical experience, one of the key differentiators in

hiring entry-level practitioners (the Commission on Public Relations Education

2006 and Todd, 2009 and 2014). When regarding public relations training

specifically, van Ruler (2005) commented that university learning and teaching

“should not focus on knowledge reproduction but, on the development of learning

capability and creativity in finding acceptable solutions for clients” (p. 164).

In contrast, Royal (2005) added that “…teaching without focus on

integration, judgment, and perspective in the new media environment will

ultimately fail students who suddenly find their skills outdated, outmoded or out of

sync with the real world” (p. 412). Based on these two differing opinions it seems

the best solutions is to find a way to teach both.

When considering the influences specific internships (and student-run

agencies) have on students, Maben (2010) found multiple positives including

positive relationships with GPA, greater choice of employability and more. Table

2.3 synthesizes Maben’s findings.

Table 2.3 Positive Effects of Student Internship Service Learning

Service Learning Internship

Effects on Students Citation

Positive effect on career choice

Fall, 2006

Offers new perspectives for students Getz, 2002

Correlates positively with students’ GPA Astin, 1993; English &

Koeppen, 1993; Knouse, et

al., 1999

Assists in finding and securing jobs Neidorf, 2008; Callanan &

Benzing, 2004;

Fang & Lee 2005

Excerpted from Maben 2010

Similarly, Hazdovac (2012) reminds us that researchers Aldoory and Wrigley

(2000) found students working with real clients present several positive

psychological developments including gained confidence, and

improved/increased self-esteem. Cohen and Kinsey (1994) found students were

much more motivated to complete real work for real clients than hypothetical

ones and Sallot (1992,1996) found student tolerance for ambiguity increased, as

did self-esteem and confidence, when working with actual people.

Assists in finding jobs sooner Gault, et al. , 2000

Looking more globally, service learning in communications is defined by

Muturi, Soontae, and Mwangi (2013) as a form of teaching that incorporates

community service with the acquisition and/or exercise of skills and knowledge

that tie directly back to the classroom’s learning objectives. It is associated with

boosting critical thinking, improving theory and practice integration, and assisting

in career planning.

Convergence (Integration) and Strategic Communications

Sometimes called new media, the phenomenon of convergence refers to

the merging of technology, content and tasks needed to take maximum

advantage of technological growth and change (Brooks, Kennedy, Moen, &

Ranly, 2010). As Grant (2009) points out, convergence is a multi-dimensional

phenomenon that stretches from the ways news is reported in contemporary

society, to aspects of behavior in a widely diverse selection of audiences and

operators. Integration, in contrast to convergence, is not as technology driven but

does require significant work in assuring messages are prepared and

disseminated through as many message platforms as possible. Consequently,

the rise of communication integration of various types of media, thanks to widely

available new communication technologies and the explosion of social media

usage, has demanded that communications agencies and organizations make

changes to accommodate this rising demand, leverage the ability to influence

over various news platforms, and train those who will meet the converged

communications needs for their organization(s) (ESPN, 2009 and 2013, Ranta,

2014b). The fundamental need for strategic communications education is rooted

in several phenomena. One example is public relations. Historically, public

relations, as a discipline, has attracted practitioners who are more used to the

qualitative or output related practices than the hard analytics used by most

business practitioners. In fact, many public relations practitioners are famously

math averse and do not easily conceptualize nor embrace quantitative analytics

as part of their job description (Fleet, 2006; Hanson, 2010; & Williams, 2014).

Public relations’ emphasis in the past has often been about the soft skills areas of

relationship building, issues management and other items including event

planning. While there is merit in all of these areas, there is also a very real, and

developing, need for analytical processes which include things like crisis

planning, reputation management, social media positioning and corporate social

responsibility. As the approach to customer relations, shareholder relations and

stakeholder relations is changing, the demands from the industry have translated

to requiring many public relations practitioners to become more business savvy

and analytically informed.

Public Relations, Advertising and Integrated Communications, What is the

Difference?

In an update to their 2007 publication, Holtzhausen and Zerfass (2015)

stated that their earlier article defining strategic communications “brought about

an identity crisis” (p. 3) in the public relations scholarly community. The conflict

being, that historically, strategic communications was perceived as the “express

mission” of the public relations field. Holtzhausen and Zerfass continue, stating

“the intent of developing the study of strategic communications was meant to

explore what different communities of practice can learn from each other,” with

the overall goal to “break down the silos we have erected around ourselves.” (p.

3). As a way to further explain the need for strategic communications,

Holtzhausen and Zerfass cite the blending of communications missions between

traditional activities (advertising, marketing, and public relations); changes in

technology (convergence/integration); increased numbers of channels that

organizations can use to communicate directly to stakeholders; and the

increased attention toward purposeful communications.

Adding to this change in mission is the rise of a subset of integrated

communications (integrated marketing communications or IMC). This blending of

two disciplines (advertising and public relations), for the purposes of marketing to

customers, has resulted in IMC being identified as a stand-alone discipline studied

in business curricula across the country (Shimp, 2010). For the purposes of this

research, IMC is considered as a subset of integrated communications as

integrated communications is much more versatile in its ability to support

communications efforts than IMC alone. In support of this outlook, Wang and

Nelson (2006) found a combined approach of both public relations and advertising

together was more effective than either approach on its own. Similarly, in his study

on integrating public relations with advertising, Moody (2012) makes the

distinction that while advertising and public relations are distinct and separate

disciplines, each has a fundamental function that benefits the communications

process. He argues that public relations’ greatest strengths involve building

relationships, influencing attitude/behavior, and fostering greater understanding

and trust. Furthermore, as a brand builder, public relations is stronger in building

understanding of a product, less expensive than advertising, and allows for

greater depth of message. Continuing the comparison of advertising and public

relations, Moody (2012) states advertising provides more message creativity, is

more established to attract attention, offers better control of the message, and is

perhaps even more persuasive than public relations. So in an integrated

communications world, while public relations and advertising offer greater strength

when combined, the two disciplines maintain separate identities and skill traits

that are not duplicated. This raises some interesting questions when considering

the growth of strategic communications.

The Barcelona Principles: Quantifying PR Then and Now

Another key differentiator between advertising and public relations is the

discussion of quantifying results. Prior to the release of the Barcelona Principles

in 2010, a common method for quantifying public relations was a dependence

upon older, less accurate measurements like the advertising equivalency metric

(Manning & Rockland, 2011: Stacks & Michaelson, 2010). In an area of

increasingly competitive actors seeking larger shares of shrinking

communications dollars, and an increasing demand from management to justify

dollars spent, the advertising equivalency valuation (AEV) measurement was

seen as a way to favorably compete against advertising on a dollar-for-dollar

placement. Most public relations campaigns were seen as a way to deliver

impressions equivalent to a more expensive advertising campaign for as little as

10 percent of the cost of a comparable advertising campaign. This practice was

confounded by a common PR agency approach to this methodology with the

addition of the quality (credibility) multiplier, which implied and assumed because

content was viewed in editorial rather than advertising space, or seen as part of a

“news” story rather than an advertisement, it was regarded as more credible by

the audience receiving the information (Bagnall, 2012).

Subsequently, recent research has widely debunked the AVE metric and

the associated multiplier (Manning & Rockland 2011; Stacks & Michaelson,

2010). As pointed out by the PR Measurement conference proceedings known as

the Barcelona Principles of 2010, the concept of advertising equivalencies has

been ruled an unacceptable practice, which should be replaced by other analytics

better tailored to perform more accurate analysis. Some of these include key

performance indicators (KPIs) of attitude and behavioral change (Ryan, 2014).

Other elements of the Barcelona Principles were designed to help enhance the

credibility of public relations. They include the need for transparency and

replication in public relations efforts, the need to measure both quantity and

quality of results, the need to measure business results whenever possible, the

need to measure outcomes versus output, and one of the most important in the

paradigm shift of public relations metrics, the need to measure social media

activity, (Manning & Rockland, 2011).

The need to improve measurement has become a constant drumbeat

among all business sectors, not just communications. The rise of improved

analytics in logistics, manufacturing, cost projection and even human resources

has created downward pressure on all aspects of business including

communications. The need for public relations, and for that matter all

communications efforts, is to become more strategic. This impetus is driven both

by improvements in process and analytics and a need for survival (Ragas & Culp,

2014). These innovations need to be understood and taught to future

communicators.

Google’s presentation of analytics, for example, has created a renewed

demand for tracking communications outputs and results. Statistics like the

number of unique visitors to a web site, the number of conversions, the time

spent on certain pages, the sites where visitors came from, the place where they

left, the number of return visitors, etc. have all created a pressure to “move the

meter” in these areas with an integrated communications approach that can be

justified to a C-suite executive. And while Google is a recognized leader in

delivering web site analytics, they are by no means the only player in the space

(Ryan, 2014).

Related to web site visitor metrics is the art and science of searcher

metrics or search engine optimization (SEO). Practitioners are being asked to

make their websites more appealing, more “sticky,” more interactive, and overall

more attractive to search engines. A skilled SEO approach will yield wider

audiences with additional reach and more interaction (Parikh & Deshmukh, 2013,

and Ryan, 2014). Obviously, in these instances, a skilled communicator with

mastery of these skills would be in high demand and, conversely, anyone without

these skill sets will be at a deficit for future job prospects.

The obverse of better SEO also requires a renewed diligence in the field of

online brand reputation. In the age of rapid connectivity, the ability for anyone

with a blog or a smart phone to do damage to the reputation, and ultimately the

sales, image, or reputation of a corporation is apparent. Viral campaigns

attacking the service and reputation of organizations are a serious matter, which

need to be addressed decisively, speedily, and completely. Responses to these

threats to reputation also need to be conducted with respect for the adverse

impacts of the responses (Blakeman, 2015). Not limited only to the outright

hacking of data with the aim or stealing or disrupting commerce, the war on a

business’ reputation is also something to be mindful of. In public relations, there

are anecdotes galore across the Internet of bad behavior causing unwanted

national attention. From the senior executive who was fired after a leaked

security camera video showed him abusing a friend’s dog in an elevator (Izadi,

2014), to Domino’s pizza workers who were seen doing inappropriate things to

sandwich ingredients while on the job (Clifford, 2009), misconduct, even the most

trivial, can result in lasting damage.

A more abstract but no-less-real factor in the need for more business

education among public relations students and the need for business students to

have an enhanced understanding of communications is the place of public

relations in the business cycle. Researchers Michaelson and Stacks (2014) have

discussed a theory of public relations efforts (and perhaps those of strategic

communications), being a mediating variable in the process of business

management. Called PR ROI/ROE, or Return on Investment/Return on

Expectation, the idea is that good public relations contributes to a company’s

intangible values of reputation, trust, responsible behavior, etc. which in turn

creates a level of confidence that is translated to both stakeholders and

shareholders, thereby increasing the overall reputation/confidence in the

organization and enhancing the bottom line. Elements that contribute to positive

ROI/ROE include positive financial indicators (unit sales, gross profits, and

expenses) as well as nonfinancial indicators (credibility, trust, reputation,

relationships, and confidence).

People want to do business or buy the shares of companies that are

trustworthy and sustainable. In addition, a company with a solid reputation is

seen as one that will attract follow-on business, better employees, more investors,

etc. While this ROI/ROE model can contribute to the bottom line strictly in terms of

public relations, as the lines are becoming more blurred between disciplines, it

can be said that this theory would also hold up in a broader strategic

communications model.

Figure 2.1 PR ROI/ROE Mediates Overall ROI

Michaelson, D. & Stacks, D., (2014) A Professional and Practitioner’s

Guide to Public Relations Research, Measurement and Evaluation (2nd

ed.). NY, NY: Business Expert Press. Used with permission.

Furthermore, Michaelson and Stacks (2014) say good public relations’

credibility has a positive impact on ROI by impacting shareholder and stakeholder

confidence as illustrated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Confidence Effect of Good PR on Overall ROI

Michaelson, D. & Stacks, D., (2014) A Professional and Practitioner’s

Guide to Public Relations Research, Measurement and Evaluation (2nd

ed.). NY, NY: Business Expert Press. Used with permission.

Finally, there is the concept of convergence and communication

integration. The rise of new media (social media, streaming video, blogs, online

news sites, mobile-specific content) and the blurring of lines defining news versus

entertainment as well as the co-mingling of advertising, marketing, and public

relations practices contributes to the need for a more structured, multilevel

approach, which enhances understanding rather than confusing recipients of the

messages. This trend is compounded by the rise of social media and the ready

availability of instant communications across a worldwide network. Webbased

promotions, for example, should be supported by traditional advertising and

underpinned with solid media relations efforts (Shimp, 2010). In addition, solid

efforts at corporate social responsibility or issues management or even crisis

management should be supported by image advertising and incorporated into

marketing efforts as part of any market analysis or informational effort. The rise

of the Internet has created a dramatic shift in transparency metrics and anyone

with an Internet connection can now become an analyst, a voice of opposition or,

hopefully, a raving fan and advocate of a company’s position. In Tindall and

Holtzhausen (2011), “The challenge (to the field) is coordinating and integrating

the communication activities of organizations and in creating a multidisciplinary

but unified body of knowledge that better serves communicative entities in a

society consisting of fragmented audiences and message delivery platforms” (p.

75).

The Case for Strategic Communications

In their 2005 study of strategic communications, Argenti, Howell, and Beck

provide a compelling summary of the need for integration not only within the

specific disciplines but also across an organization. Featuring Dell, Inc., FedEx,

Textron, Cendant, and other leading companies, the authors state, “…those

senior executives who think that communications can be delegated to the head of

the corporate communications function are mistaken,” (p. 88). In fact, in many

companies, the CEO acts, in effect, as the senior communications officer of the

company. When asked how much time he spends communicating, Dell’s Kevin

Rollins said, ‘Can you go above 100%?’” (p. 88).

This paradigm shift in the practice has created a corresponding demand

for trained practitioners to execute these functions in coordination — a

readymade opportunity for new graduates who are trained appropriately.

Consequently, this progress in a growing, changing field has created a movement

toward instructional changes at the undergraduate level. More specifically,

communications executives like those at ESPN are seeking people with different,

younger perspectives and outlooks, established “digital native” social media

acumen, multi-platform aptitude, and comfort with wireless-driven developments

in public relations, advertising, and marketing (ESPN, 2009 and

2013: Ranta, 2014b, 2015).

Message to Education from the Professions—Integrate or Die

A study by Rose and Miller (1994) of public relations and advertising

professionals concluded an integrated education curriculum should be created to

reflect the needs of the professional marketplace and include additional training

in a wide spectrum of communications techniques. Argenti, Howell, and Beck

(2005) offered the statement:

“Companies that continue to take a laissez-faire approach to

communications will find it increasingly difficult to compete.

Although there will be a continuing need for tactical execution, the

addition of an integrated, strategic focus (emphasis added) will

be critical to success. For communications professionals, this

imperative will not be a threat but an opportunity to not only get a

seat at the table, but to stay there” (p. 89).

In what might be seen as a minor indictment to education, Griffin and

Pasadeos (1998) uncovered disconnects between education and professional

expectations. Reflecting that sentiment in academia, Larsen and Len-Rios (2006)

defined an integrated curriculum as combining advertising, public relations, and

marketing concepts in undergraduate programs. Hallahan et al. (2007) go further,

distinguishing strategic communications as different from integrated

communications, “…because its focus is how an organization communicates

across organizational endeavors” (p. 7). In the same citation, strategic

communications is seen as more purposeful and focused on how an organization

presents (brands) itself across “…the intentional activities of its leaders,

employees, and communication practitioners” (p. 7). In a slightly different take on

the same subject, Grunig (2006) used the term “strategic management role of

public relations” to explain the importance of public relations being more than a

tactical exercise.

The embrace of strategic communications has also expanded to a global

level. Corporations in Europe, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and North

America are using “strategic communications” to describe their communications

activities (Tindall & Holtzhausen, 2011). Similarly, multiple consulting groups; the

National Investor Relations Institute (National Investor Relations Institute, 2006);

many not-for-profits; the American Bar Association (American Bar Association,

2006); various health communications organizations (Health Communication

Partnerships, 2006; Piotrow & Kincaid, 2001); the U.S. government (McCaffrey,

1999; Office of the Undersecretary of Defense, 2004); the United Nations (United

Nations, 1997); and the Public Relations Society of America (Public Relations

Society of America, 2005) embrace a strategic communications approach.

From a comprehensive perspective, strategic communications is an

effective solution to four phenomena as outlined in table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Justification for the Adoption of Strategic Communications

Reason Justification

Traditional distinctions becoming

blurred

The distinctions between disciplines are

becoming blurred and many traditional

functions are being recombined, leveraged

for strategic purposes.

Technology and media Internet and social media are making it economics are

driving change increasingly difficult to differentiate between

advertising vs. publicity, sales promotion, or

e-commerce.

Organizations using an

expanding variety of methods to

influence behavior

Audience experiences are increasingly

becoming a sum of the people’s

experiences and it is becoming much harder

to isolate any specific method as an

influencer.

Strategic communications is a Historical distinctions of different way for

organizations to communications methods are considered

recognize that communications is insufficient to achieve strategically important a

fundamental goal of an entire goals.

organization.

Hallahan, et al., 2007

Todd (2009) recorded the perceptions of PRSSA faculty and professional

advisers when reviewing assessment of students’ learning and faculty

performance. Todd concluded faculty are not teaching the skills students needed

in industry, stating that the emphasis in curriculum is to provide “...practical

experience in new media, internships, preparing students for their first job and

‘hands-on experience’” (p. 71). Todd’s assessment echoes one from much

further back in history where Lee (1947) states “Courses should be regarded as

what they are — a means of conditioning and preparing likely students to enter

upon a series of experiences which may bring them to usefulness in the public

relations field” (p. 91).

Making the specific case for strategic communications, Todd’s 2009 and

2014 studies further stated that employers found students in general lacking in

writing skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills as well as

comprehension of business practices. To correct this shortfall, Todd offers the

following curriculum recommendations in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 PR Curriculum Recommendations

Principles of public relations

Research and Evaluation

An internship

Writing and Production

Planning

Campaigns

Management

Case Studies

Law and Ethics

Excerpted from Todd 2009

Todd (2009) also asked future employers what knowledge they expected new

graduates to have and those results are included in table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Skills Expectations for New Graduates

Knowledge of global publics

Comprehension of PR theories

Relationship building

Transparency

Research skills

Problem solving

Strategic thinking

Planning

Management

Counseling

Excerpted from Todd, 2009

Looking to technology as being an impetus to integration, Wang (2004)

concluded that new technology is changing the way public relations professionals

communicate with particular attention to video conferencing, and multiple location

projects. For the Institute for Public Relations Researchers, Pavlik (2007)

concluded new media are affecting traditional communication models and

theories. Moreover, this challenge of new technology expands across all

communications disciplines with increasing demands being placed on marketers,

advertisers, and other corporate communicators to know how the entire

integrated system works and how to produce content that serves that system.

Are Student-run Agencies Taking Up the Strategic Communications

Banner?

Bush and Miller stated in their 2011 study, “The importance of

understanding student-run agencies lies in the need to determine if and how

communications curricula are falling short of preparing students for the profession

and to examine how agencies might fill potential voids” (p. 485). They further

went on to cite several other researchers, reporting the trend for studentrun

agencies to move more toward an integrated communications approach

(Johnson & Ross, 2001; Kitchen, Kim, & Shulz 2008; AEJMC Report on

Integrated Communication, as cited in Larsen & Len-Rios, 2006, p 35). This

conclusion of the need to integrate can also be reached through observations.

Some examples include integrated courses taught, client work completed,

dedication of resources, faculty and staff to accomplish integration, etc. Larsen

and Len-Rios (2006) found both advertising and public relations educators

agreed that the two most important skills for undergraduates to possess are

writing and critical thinking skills. This commonly felt need might serve as a

springboard for integration of the disciplines within the student-run agency model

and elsewhere. Factors affecting integration are thought to include the physical

age of the instructor, years spent in academia, years spent in professional

practice, and resources available for curriculum integration into a strategic

communications approach.

In addition, as Hallahan et al. (2007) point out in their study, strategic

planning is being taught currently in undergraduate programs using a

management by objective approach (Argenti, Howell, & Beck, 2005; Austin &

Pinkleton, 2001; Caywood, 1997; Dozier & Ehling, 1992; Ferguson,1999; Moffitt,

1999; Smith, 2005; Wilson & Ogden, 2004). Consequently pressures may well be

felt by organizations to integrate, and a likely place for this to happen is in the

student-run agency/client-agency relationship.

Integration Resistance

But not all academia is in agreement with the communications integration

concept. Larsen and Len-Rios (2006) found that established communications

programs were less integrated than younger programs. They also discovered

student-agency advisers with strong interest in strategic communications

gravitated more toward communications curriculum integration. Similarly, those in

an integrated curriculum expected more integration and those in a less integrated

program expected the level of integration to stay the same. One other concern

against integrating communications was pointed out by Lauzen (1991). When

public relations is integrated into a cross-disciplinary program, there is a

perceived loss of power to public relations.

Similarly, studies by Laurie and Mortimer (2011) and Kitchen, Schultz, Kim,

Han, and Li (2004) suggest integration is driven by the client as much as by the

firm delivering the service. Moreover, there are distinctive differences between the

agency concepts in the U.S. and Europe. American-based agencies seem more

eager to embrace an integrated model as a way to design agencies — embracing

the concept that integration is the roadmap moving forward, whereas European

agencies saw IMC as a tactical breakdown with the emphasis on message

transmission and creation rather than organizational structure. So, what are the

pressures for integration progress? Are influences and pressures to integrate

driven more by clients, by practitioners, or by academics?

Another way to phrase this question is, are agencies meeting the

industry’s desire for more strategic communications capability or are a majority of

agencies still siloed as advertising firms or public relations firms exclusively? In a

study of Strategic Communications in South Africa, Tindall and Holtzhausen

(2011) challenged the siloed approach of communication practices stating, “…

there is more common ground between communication practice in different

settings than previously thought,” (p. 74).

The Need for a Strategic Communications Measure

Despite its detractors, there seems to be a need for convergence and

strategic communications in most programs. These include student-run agencies

(Benigni, Cheng, & Cameron, 2004, and Ranta, 2014a) and other programs

where members are expected to understand and execute strategic

communications upon graduation if not before. This finding leaves open for

discussion how one accurately measures the transition from traditional

communications planning to strategic communications.

Based on these questions and observations, following are the research

questions associated with this inquiry. While correlations for the various

communication types by discipline were conducted, these research questions

were also useful for breaking out various specific DVs as a subset for all

variables within the survey instrument.

Research Questions

R1. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an integrated communication curriculum in terms of applied

communications?

R2. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an integrated communication curriculum in terms of specialty

communications?

R3. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an integrated communication curriculum in terms of

communications skills and traits?

R4. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. a public relations curriculum in terms of applied communications?

R5. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. a public relations curriculum in terms of specialty communications?

R6. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. a public relations curriculum in terms of skills and traits?

R7. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an advertising curriculum in terms of applied communications?

R8. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an advertising curriculum in terms of specialty communications?

R9. Is there a significant difference in teaching a strategic communications

curriculum vs. an advertising curriculum in terms of skills and traits?

Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses were informed via nine research questions. While

correlations for the various communication types by discipline were conducted,

the research questions were also useful for breaking out various specific DVs as

a subset for all variables within the survey instrument.

For example hypothesis H2b, based on Hallahan et al. (2007), measures a

mean value of importance for political communication (a specialty

communication) between strategic communications and integrated

communications. More specifically, the hypotheses were designed to investigate

how pervasive strategic communications was and how strong the differentiation

was between strategic communications and other communications disciplines.

While there were 136 total variables (34 variables divided among applied

communications, specialty communications, and skills and traits x 4

communication disciplines), the hypotheses were intended to be a representative

sample of the relationships, which currently exist between different types of

communication across the other three communications disciplines and strategic

communications. Detailed analyses of the results are included in Chapter 4.

H1 Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS than INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in the applied

communications dependent variable: business management.

H2a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: intellectual property.

H2b Respondents will report a higher importance mean value for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: political communication. H3a

Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: understands and can

perform qualitative research.

H3b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: understands and can

perform quantitative research.

H3c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: acceptance of criticism.

H3d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: persistence.

H4a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the applied

communications dependent variable: business management.

H4b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the applied

communications dependent variable: strategic planning.

H4c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the applied

communications dependent variable: branding communication.

H5a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the specialty

communications dependent variable: political communication.

H5b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the specialty

communications dependent variable: intellectual property communications.

H5c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the specialty

communications dependent variable: regulatory compliance communications.

H5d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the specialty

communications dependent variable: search engine optimization.

H6a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the

communications skills and traits dependent variable: the ability to understand and

perform qualitative research.

H6b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the

communications skills and traits dependent variable: the ability to perform

quantitative research.

H6c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in the

communications skills and traits dependent variable: advertising principles.

H7a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the applied

communications dependent variable: business management.

H7b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the applied

communications dependent variable: strategic planning.

H7c Respondents will report a higher importance mean value for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the applied

communications dependent variable: stakeholder communication.

H7d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the applied

communications dependent variable: shareholder communication.

H7e Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in applied

communications dependent variable: crisis communications.

H8a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the specialty

communications dependent variable: technical communications.

H8b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in specialty

communications dependent variable: public speaking.

H8c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in specialty

communications dependent variable: intellectual property communications.

H8d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in specialty

communications dependent variable: regulatory compliance.

H8e Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in specialty

communications dependent variable: corporate social responsibility.

H8f Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in specialty

communications dependent variable: not-for-profit communication.

H9 Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in communication skills

and traits dependent variable: public relations principles.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter consists of six parts. Part 1 discusses the operationalization

of a Strategic Communications Measure. Part 2 discusses the development of

the study to include focus group approaches. Part 3 discusses the development

of the research instrument. Part 4 discusses formation of research questions and

hypotheses. Part 5 breaks down the instrument by variable. Part 6 discusses the

purposive research sample. Part 7 addresses data analysis.

Part 1 Solving the Puzzle: Operationalization of Strategic Communications

To take up the challenge of defining strategic communications, this

researcher designed a measure for determining what faculty currently teaching in

mass communications areas considered strategic communications. This measure

was developed through analysis of current studies as well as original focus group

work. The process involved the creation of a Mean Value of Importance (MVOI).

Educators, ranking on a four-point scale, determined this value. MVOI was used

to discern how important the dependent variables (loosely arranged into the

categories of applied communications, specialty communications and

communication skills and traits) were to the practice of the strategic

communications discipline. In addition to defining strategic communications,

these variables were also used to ask respondents how they

described three other specific communications disciplines: integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising. Dependent variables were

initially adapted from a measure composed by Todd (2009) determining how

effectively practitioners and educators felt current public relations education was

preparing students to compete in the marketplace. However, upon further

investigation informed by work from Hallahan et al. (2007) and preliminary focus

group research, additional items were added. More specifically, the three

communication category variables break out to the following:

Applied Communications Variables (11): business management, strategic

planning, marketing principles, branding communication, media relations,

stakeholder relations, shareholder relations, campaign planning, event

management, crisis communications and media buying.

Specialty Communications Variables (15): technical communications,

patent/IP communications, political communications, regulatory compliance,

interpersonal communications, corporate social responsibility, not-for-profit

communications, new media digital communications, video production, website

development, social media campaigns, public speaking, written communications,

digital analytics, and SEO maximization.

Skills and Traits Variables (8): Skilled in qualitative research, skilled in

quantitative research, values constructive criticism/feedback, demonstrates

familiarity with advertising principles, demonstrates familiarity with public relations

principles, displays collaborative leadership, demonstrates

endurance/persistence, and demonstrates proactive determination.

Part 2 Focus Group Development

The focus group used to inform creation of this survey was composed of

faculty attending an IMC seminar at a southeastern college. Members were

recruited by the conference organizer. A total of five faculty participated. Included

in the group were participating faculty who teach business communications,

media production, marketing, integrated marketing communications, professional

communications, journalism, and corporate communications. The focus group

was moderated by an impartial, sixth faculty member to eliminate researcher bias.

The focus group script and organization was designed in accordance with

information from Krueger and Casey (2015) and in further consultation with the

focus group moderator. All responses were recorded. Ultimately, significant

additions to the quantitative survey were incorporated into many of the questions

related to soft skills like: the ability to accept criticism; practice collaborative

leadership; and adopt a proactive orientation. No incentives were provided for

focus group participation. The focus group lasted approximately 70 minutes

during a lunch break within the conference.

A complete outline of the focus group questions is included in Appendix A

Part 1 and findings of the focus group are included in Appendix A Part 2.

Participants were encouraged to discuss their feelings about strategic

communications and integrated communications and where both disciplines were

going in the future. They were also asked to distinguish and define strategic

communications from integrated communications and finally, they were asked to

provide skills and traits that should be identified and cultivated in order for a

student to become more attractive to employers. The qualitative focus group

input figured in the overall design of the quantitative instrument.

Survey Design

Survey design, data collection, and analysis were completed in

accordance with the procedures as outlined in the researcher’s university

Institutional Review Board. (See documentation of IRB proceedings in Appendix

F). All results were kept confidential. The survey instrument was tested via a brief

pilot study prior to release. The goal for an estimated completion time of the

quantitative survey was 15-20 minutes (University of South Carolina, 2015).

To ensure maximum completion rates of the survey, a $100 gift card was

initially offered as an incentive. As it became clear that more respondents were

required, six additional $50 gift cards were added (Goritz, 2004, 2006). All seven

cards were distributed as part of a random drawing among those who completed

the survey and opted-in by providing a valid email address at the end of the

survey (Ragas & Culp, 2014; Todd 2009,).

Part 3 Developing the Research Instrument

This section discusses the development of the survey itself and includes

assumptions. The survey was developed in accordance with best practices and

based on a variety of sources.

This survey measured a series of variables categorized under the

headings of applied communications, specialized communications, and skills and

traits found among practitioners. The variables were further refined to investigate

within four recognized communications disciplines: strategic communications,

integrated communications, public relations, and advertising. A complete survey

is included in Appendix A, Part 3.

Initially the questionnaire was taken from Todd 2009 and modified from

information obtained via the literature review and consultation with various faculty

members. The instrument was also tested using two pilot flights of research

colleagues at my institution and research cohorts elsewhere.

Of particular interest was the question of whether radio buttons or sliding

scales were more appropriate for the forced response questions. It was also

tested for elapsed time. The goal was to develop a survey that could be

completed in less than 15 minutes.

Assumptions

The first part of the survey was designed to confirm some assumptions

about the state of strategic communications in education and in practice. Four

statements about strategic communications were provided, using a 3-point scale

with the values disagree (1) neither agree nor disagree (2) and agree (3).

Specific questions are included in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Variables and Explanations—Initial Assumptions

Variable Explanation

Clear differences between integrated

and strategic communications

This question was prepared largely

based on data gathered during the

initial focus group.

Increasing demands for students to be This question was added to the trained

in strategic communications instrument based on Laurie &

Mortimer (2011) and Moody (2012).

Increasing demands for

communications professionals to

This question was added based on

Laurie & Mortimer (2011), Moody

embrace strategic communications (2012) and Kitchen et al. (2004).

Integrated strategic communications is

the next evolution of professional

communications.*

This question is based on

Holtzhausen, & Zerfass (2015)

All questions use a three-point scale (1 = disagree, 2 = neutral, 3 = agree)

*Question 4 was a test question to determine respondents’ agreement with the

potential for combining the two disciplines.

Subsequent parts of the survey were developed using a forced 4-point Likerttype

scale.

Part 4 Operationalization and Mean Values of Importance (MVOIs)

As mentioned previously, while there were a total of 136 dependent

variables explored in this portion of the survey, only 29 hypotheses were selected

for this study. These specific variables were selected based on Hallahan et al.

(2007), organic knowledge from the researcher, and focus group input.

The hypotheses were chosen as a representative sample of all potential

102 comparisons with strategic communications from the 34 types of

communications variables and the three other communications disciplines.

Operationalization was accomplished using a Mean Value of Importance

(MVOI) and a metric was designed to help query educators, particularly those in

capstone courses and student-run agencies to develop a benchmark for weighing

each variable in designing a curriculum. The instrument asked respondents to

decide/rank how important each item was to the practice of strategic

communications, integrated communication, public relations, and advertising.

1. The instrument asked respondents to decide, out of 11 applied

communications variables, how important each item was to the practice of

strategic communications, integrated communication, public relations, and

advertising.

2. The instrument asked respondents to decide, out of 15 specialized

communications variables, how important was each item to the practice of

strategic communications, integrated communication, public relations, and

advertising.

3. The instrument asked respondents to decide, out of eight skills and traits

variables, how important was each item to the practice of strategic

communications, integrated communication, public relations, and advertising.

4. Finally the instrument asked the respondents, via open responses, to name

any missing, essential applied communication, type of communication, skill or

trait they thought were important for the practice of strategic communications,

integrated communication, public relations, and advertising.

For example, if business management scored highly on the MVOI scale,

advisers and/or curriculum committees would know to ensure some part of the

strategic communications area of instruction included lessons and applications in

business management.

More About (MVOIs)

The MVOI was designed to confirm the strength of agreement of

respondents to the variables listed under Applied Communications, Specialty

Communications, and Communications Skills and Traits. The scale associated

with the measurement used a four-point “forced choice ” Likert-type scale of

perceived importance (Bertram 2007 and Vogt 1999). The scale was anchored

using the following terms: 1 = Not Important at All; 2 = Of Little Importance; 3 =

Average Importance and 4 = Essential. The higher the value of the mean per

question, the more important that variable was to its respective discipline.

The Mean Values of Importance, (MVOI), could then be compared to

determine how important each variable was to its respective discipline and

whether there was a significant difference between the mean values of each

discipline. Specific variables were drawn from literature, focus group information,

and personal experience. A complete copy of the survey is in Appendix A, Part 3.

Commitment of Resources

Following the Mean Value of Importance questions, the next portion of the

survey was based on a 100-point sliding scale and discussed Strategic

Communications Investment of Resources. Questions for this section were

derived from Bush (2009) and Ranta (2014a) as well as the PRSSA Student-run

Agency handbook. In this series of questions, respondents were asked to

comment on investments in Equipment, Travel, Hiring Faculty, Hiring Staff,

Dedicated Space and Dedicated Classes as a way to record investments in

teaching strategic communications. Anchors for the scale were: No investment

(0-33), Some investment (34-67) and Significant investment (68-100).

Student-run Agency Adviser Questions

The next part of the survey was addressing Student-run Agency Advisers.

This portion consisted of eight questions and was accessed via skip logic to

those who indicated they had past experience as a Student-run Agency Adviser.

Analyses of these questions will be the topic of future research and

incorporate the findings of this dissertation as part of future publication.

Descriptive Statistics and Incentives

The final portion of the survey was a brief, seven-question demographic

profile. The respondent’s age, experience (teaching and practicing), location of

their program, and current rank were asked. The last question of the survey

provided an opportunity to opt-in for a drawing of a Visa gift card as an incentive

(one $100 and six $50) (Sanchez-Fernandez, Muñoz-Levia, Montore-Rios, &

Ibáñez-Zapata, 2010: Goritz, 2004, 2006).

About Forced Response and Progress Bars

The questionnaire was distributed via Qualtrics survey software using its

email function. The desired 15-20 minute completion time and the

comprehensive nature of the research (including the student-run agency portion

of the suvey) created two concerns when preparing to reach the sample. The first

three parts of the survey used a forced response format. While the forced

responses settings were necessary to secure the proper data, it was a concern

that some respondents would abandon the survey without completion based on

the survey lengths (Tukibayeva & Sarraf, 2012). Based on the 86 percent survey

completion rate, this finding was realized.

As a way to encourage more completions, the progress bar was removed

from the survey, prior to distribution. The justification for removing the bar was

because half of the length of the complete survey was dedicated to student-run

agency advisers. A high percentage of the respondents were not expected to

have experience as student-run agency advisers, and would therefore not be

asked to complete a significant portion of the survey. If the progress bar were left

on the survey, respondents may have erroneously concluded the survey was too

long, the progress rate unsatisfactory, and would abandon the survey

prematurely (Mersdorf, 2009). Indeed emails were received from a respondent

asking the survey’s actual length and expressed irritation that no progress bar

was included. However, when the lack of a progress bar was explained, the

respondent understood and completed the survey that day.

Part 5 Breakdown of the Instrument by Variable

Following are a series of tables categorizing the variables, their source,

and their communications types (applied, specialty, skills and traits) measured

across the four communication disciplines (strategic, integrated, public relations,

and advertising).

Table 3.2 Mean Value of Importance (MVOI) for Applied Communications (11)

Measured Variables*

Business Management

Shareholder Relations

Strategic Planning

Campaign Planning

Marketing Principles

Event Management

Branding Communication Crisis Communication

Media Relations

Media Buying

Stakeholder Relations

Selections based on ESPN (2013); Dissertation Focus Group Information (2015);

Hallahan et al. (2007); Paskin (2013); Ryan (2014) and Todd (2009)

*All responses in a 4-point Likert-type Scale: (Not Important At All, Of Little

Importance, Average Importance or Essential) (Vogt 1999)

Table 3.3 Mean Value of Importance (MVOI) for Specialty Communications (15)

Measured Variables*

Technical Communication

Video production

Patent/IP Communication

Website development

Political Communication

Social media campaigns

Regulatory Compliance

Public speaking

Interpersonal Communication

Written communication

Corporate Social Responsibility

Digital analytics

Not for profit communication

SEO maximization

New media digital communication

Selections based on ESPN (2009, 2013); Dissertation Focus Group Information

(2015); Hallahan et al. (2007); and Rose & Miller (1994)

*All responses in a 4 point Likert Scale: (Not Important At All, Of Little

Importance, Average Importance or Essential). (Vogt 1999)

Table 3.4 Mean Value of Importance (MVOI) for Communications Skills and Traits

(8)

Measured Variables*

Skills in Qualitative Research

Demonstrates familiarity with public

relations principles

Skills in Quantitative Research

Displays collaborative leadership

Values Constructive

Criticism/Feedback

Demonstrates endurance/persistence

Demonstrates familiarity with

advertising principles

Demonstrates proactive

determination

Selections based on ESPN (2009, 2013); Dissertation Focus Group Information

(2015); Hallahan et al. (2007); and Rose & Miller (1994)

*All responses in a 4-point Likert Scale: (Not Important At All, Of Little Importance,

Average Importance or Essential). (Vogt 1999)

Descriptive Information

The next set of variables (descriptives) had high face validity and include:

year born, years of professional integrated communications experience, years of

professional strategic communications experience, years teaching, location of

current teaching (public, private, or other), and current academic rank. These

descriptives would be used in the final analysis to determine if there was any

variance in responses between age, years of experience, years teaching, etc.

Part 6 Purposive Research Sample

Following testing of the survey for coherence, time and flow among six

colleagues/research cohorts, the survey was distributed via email to the target

database. The first purposive sample developed for this research included 726

faculty members located throughout the United States. The database was

assembled using the AEJMC directory of universities reporting a student-run

public relations agency, a student-run advertising agency, or an unspecified

(perhaps IMC or strategic communications) agency. An additional source was a

list of conference attendees to an American Advertising Federation conference.

All sample members email addresses were verified via an Internet search, prior

to the first survey distribution.

A note about final sample size: The first distribution of the survey was

deemed unsuccessful. Of the initial flight of 726 emails in July 2015, only 30

usable surveys were returned. Failure of response was attributed to a poor

subject line of the initial e-mail, inopportune timing and lack of personalized text

in the email greeting and the body of the survey. Post hoc analysis concluded

most faculty were likely on sabbatical, vacation, or otherwise engaged and away

from their university email. These oversights were corrected in subsequent

polling.

What’s in a Name? The Second Distribution

As a solution to boost responses and to see if personalization via piped

text would enhance our response rate, an additional email survey was sent two

weeks later to the first 50 names on the original database. To avoid duplication of

answers, email addresses of the 30 who responded to the first distribution were

removed from the list prior to mailing. Piped text allows personal salutations or

other information to be included in each email.

For example, a solicitation email may read Dear Mr. Jones or Dear Dr.

Harris as part of the salutation. To successfully accomplish this on a large scale,

piped text automatically enters information from the survey database. Piped text

can be used in the body of the email greeting, in the email subject line, and in the

body of the survey.

As a way to ensure accuracy of the piped text personalization, an

additional validation via an Internet search was conducted of the 50 targeted

names. This verification yielded the first name, last name, title, place of

employment, and email address of the group. When this search was complete,

and using Qualtrics’ piped text feature, the survey was sent.

Out of this second flight to the aforementioned group of 50, using piped

text, three responses were obtained. While statistically a much higher

percentage of responses in the second flight, than in the initial emailing, the

overall n was still suboptimal for the desired inferential statistical analysis.

However, as the personalized results proved promising and as timing was

still considered inopportune for a mass emailing to the entire database, a final

audit was conducted (after removing the first 50 names from the piped text flight).

Methodology for the final audit was identical to that of the second flight of 50

names. Internet searches were conducted confirming first name, last name, title,

email address and area of instruction. This deeper audit led to a removal of 146

individuals (including the initial 50 from the personalization test) from the

purposive sample.

Many of those names culled belonged to individuals who worked in other

areas of academic instruction not directly related to the four dimensions

investigated in this survey (strategic communications, integrated communications,

public relations, and advertising). During this final validation, when multiple points

of contact (POCs) were identified at the same institution and were determined to

be qualified, (teaching integrated communications, public relations, advertising, or

strategic communications), a limit of four individuals from each university were

selected. In the case of more than four potential POCs, preference was shown to

senior leadership (dean, director, professor, associate professor).

Finally, in an effort to instill more responses, an additional incentive of six

$50 gift cards were included in the offering text for completing the survey. These

six cards were in addition to a $100 gift card used as incentive for the first survey

wave. Funds to purchase the gift cards were provided by a small research fund

at the author’s university.

Round 3

On September 9, 2015, the survey was distributed for a third time. Title

and last name were used for piped text in both the email solicitation and opening

text block of the survey. The timing was planned to correspond to the second full

week of work for most faculty. Research indicated the added incentives,

personal appeal, and better timing would deliver a greater overall response rate

than previous attempts (Goritz, 2004, 2006; Van Dessel, 2015).

In an effort to ensure this flight would complete the survey, the sample was

contacted two more times, once on September 14, 2015 and again on

September 22, 2015 with continuing appeals to complete the survey. In each

case, respondents who had completed the survey were removed from the

followon solicitations prior to an additional appeal being released.

Ultimately, combining all three of the September appeals in Round 3, a

total of 179 acceptable responses were obtained. Added to the 33 usable

responses from the two, initial, underperforming attempts, an overall final total of

n = 212 responses were obtained. This group of 212 was used to analyze the

research. This number equates to an overall response rate of 212/580 or a 37

percent return rate.

Culling Responses

While 212 cases was the final total used, there were 247 total responses

received in the third round. Unfortunately not all of them were kept. Thirty-five

responses from the third round were discarded prior to analysis. Criteria for

discarding a response included all surveys completed in less than four minutes.

Given the scope and number of variables provided in the survey, as well as the

time required to complete the survey in our initial tests with the cohort, anyone

completing the survey in less than four minutes was considered not have spent

sufficient time reviewing potential answers. When the survey was completed, the

gift cards were awarded via the U.S. postal service. Winners were selected from

the respondent pool who opted in during the survey. Specific respondent names

were selected using a random number generator linked to white noise from a

randomized table of the names of the respondents. When contacted, winners

were asked to provide or verify a mailing address for delivery of their incentive.

Ultimately the gift cards purchased and awarded were not Visa gift cards

but MasterCard gift cards as the Visa gift cards were not sold in many stores in

the researcher’s area.

Part 7 Data Analysis

Data analysis for the survey was accomplished using inferential statistics

(Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). Specifically, calculations were made to include

means testing, paired sample, single tailed t-tests and Cronbach’s Alpha. Testing

was conducted using SPSS software (Leech, Barrett, & Morgan, 2011).

Cronbach’s Alpha

Before detailed analysis, the survey instrument was subjected to reliability

testing for internal consistency using Cronbach’s Alpha. As all variables

presented were in acceptable ranges, the mean values of each MVOI were then

subjected to paired t-tests (single-tailed) to determine how the variable scored in

all communications dimensions (strategic communications, integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising).

Specific testing was performed against the hypotheses initially and then

subsequent testing was performed against all variables in comparison with

strategic communications.

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

This chapter is divided into seven parts. Part 1 details the descriptive

statistics of the sample. Part 2 analyzes the assumptions made of the demand for

strategic communications education. Part 3 details the results of the exploratory

focus group. Part 4 details the Cronbach’s Alpha values for internal consistency

(reliability). Part 5 details the results of testing the hypotheses in this research.

Part 6 includes an overall list of variable means by area of concentration. It

includes the post-hoc analysis, and an overall correlation of strategic

communications variables against corresponding dimensions of public relations,

advertising, and integrated communications. Part 6 also includes a series of

correlations of dependent variable means between strategic communications and

all other communications dimensions broken down by category: applied

communications, specialty communications, and communications skills and traits.

Part 7 includes findings related to age, number of years working in strategic

communications and years working in teaching,

In addition, Appendix C offers a matrix of the hypotheses means and

Appendix D offers results of t-tests for significance for each dependent variable.

Part 1 Descriptive Statistics

The total number of respondents to this survey was N = 247 faculty

members. The total number of usable responses was N = 212.

Each case represented an individual who taught strategic communications,

integrated communications, public relations, or advertising. No specific number

per discipline was recorded as many faculty taught in multiple areas. The mean

age of respondents was 53 years. Overall age range of respondents was ages

23-83 with 16 cases not reporting. The mean number of total years teaching was

15. The range of years teaching among the respondents was 0 to 39 years with

seven cases not reporting. The mean number of years of teaching and/or

practicing integrated communications was 17 with total values ranging from 0 to

50 with nine cases not reporting. The mean number of total years teaching and

or practicing strategic communications was 15 with total values ranging from 0 to

50 with 12 cases not reporting.

Part 2 Assumptions

This research included introductory questions addressing assumptions of

the growth of strategic communications in the professional field and in the

educational field. These assumptions were important to inform further research.

Questions for the assumption section were posed using a 3-point scale (1=

Disagree, 2= Neutral and 3 = Agree) Table 4.1 details the specific means and

responses.

Table 4.1 Assumptions Testing–Defining Perceived Demands About Strategic

Communications

Question Mean SD

There are increasing demands for students

to be trained in strategic communications.

2.84

.44

There are increasing demands for communications professionals to

embrace

strategic communications. 2.83 .44

Integrated strategic communications is the

next evolution of professional

communications.

2.49

.59

There are clear differences between integrated

communications and strategic

communications. 2.05 .80

Value 1-3, (1 = Disagree, 2 = Neither Agree nor Disagree, 3 = Agree)

While the continuous variables all showed a mean that indicated some

level of agreement with the growth of strategic communications, one of the most

telling of the findings was the ambivalence present in the statement “There are

clear differences between integrated communications and strategic

communications.” This finding was of particular importance in the post hoc

analysis as detailed in Chapter 5. A similar finding is also discussed from the

perspectives obtained in part two of the survey targeting student-agency advisers.

Approximately 127 of the 212 respondents indicated some past or present

relationship with advising student-run agencies. While these insights were mined

to measure pressures to teach strategic communications, further study of that

data may yield more insights to better inform how to tailor a curriculum to

incorporate strategic communications into an undergraduate program. An

example of one of the findings is listed below in Table 4.2. This set of questions

addressed pressures and efforts student-run agency advisers report in the need

to incorporate strategic communications into their curricula to make their students

more attractive to future employers.

Table 4.2 Perceived Pressures and Efforts to Become More Strategic

Communications Oriented. (N = 127)

Question Mean Value

My student-run agency is actively trying to make my students

more attractive to employers by building strategic

communications skills.

86.38

Relative to client pressures, my student-run agency has been

encouraged to become more strategic.

65.05

(Values 0-100 (Strongly disagree 0-19, Disagree 20-39, Neither Disagree nor

Agree 40-59, Agree 60-79 and Strongly Agree 80-100)

Part 3 Exploratory Focus Group Results

As a way to inform the research and shape the questionnaire provided to

our quantitative sample, a focus group was conducted. A complete copy of the

Focus Group Guide (questions and directions) can be found in Appendix A Part 1.

A representative sample of excerpts from the focus group is included in Appendix

A Part 2. Some respondents’ information appears to contradict other responses,

but as the contradictions from the focus group were unclear, many of the findings

were incorporated into the research instrument as described in the earlier

chapter. In addition, free response questions were added to the survey to help

dissuade the confusion. The mixed method approach used for this research was

appropriate to allow for individual insights from each focus group member.

Also notable from the focus group data was contradictory information

differentiating between strategic communications and integrated communications.

This contradictory focus group information foreshadowed similar findings in the

quantitative surveys. Consider the following two statements made by focus

group participants, trying to establish the difference between strategic

communications and integrated communications:

Respondent 1: “Integration (integrated communications) has to do with

brand building, elite form brand building. Strategic is different. Strategic

falls under the umbrella of brand building. Not the same. Strategic

communications contains multiple contexts.”

Respondent 2: “Strategic communications ties to outcome, which ties to

elements, which ties to objectives and tactics that ties to goal. Brand leads

to a strategy that leads to tactics. But before all of that, your outcome ties

to your goal. (You) don't start strategically. (You) need a big picture that

informs the entire process. What are their goals, what do they want to

accomplish and then what are the tactics?”

These competing explanations of what is strategic communications and

how it fits under integrated communications are contrary to literature descriptions

that strategic communications is the umbrella, which all other communications

(including integrated communications), fit under. These contradictory definitions

between strategic and integrated communications are important distinctions and

should provide some caution moving forward in validating the hypotheses

addressing them.

Part 4 Cronbach’s Alpha—Internal Validity (Reliability)

In combining means in the survey analysis, it was important to maintain

internal consistency of the measures. Internal consistency was evaluated using

Cronbach’s Alpha. The following table reports the Cronbach’s Alpha tests. Range

of correlations for each group of variables and the corresponding dimensions was

.65 -.85. A total Cronbach’s Alpha score for all of the MVOIs was .96.

Table 4.3 Cronbach’s Alpha Scores

Cronbach’s

Alpha/(N = 212)

Strategic

Comms.

Integrated

Comms.

Public

Relations

Advertising

Applied Comms.

(11 items)

.74

.65

.75

Specialty Comms.

(15 items)

.84

.85

.81

.83

Skills and traits

(8 items)

.76

.77

.83

.82

All MVOI

.96

Range from .65 to .85.

Part 5 Hypotheses Testing

Hypotheses were tested using single-tail paired t-tests for differences

between the mean response ratings for different variables using the formula 𝑡

= !!!/ !! !!! where X1 and X2 are the respective paired variable means, S is the

paired standard deviation and N is the number of survey responses.

Twenty-nine hypotheses were selected as a purposive sample of MVOI

and are provided later in this chapter. Implications of these findings and

recommended follow-on research are discussed in Chapter 5.

The t-test methodology was selected as a way to interpret differences in

the Mean Value of Importance (MVOI). All MVOI values were scored by

respondents using a 4-point, forced, Likert-type scale with 1 = Not Important at all,

2 = Of little importance, 3 = Average importance or 4 = Essential. Alternative

explanations of calculating the hypotheses were not explored as part of this initial

research. Table 4.4 provides a general summary finding of all hypotheses. Figure

4.1 provides detailed explanations by hypotheses.

H1 Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS than INTEGRATED COMMUNICATIONS in

the applied communication dependent variable: business management.

There were no differences in a paired t-test between strategic communications

and integrated communications in the applied communications category

dependent variable business management. The hypothesis was not supported.

H2a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the specialty communication dependent variable:

intellectual property. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between

mean values of importance for the specialty communications dependent variable:

intellectual property between strategic communications (M= 2.59) and integrated

communications (M= 2.52) with a paired standard deviation of .58 for 212 cases.

Conditions, t = 1.66 p = .05. The hypothesis was supported

H2b Respondents will report a higher importance mean value for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the specialty communication dependent variable:

political communications. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference

between mean values of importance for the specialty communications dependent

variable: political communication between strategic communications (M= 3.18)

and integrated communications (M= 2.89) with a paired standard deviation of .65

for 212 cases. Conditions, t = 6.62 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported. H3a

Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the communications skills and traits dependent

variable: understands and can perform qualitative research. There were no

significant differences in a paired t-test between strategic communications and

integrated communications in the communications skills and traits dependent

variable: Understands and can perform qualitative research.

The hypothesis was not supported.

H3b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the communications skills and traits dependent

variable: understands and can perform quantitative research. A paired t-test

indicated a significant difference between mean values of importance for the

specialty communications dependent variable: understands and can perform

quantitative research, between strategic communications (M= 3.65) and

integrated communications (M= 3.57) with a paired standard deviation of .54 for

212 cases. Conditions, t = 2.27 p = .012. The hypothesis was supported.

H3c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the communications skills and traits dependent

variable: acceptance of criticism. A paired t-test indicated a significant

difference between mean values of importance for the specialty communications

dependent variable: accepts criticism, between strategic communications (M=

3.73) and integrated communications (M= 3.60) with a paired standard deviation

of .49 for 212 cases. Conditions, t = 3.83 p = .000. The hypothesis was

supported.

H3d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to INTEGRATED

COMMUNICATIONS in the communications skills and traits dependent

variable: persistence. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between

mean values of importance for the specialty communications dependent variable:

persistence, between strategic communications (M= 3.67) and integrated

communications (M= 3.61) with a paired standard deviation of .42 for 212 cases.

Conditions, t = 1.82 p = .04. The hypothesis was supported.

H4a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the applied communications dependent variable: business management. A

paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: business

management, between strategic communications (M= 3.40) and public relations

(M= 3.49) with a paired standard deviation of .62 for 210 cases. Conditions, t =

2.10 p = .02. However, because t is a negative value, the hypothesis was not

supported.

H4b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the applied communications dependent variable: strategic planning. A

paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: strategic

planning, between strategic communications (M = 3.88) and public relations (M =

3.83) with a paired standard deviation of .45 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 1.86

p = .03. The hypothesis was supported.

H4c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the applied communications dependent variable: branding communication.

There were no significant differences in a paired t-test between strategic

communications and public relations in the applied communications skills

dependent variable branding communication. The hypothesis was not supported.

H5a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: political communication.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: political

communications between strategic communications (M= 3.18) and public

relations political communications (M= 3.35) with a paired standard deviation

of .75 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = -3.31 p = .000. However, because t is a

negative value, the hypothesis was not supported.

H5b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: intellectual property. A

paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: intellectual

property between strategic communications (M= 2.59) and public relations (M=

2.78) with a paired standard deviation of .75 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = -3.67

p = .00. However, because t is a negative value, the hypothesis was not

supported.

H5c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: regulatory compliance

communication. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean

values of importance for the specialty communications dependent variable:

regulatory compliance between strategic communications (M= 3.02) and public

relations communications (M= 3.25) with a paired standard deviation of .75 for

210 cases. Conditions t = -.4.43 p = .000. However, because it was a negative

value, the hypothesis was not supported.

H5d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the specialty communications dependent variable: search engine

optimization. There were no significant differences in a paired t-test between

strategic communications and public relations in the specialty communications

dependent variable search engine optimization. The hypothesis was not

supported.

H6a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: the ability to

understand and perform qualitative research. There were no significant

differences in a paired t-test between strategic communications and public

relations in the communications skills and traits dependent variable the ability to

understand and perform qualitative research. The hypothesis was not supported.

H6b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: the ability to

perform quantitative research. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference

between mean values of importance for the specialty communications dependent

variable: the ability to perform quantitative research between strategic

communications (M= 3.65) and public relations (M= 3.53) with a paired standard

deviation of .55 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 3.17 p = .00. The hypothesis was

supported.

H6c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to PUBLIC RELATIONS in

the communications skills and traits dependent variable: advertising

principles. A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values

of importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: advertising

principles between strategic communications (M= 3.55) and public relations (M=

3.39) with a paired standard deviation of .64 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 3.65 p

= .000. The hypothesis was supported.

H7a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the

applied communications dependent variable: business management. A

paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: business

management between strategic communications (M= 3.40) and advertising (M=

3.31) with a paired standard deviation of .75 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 1.65 p

= .05. The hypothesis was supported.

H7b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the

applied communications dependent variable: strategic planning.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: strategic

planning between strategic communications (M= 3.89) and advertising (M= 3.76)

with a paired standard deviation of .54 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 3.60 p = .00.

The hypothesis was supported.

H7c Respondents will report a higher importance mean value for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the

applied communications dependent variable: stakeholder communications.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: stakeholder

communication between strategic communications (M= 3.62, SD = .55) and

advertising (M= 3.04, SD = .78) with a paired standard deviation of .85 for 210

cases. Conditions t = 10 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported.

H7d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the

applied communications dependent variable: shareholder communications.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: shareholder

communication between strategic communications (M= 3.48,) and advertising

(M= 2.90,) with a paired standard deviation of .87 for 210 cases. Conditions t =

9.57 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported.

H7e Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISNG in

applied communications dependent variable: crisis communications. A

paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: crisis

communication between strategic communications (M= 3.70) and advertising

(M= 2.89) with a paired standard deviation of .84 for 210 cases. Conditions, t =

13.91 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported.

H8a Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in the

specialty communications dependent variable: technical communications.

There were no significant differences in a paired t-test between strategic

communications and advertising in the specialty communications dependent

variable: technical communication. The hypothesis was not supported.

H8b Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

specialty communications dependent variable: public speaking.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: public speaking

between strategic communications (M= 3.49,) and advertising (M= 3.27) with a

paired standard deviation of .84 for 210 cases. Conditions, t = 3.85 p = .00. The

hypothesis was supported.

H8c Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

specialty communications dependent variable: intellectual property

communication. There were no significant differences in a paired t-test between

strategic communications and advertising in the specialty communications

dependent variable: intellectual property communication. The hypothesis was not

supported.

H8d Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

specialty communications dependent variable: regulatory compliance.

There were no significant differences in a paired t-test between strategic

communications and advertising in the specialty communications dependent

variable: regulatory compliance communication. The hypothesis was not

supported.

H8e Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

specialty communications dependent variable: corporate social

responsibility.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: corporate

social responsibility between strategic communications (M= 3.63) and advertising

(M= 3.25,) with a paired standard deviation of .87 for 210 cases. Conditions, t =

6.36 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported.

H8f Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

specialty communications dependent variable: not-for-profit

communications.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: not-for-profit

communication between strategic communications scores (M= 3.38) and

advertising (M= 3.13) with a paired standard deviation of .87 for 210 cases.

Conditions, t = 4.07 p = .00. The hypothesis was supported.

H9 Respondents will report a higher mean value of importance for

STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS when compared to ADVERTISING in

communication skills and traits dependent variable: public relations

principles.

A paired t-test indicated a significant difference between mean values of

importance for the specialty communications dependent variable: public relations

principles between strategic communications (M= 3.75) and advertising (M=

3.37) with a paired standard deviation of .71 for 210 cases. Conditions t = 8.11 p

= .00. The hypothesis was supported.

Figure 4.1 Detailed Reporting of Hypotheses

Abbreviated Reporting of Hypotheses

Seventeen hypotheses were supported and 12 hypotheses were not

supported. Below is a table of all hypotheses results.

Table 4.4 Table of Hypotheses Results

Abbreviated Hypotheses Results

Hypothesis: H1

Variable: Business Management

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H2a

Variable: Intellectual Property

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Supported

Hypothesis: H2b

Variable: Political Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Supported

Hypothesis: H3a

Variable: Qualitative Research

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Not Supported

Hypothesis H3b

Variable: Quantitative Research:

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Supported

Hypothesis H3c

Variable: Acceptance of Criticism

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communication: Supported

Hypothesis H3d

Variable: Persistence

Strategic Communications vs. Integrated Communications: Supported

Hypothesis H4a

Variable: Business Management

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H4b

Variable: Strategic planning

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Supported

Hypothesis: H4c

Variable: Branding Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H5a

Variable: Political Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H5b

Variable: Intellectual Property Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H5c

Variable: Regulatory Compliance

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H5d

Variable: Search Engine Optimization

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported Hypothesis:

H6a

Variable: Qualitative Research

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H6b

Variable: Quantitative Research

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Supported

Hypothesis: H6c

Variable: Advertising Principles

Strategic Communications vs. Public Relations: Supported

Hypothesis: H7a

Variable: Business Management

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising : Supported

Hypothesis: H b7

Va riable: Strategic Plannin g

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising : Supported

H ypothesis: H7c

Variable: Stakeholder Communications

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H7d

Variable: Shareholder Communication

Strategic Commun ications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H7e

Variable: Crisis Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H8a

Variable: Technical Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Not Supported

Hypothe sis: H8b

Variable: Public Speaking

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H8c

Variable: Intellectual Property Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H8d

Variable: Regulatory Compliance

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Not Supported

Hypothesis: H8e

Variable: Corporate Social Responsibility

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H8f

Variable: Not-for-Profit Communication

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Hypothesis: H9

Variable: Public Relations Principles

Strategic Communications vs. Advertising: Supported

Overall MVOI Tables

The tables below include the Mean Value of Importance (MVOI) for each

dependent variable when compared against strategic communications in the

research instrument. The table also includes t-statistics used to compare all

dependent variable means against the MVOI for strategic communications.

These values include scores for those MVOIs included in the research

hypotheses and those that are not.

All four communications disciplines are represented (strategic

communications, integrated communication, public relations, and advertising)

and are divided by communication types (applied communications, specialty

communications, and communication skills and traits). Note that bold scores

show a significant differentiation from strategic communications MVOI values.

For specific MVOI values and t-test comparisons, consult Appendices C and D.

Table 4.5 Matrix of All Dependent Variable Means (MVOIs) in Applied

Communications

Paired t-test Results Comparison Applied Communications MVOI by

Communications Discipline

MVOI

Strategic

Comms.

(N = 212)

Integrated

Comms.

(N = 212)

Public

Relations

(N = 210)

Advertisin

(N = 210)

Business Management

3.40

3.40 t

= .00

p =.50

3.49* t

= -2.10

p = .02

3.31*

t = 1.65

p = .05

Strategic Planning

3.88

3.76* t

= 3.44

p = .00

3.83*

t = 1.86

p = .03

3.76*

t = 3.60

p = .00

Marketing Planning

3.55

3.76* t

= -5.19

p =.00

3.48*

t = 1.67

p = .05

3.80* t

= -5.76

p = .00

Branding

3.69

3.78* t

= -2.17

p = .02

3.65 t

= 1.05

p = .29

3.89* t

= -2.34

p = .01

Media Relations

3.60

3.41* t

= 4.42

p = .00

3.86* t

= -6.33

p = .00

3.23*

t = 6.37

p = .00

Stakeholder Comms.

3.62

3.35* t

= 5.88

p = .00

3.85* t

= -5.59

p = .00

3.04*

t = 9.99

p = .00

Shareholder Comms.

3.47

3.19* t

= 5.68

p = .00

3.70* t

= -4.93

p = .00

2.90*

t = 9.57

p = .00

Campaign planning

3.80

3.79 t

= .37

p = .36

3.85 t

= -1.17

p = .15

3.80 t

= .11

p = .46

Event Management

3.23

3.19 t

= .83

p = .20

3.67* t

= -9.01

p = .00

3.09*

t = 2.34

p = .01

Crisis Communications 3.36* 3.90* 2.89*

t = 6.78 t = -5.62 t = 13.91

p = .00 p = .00 p = .00

Media Buying 3.38* 2.96 3.75*

t = -6.01 t = 1.28 t = -11.16

p = .00 p = .10 = .000

(1 = Not Important At All, 2 = Of Little Importance, 3 = Average Importance or 4 =

Essential).

* = Significance in 1-tailed t-test p<. 05 t-value and p-value listed below each

mean when compared to strategic communications. BOLD type = significance.

Table 4.6 Matrix of All Dependent Variable Means (MVOIs) in Specialty

Communications

Paired t-test Results Comparison Specialty Communications MVOI by

Communications Discipline

MVOI

Strategic

Comms.

(N = 212)

Integrated

Comms.

(N = 212)

Public

Relations

(N = 210)

Advertisin

(N = 210)

Technical

Communication

3.00

2.95 t

= 1.12

p = .11

3.18* t

= -3.42

p = .00

2.98 t

= .49

p = .31

Intellectual Property

2.59

2.52*

t = 1.66

p = .05

2.78* t

= -3.70

p = .00

2.54 t

= 85

p = .20

Political Communications

3.18

2.89*

t = 6.62

p = .00

3.35* t

= -3.31

p = .00

2.83*

t = 5.99

p = .00

3.69

3.05

Regulatory Compliance

Communications

3.01

2.92*

t = 6.62

p = .00

3.25* t

= -4.43

p = .00

3.02 t

= .00

p = .50

Interpersonal

Communications

3.43

3.29*

t = 3.23

p = .00

3.66* t

= -4.64

p = .00

3.23*

t = 3.47

p = .00

Corporate Social

Responsibility

3.63

3.39*

t = 6.15

p = .00

3.76* t

= -3.06

p = .00

3.25*

t = 6.36

p = .00

New Media

Communications

3.74

3.76 t

= -.74

p = .23

3.87* t

= -3.43

p = .00

3.76 t

= -.48

p = .32

Video Production

3.14

3.30* t

= -3.55

p = .00

3.29* t

= -3.09

p = .00

3.60* t

= -9.14

p = .00

Website Production

3.42

3.49* t

= -1.76

p = .04

3.38 t

= .77

p = .22

3.51* t

= -1.75

p = .04

Social Media Production

3.75

3.72 t

= .67

p = .24

3.80 t

= -1.54

p = .06

3.79 t

= -1.04

p = .15

Public Speaking 3.49 3.30* t

= 4.56 p

= .00

3.72* t

= -5.60 p

= .00

3.27* t

= 3.89 p

= .00

Written Communications

3.83

3.75* t

= 2.63 p

= .00

3.89* t

= -2.02

p = .02

3.67* t

= 3.78 p

= .00

Digital Analytics 3.54 3.56 t

= -.49 p

= .31

3.52 t

= .32 p

= .38

3.69* t

= -3.12 p

= .00

Not-for-profit

Communications

3.38

3.17* t

= 5.21 p

= .00

3.57* t

= - 4.24 p

= .00

3.13* t

= 4.07 p

= .00

Search Engine

Optimization

3.39

3.47* t

= -1.98 p

= .03

3.35 t

= 1.00

p = .16

3.52* t

= -2.69

p = .00

(1 = Not Important At All, 2 = Of Little Importance, 3 = Average Importance or 4 =

Essential)

* = Significance in 1-tailed t-test p<. 05 t-value and p-value listed below each

mean when compared to Strategic Communications. BOLD type = significance

Table 4.7 Matrix of All Dependent Variable Means (MVOIs) in Communications

Skills and Traits

Paired t-test Results Comparison Communications Skills and Traits MVOI

by Communications Discipline

MVOI

Strategic

Comms.

(N = 212)

Integrated

Comms.

(N = 212)

Public

Relations

(N = 210)

Advertisin

(N = 210)

Qualitative Research 3.57 3.55 t

= .35

p = .36

3.59 t

= -.51

p = .31

3.62 t

= -1.11

p = .14

Quantitative Research

3.65

3.57* t

= 2.27

p = .01

3.53*

t = 3.17

p = .00

3.65 t

= .00

p = .50

Receive Criticism

3.73

3.60* t

= 3.83

p = .00

3.79* t

= -1.82

p = .02

3.76 t

= -.87

p = .19

Collaborative Leadership 3.67 3.58* t

= 2.82

p = .00

3.76* t

= -2.53

p = .00

3.68 t

= -.13

p = .49

Persistence 3.67 3.61* t

= 1.82

p = .04

3.71 t

= -1.16

p = .13

3.71 t

= -1.03

p = .15

Proactive Determination 3.67 3.58* t

= 3.42

p = .00

3.69 t

= -.43

p = .34

3.64 t

= .88

p = .19

Advertising Principles 3.55 3.69* t

= -3.44

p = .00

3.39*

t = 3.65

p = .00

3.93* t

= -7.99

p = .00

PR Principles 3.75 3.66* t

= 2.42

p = .01

3.90* t

= -4.36

p = .00

3.36*

t = 8.11

p = .00

(1 = Not Important At All, 2 = Of Little Importance, 3 = Average Importance or 4 =

Essential)

* = Significance in 1-tailed t-test p< .05 t-value and p-value listed below each

mean when compared to Strategic Communications.

BOLD type = significant p value.

Part 6 Correlations of all Variables by Discipline

As a part of a post-hoc analysis, the total numbers of variables (N = 34)

Applied Communications (11), Specialty Communications (15) and

Communication Skills and Traits (8) were combined to examine the larger

relationships among the variables.

Tables 4.8 – 4.10 demonstrate how the total number of variables

compares when exploring the other three individual disciplines with strategic

communications.

Table 4.8 Pearson Correlations of Applied Communications Dependent Variables

Applied Communications MVOIs, all Disciplines vs. Strategic

Communications

Integrated Public

Communications Relations Advertising

Sig.

.62*

.02

.79*

.00

.17

.31

* = Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

Table 4.9 Pearson Correlations of Specialty Communications Dependent

Variables

Specialty Communications MVOIs vs. Strategic Communications

Integrated Public

Communications Relations Advertising

Sig.

.93**

.00

.96**

.00

.81**

.00

** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).

Table 4.10 Pearson Correlations of Skills and Traits Dependent Variables

Communication Skills and Traits MVOIs Strategic

Communications vs. Other Disciplines

Public

Integrated Relations Advertising

Sig.

.004

.496

.90**

.00

-.59

.06

** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).

Part 7 Analysis by Age, Years Teaching and Years Working in Strategic

Communications

** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1 -tailed).

Table 4.1 1 Pearson Correlations of All Dependent Variable MVOIs vs Strategic

Communication s

All MVOIs vs. Strategic Communications

Integrated

Public

Relations

Advertising

.87**

.89 **

.60

Sig.

.00

In an attempt to determine if age or experience play in the assignment of

importance, correlations of all MVOIs were performed against the variables: year

born, number of years in strategic communications and number of years teaching.

Tables 4.12 – 4.14 list the 136 variables with significant differences.

Implications of these correlations are discussed in Chapter 5.

Table 4.12 Significant Pearson Correlations of Year Born vs. MVOIs

MVOI/Discipline P-value/Significance

Shareholder

Communications/Strategic

Communications

.20/.00**

Strategic Planning/Integrated

Communications .20/.00**

Event Management/Public Relations

.19/.01**

** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 4.13 Significant Pearson Correlations of Number of Years Practicing

Strategic Communications vs. MVOIs

MVOI/Discipline P-value/Significance

Business Management/Strategic

Communications

.23/.00**

Qualitative Analysis/Strategic

Communications

.19/.01**

Proactive Determination/Strategic

Communications

.17/.01**

Proactive Determination/IMC

.18/.01**

Media Relations/Advertising

.21/.00**

Technical Comms./Advertising

.21/.00**

Website Comms./Advertising

.18/.01**

** = Corr. significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 4.14 Significant Pearson Correlations of Number of Years Teaching vs.

MVOIs

MVOI/Discipline P-value/Significance

Receive Criticism/Integrated

communications

-.19/.01**

Advertising Principles/Integrated

Communications

-.18/.01**

Media Buying/Public Relations

.21/.00**

Crisis Communications/Advertising

.20/.00**

PR Principles/Advertising

.19/.01**

** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary of Findings

This chapter is divided into 11 parts, discussing the implications of the

various findings in this research. Part 1 discusses overall challenges in defining

strategic communications. Part 2 discusses the pressures for adopting strategic

communications. Part 3 discusses overall observations. Part 4 discusses

similarities and differences between strategic communications, integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising. Part 5 discusses implications

for the research hypotheses. Part 6 discusses a total matrix of means. Part 7

discusses single tail t-tests and skills and traits. Part 8 discusses limitations of

this research. Part 9 discusses the need for professional practitioner input. Part

10 discusses the distillation of variables. Part 11 discusses the future of the

research.

Part 1 Strategic Communications Challenges and Confusion

For many faculty surveyed, attempting to define the strategic

communications discipline offered deep challenges. While there is strong

acknowledgement for the need to understand and define strategic

communications in this survey, there is clearly confusion, resistance and doubt as

to what it is and what it is not. Opportunities for further and better definitions are

very strong findings. Consider these quotes from the survey’s open-ended free

response questions:

“I'm having trouble separating strategic communications from integrated

communications - strategic communications integrates across platforms

and media types to reach publics or target audiences. IMC is really a

version of strategic comm. in my mind, with advertising and public

relations being more (but not completely) separate disciplines.”—Survey

respondent free response comments, 2015.

“I do not agree with those PR professionals who are trying to co-opt the

term "strategic communications” for their purposes. I view Strategic

Communications at a higher level, at a C level to be utilized by persons

with both a business (MBA) and communications background, i.e.

Someone who understands more than the communications aspects of an

organization, but also business, financial, production, marketing, functions

as well. I use Integrated Communications to include all communications

functions including PR, advertising, WOM, (Word of Mouth, definition

added) digital, personal, social, etc. in a more marketing-oriented manner.”

—Survey respondent free response comments, 2015.

“One of my least favorite things about social science is the seemingly

constant need for researchers and practitioners to create new labels for

existing practices. With the label Strategic Communications, are we

suggesting that there was no strategy involved in Integrated

Communications? That's what I glean from various blogs/papers I have

read on the subject. Marketing Communications covers both Strategic

Communications and Integrated Communications. If an organization's

marketing communications are not both strategic and integrated, that

organization is wasting time and money. While social media has forced

companies to beef up public relations activities and corporate social

programs, I don't think practices are any more strategic than in the past.

What I have noticed is that many organizations are just now beginning to

integrate social media efforts with the rest of their marketing plans and t

(o) include social conversations as a part of the overall strategy. Do I think

we need new terminology to encompass this? No, not really.”—Survey

respondent free response comments, 2015.

The various respondents’ comments summed up much of this research.

As further evidence, consider the implications of the hypotheses used at the

beginning of this research. Seventeen of the 29 hypotheses were supported by

the research findings; 12 were not.

Conclusions about unsupported hypotheses include differences with no

significance between the strategic communications discipline and the other

discipline or, a conclusion that while there was a significant difference, it was in

the negative direction, implying that the variable was actually more important in

one of the other disciplines than strategic communications. Similarly, the data

obtained in this study provide some observations that may be helpful. In many

instances, the MVOI was as high or higher in strategic communications than in

other related communication disciplines. In addition, all but one of the 34

variables tested in this survey registered an MVOI value of 3 or better (indicating

average to essential importance) in the area of strategic communications.

Therefore there are meaningful findings to assist in better defining strategic

communications and informing future curriculum instruction.

In summary, this study reveals a pragmatic measurement of strategic

communications, which encompasses variables from applied communications,

specialty communications and communication skills and traits. It measures

contributions to the discipline of strategic communications from three other mass

communication disciplines (integrated communications, public relations and

advertising). It also reveals where best practices for each variable can be found

in terms of each communications discipline.

Finally, the results suggest areas of concentration for educators to include

when contemplating the adoption of a strategic communications orientation or

designing a strategic communications curriculum. In particular, this measurement

lends itself to informing the organization of curricula for student run agencies.

Finally, the study also suggests a pragmatic definition of strategic

communications measureable by topic and suggests areas for future study in

quantifying the practice of strategic communications.

Part 2 Overall Observations—Measurement Scale

Based on the results of the tests conducted for this study, strategic

communications is a blend of applied communications, specialty communications,

and skills and traits. All but one of the variables used in this research, (intellectual

100

property), registered with a mean value score of above 3 on the four-point MVOI

scale, indicating the developed scale is a legitimate measurement of strategic

communications. Cronbach’s Alpha testing of all of the variables indicated internal

consistency across all values ranging from .650 to .848 with an overall total

Cronbach’s Alpha value of .964 for all variables combined.

For purposes of future research, the scale for measuring strategic

communications within the realm of applied communications variables should

include business management, strategic planning, marketing planning, branding,

media relations, stakeholder relations, shareholder relations, campaign planning,

event management, crisis communications, and media buying.

Similarly, as it pertains to types of specialty communications, the scale for

measuring strategic communications should include technical communication,

political communication, regulatory compliance communications, interpersonal

communications, corporate social responsibility communications, new media

communications, video production, website design/production, social media

communications, public speaking skills, written communications skills, command

of digital analytics, not-for-profit communications, and search engine optimization.

Finally, in terms of communications skills and traits, the scale for

measuring strategic communications should include the abilities to conduct and

understand both qualitative and quantitative research, the ability to receive

criticism, the ability to perform collaborative leadership, the ability to demonstrate

persistence in the face of adversity, possessing proactive determination,

familiarity with advertising principles, and familiarity with public relations

principles. In descending MVOI order, Table 5.1 shows a summary detailing how

101

respondents ranked each of the aforementioned variables is to the concept of

importance to strategic communications:

Table 5.1 Strategic Communications MVOI values

Variable MVOI Variable MVOI

Strategic Planning

3.88

Written Communication

3.83

Campaign Planning

3.80

Social Media Production

3.75

PR Principles

3.75

New Media Communication

3.74

Receive Criticism

3.73

Branding

3.69

Crisis Communications

3.69

Collaborative Leadership

3.67

Persistence 3.67 Proactive Determination 3.67

Quantitative Research

3.65

Corp. Social Responsibility

3.63

Stakeholder Communications

3.62

Media Relations

3.60

Qualitative Research

3.57

Marketing Planning

3.55

Advertising Principles

3.55

Digital Analytics

3.54

Public Speaking

3.49

Shareholder

Communications 3.47

102

Interpersonal Communications

3.47

Website Production

3.42

Business Management

3.40

Search Engine Optimization

3.39

Not-for-Profit Communications

3.38

Event management

3.23

Political Communication

3.18

Video Production

3.14

Media Buying

3.05

Regulatory Compliance

Communications

3.01

Technical Communications

3.00

Intellectual Property

2.59

When defining the importance of particular MVOIs against age, years of

experience in strategic communications and years of teaching, there are weak

correlations across a diverse set of variables but no strong indicator that any set

of variables influenced respondents’ assessments of what was important in

adopting strategic communications.

103

For example, as it pertains to age, the younger the faculty member, the

more important shareholder communications is to strategic communications. In

addition the younger the faculty member, the more important practicing integrated

communications is to the study of integrated communications. Finally the younger

the faculty member, the more important event management is to public relations.

Similarly, when addressing years of practicing strategic communications,

those with the most experience saw the important skills of business management,

qualitative analysis and a proactive demeanor as significant attributes for

practicing strategic communications. In addition, the faculty with the greatest

amount of strategic communications experience also valued a proactive

demeanor for the practice of integrated communications. Finally, the more

experienced the strategic communications practitioner, the more important media

relations, technical communications and website design skills are to the discipline

of advertising.

Finally, as it pertains to number of years teaching, there were significant

differences among all of the MOVIs in the ability to receive criticism and strong

knowledge of advertising principles for the practice of integrated communications.

Also, the more experienced teachers valued knowledge of media buying for public

relations practice and an understanding of crisis communications and public

relations principles was also critical for the practice of advertising.

In summary, there are significant differences among some variables but

overall, the age, years of practicing strategic communications and years of

teaching have little effect on the assessment of the values of the measure’s

104

MVOIs and did not have a sufficient number of significant differences to indicate

widespread relationships with any group of variables.

Part 3 Pressures for Adopting Strategic Communications

Based on the results of the surveyed faculty, and the subset of faculty who

have student-run agency experience, it seems clear most believe there are

pressures and desires for undergraduate faculty to teach and practice strategic

communications. However, due to the aforementioned difficulties in defining

strategic communications, it is all the more important to set out to find a definition

for the term, and, once established, how it should be measured. By adopting the

MVOI scale and reviewing different variables under the three categories offered

here — applied communications, specialty communications, and communications

skills and traits — it becomes easier to envision what strategic communications is

and how it can be taught. Furthermore, by assigning values of importance to

each variable under the specific communications disciplines — strategic

communications, integrated communications, public relations, and advertising —

it is also easier to refine where to look when seeking best practices for each

variable. For example, if public relations principles scores the highest MVOI in

the public relations discipline, then as scholars we should start looking there to

find suitable best practices in public relations principles.

Part 4 Paired Sample t-test Values of Significance: Differences Outweigh

Similarities

In this study of mean values of importance, based on the survey of 212

faculty who teach in one or more of the four communications disciplines,

(strategic communications, integrated communications, advertising, and public

105

relations) there are both similarities and differences. When expressed in terms of

the number of significant and insignificant variance of means when testing

between the various communication principles and strategic communications, it

seems clear very few modifications in curriculum would be needed to convert or

upgrade public relations curricula to a strategic communications program. The

conversion of an integrated communications program into a strategic

communications program would similarly involve the adoption of a minimal

number of concepts and areas of emphasis, although the teaching of skills and

traits would require some additional attention to truly become strategic.

In contrast, according to the sample used in this study, the practice of the

discipline of advertising varies more widely with that of strategic communications.

Most of the difference is expressed largely in terms of varied and highly specific

skills and traits. The study of advertising may be where the largest amount of

modification or expansion is needed for a program to become truly strategic.

Part 5 Implications of Research Hypotheses

When reviewing the hypotheses, results are mixed between supported

and unsupported statements. Part 5.1 discusses supported hypotheses and Part

5.2 discusses unsupported hypotheses.

Part 5.1 Implications of Supported Hypotheses (17)

In the following paragraphs, implications of the supported hypotheses are

discussed. As expected in the focus group, some of the outcomes of parts 5.1

and 5.2 contradict with expected outcomes based on existing definitions of

strategic communications:

106

“Six relevant disciplines are involved in the development, implementation

and assessment of communications by organizations: management,

marketing, public relations, technical communication, political

communication and information/social marketing campaigns. …A growing

number of organizations have recognized that various communications

disciplines share common purposes and that their objectives and

strategies for achieving these objectives are similar. They differ primarily

by their tactics and are being pressed to adapt to changing environment

by their organizations desire to coordinate communications, by the

convergence of media, and by the blurring of communications genres.

Organizations are seeking integration as well as enhanced effectiveness

through synergy, enhanced efficiencies, and reduced redundancies.”

(Hallahan et al. pp. 1, 5)

More specifically, when reviewing the hypotheses via a paired t-test

comparison, there is a variety of conclusions to be made based on earlier

findings:

1. Intellectual property specialty communications was more appropriately

characterized as strategic communications than integrated communications.

2. Political communications specialty communications was more

appropriately characterized as strategic communications than integrated

communications. 3. The ability to conduct quantitative research was more

appropriately characterized as a strategic communications skill or trait than

integrated communications.

4. Acceptance of criticism was a trait more necessary for strategic

communications than integrated communications.

5. Persistence was more appropriately characterized as a strategic

communications skill or trait than an integrated communications skill or trait.

6. Strategic planning was more appropriately characterized as strategic

communications than integrated communications.

107

7. Quantitative research capabilities were more appropriately characterized

as strategic communications than public relations communications.

8. Advertising principles were more appropriately characterized as strategic

communications than public relations communications.

9. Business management was more appropriately characterized as applied

communications for strategic communications than Advertising.

10. Strategic planning was more appropriately characterized as strategic

communications than Advertising.

11. Stakeholder communications was more appropriately characterized as

strategic communications than Advertising.

12. Shareholder communications was more appropriately characterized as

strategic communications than Advertising.

13. Crisis communications was more appropriately characterized as strategic

communications than Advertising.

14. Public speaking was more appropriately characterized as strategic

communications than Advertising.

15. Corporate social responsibility was more appropriately characterized as

strategic communications than Advertising.

16. Not-for-profit communications was more appropriately characterized as

strategic communications than Advertising.

17. Public relations principles were more appropriately characterized as

strategic communications than Advertising.

108

Part 5.2 Implications of Unsupported Hypotheses (12)

Like the previous discussions in Part 5.2, in the following instances, the

unsupported hypotheses also tell us something. Most specifically, the following

unsupported hypotheses help us conclude via earlier reported findings that there

is insufficient variance to determine how these variables differ from one discipline

to the other.

1. Business management is an equally applied communications skill set for

both strategic communications and integrated communications.

2. Qualitative research is a skill or trait used by both strategic

communications and integrated communications.

3. Business management is an applied communications skill equally

practiced in public relations and strategic communications.

4. Branding communications is an equally applied communications skill for

both strategic communications and public relations.

5. Political specialty communications more appropriately belonged in public

relations than in strategic communications.

6. Intellectual property specialty communications is not seen as a significant

specialty communication for public relations or strategic communications.

7. Regulatory compliance specialty communications demonstrated no

significant difference between public relations and strategic communications.

8. Search engine optimization specialty communications belongs equally in

both strategic communications and public relations communications.

109

9. Qualitative research is an equal communications skill or trait for both

strategic communications and public relations communications.

10. Technical communications specialty communications is necessary for both

strategic communications and advertising practice.

11. Intellectual property specialty communications is a communications skill

needed for both strategic communications and advertising.

12. Regulatory compliance specialty communications is an applied

communications skill equally necessary for both strategic communications and

advertising.

Part 6 Total Matrices of Means

While selected means tested against hypotheses offered some insights, a

comparison of all means is further instructive in helping to define what strategic

communications is (and is not). Using the data set of faculty respondents in the

sample, certain other observations were made and provided by variable.

Strategic communications has a diverse variety of elements contributing to

its construction. Most of those variables also represent key components of the

three other disciplines: integrated communications, public relations, and

advertising. Looking at the mean values of importance, insights uncovered post

hoc include:

1. When summarizing the combined MVOI values overall, the discipline with the

most similarity to strategic communications is public relations. (SC 118.76, PR

121.97).

110

2. When summarizing the MVOI values overall, the discipline with the least

similarity to strategic communications is integrated communications. (SC

118.76, IC 114.29).

3. In terms of mean value of importance for applied communications, the

discipline with the most similarity to strategic communications is public

relations. (SC 38.98, PR 40.24).

4. In terms of mean value of importance for applied communications, the

discipline with the least similarity to strategic communications is integrated

communications. (SC 38.98, IC 35.92).

5. In terms of mean value of importance for specialty communications, the

discipline with the most similarity to strategic communications is public

relations. (SC 50.52, PR 52.37).

6. In terms of mean value of importance for specialty communications, the

discipline with the least similarity to strategic communications is integrated

communications. (SC 50.52, IC 49.48).

7. In terms of mean value of importance for communications skills and traits, the

disciplines with the most similarities to strategic communications are public

relations and advertising. (SC 29.26, PR 29.36, Ad 29.35)

8. In terms of mean value of importance for communications skills and traits, the

discipline with the least similarity to strategic communications is integrated

communications. (SC 29.26, IC 28.89).

For a more illustrative view, consult tables 5.1.1, 5.1.2 and 5.1.3. The

strongest MVOI of each variable is listed with the discipline. As a comparison of

111

means, please consult the figures below each table, which plots the value of

each mean per variable by discipline. As one can see, there are some values

that are very close together or even equal in value and there are some means

that are more disparate.

Matrix of Means, Applied Communications

Following is a table of the largest MVOI and the associated discipline for

each in the applied communications category.

Table 5.2 Matrix of Means: Applied Communications Table of Dependent

Variables

MVOI Values, Applied Communications Dependent Variables

Variable Title

Largest Value/Discipline

Strategic Planning

3.88/Strategic Communications

Crisis Communication

3.90/Public Relations

Media Relations

3.86/Public Relations

Campaign Planning

3.85/Public Relations

Stakeholder Communication

3.85/Public Relations

Shareholder Communications

3.70/Public Relations

Event Management 3.67/Public Relations

Business Management

3.49/Public Relations

112

Branding

3.89/Advertising

Marketing Planning

3.80/Advertising

Media Buying

3.75/Advertising

Figure 5.1 Applied Communications Chart of Means

Matrix of Means, Specialty Communications

Like the previous table and figure of means for applied communications, the

following is a table of the largest MVOIs and their associated discipline and a bar

graph for the specialty communications category.

113

0 1 2 3 4

Business

Strategic Planning

Marketing Plan

Branding

Media Relations

Stakeholder Comms.

Shareholder Comms.

Campaign Planning

Event Management

Crisis

Media Buying

Advertising

Public Relations

Integrated

Communications

Strategic

Communications

Table 5.3 Matrix of Means: Specialty Communications Table of Dependent

Variables

MVOI Values, Specialty Communications Dependent Variables

Variable Title Largest Value/Discipline

Intellectual Property

2.59/Strategic Communications

Digital Analytics

3.56/Integrated Communications

Search Engine Optimization

3.47/Integrated Communications

Written Communications

3.89/Public Relations

New Media

3.87/Public Relations

Social Media

3.80/Public Relations

Corporate Social Responsibility

3.76/Public Relations

Public Speaking

3.72/Public Speaking

Interpersonal Communications

3.66/Public Relations

Not-for-profit Communications

3.57/Public Relations

Political Communication 3.35 Public Relations

Regulatory Compliance

3.25 Public Relations

Video Production 3.60/Advertising

114

Website Design

3.51/Advertising

Technical Communication 3.18/Public Relations

Figure 5.2 Specialty Communications Chart of Means

Matrix of Means, Communication Skills and Traits

Like the previous tables and figures of means for applied communications and

specialty communications variables, the following is a table of the largest MVOI

and its associated discipline and a bar graph of communications skills and traits

variables.

115

0 1 2 3 4

Technical Comms.

Intellectual Property

Political Comms.

Regulatory

Interpersonal

CSR

New Media

Video Prod.

Website

Social Media

Public Speaking

Written Comms.

Digital Analytics

Not-for-Profit

SEO

Advertising

Publc Relations

Integrated

Communications

Strategic

Communications.

Table 5.4 Matrix of Means, Skills and Traits Table of Dependent Variables

MVOI Values, Communication Skills and Traits Dependent Variables

Variable Title Largest Value/Discipline

Quantitative Research

3.65/Strategic Communications

Public Relations Principles

3.90/Public Relations

Positively Receive Criticism

3.79/Public Relations

Collaborative Leadership

3.76/Public Relations

Persistence

3.71/Public Relations

Proactive Determination

3.69/Public Relations

Advertising Principles

3.89/Advertising

Qualitative Research 3.62/Advertising

116

Figure 5.3 Communications Skills and Traits Chart of Means

Comparison of Significance Against Strategic Communications

The table below compares significance in mean value of differences

across all variables. In this illustration it is clear that there are some significant

differences between strategic communications and the other three disciplines.

However there are also many values that are not significant based on t-test

comparisons. Those disciplines with no significant difference between their

mean value and the strategic communications variable show clearly there is

overlap between strategic communications and the other disciplines.

Table 5.5 Comparison of Significance Against Strategic Communications

117

0 1 2 3 4

Qualitative Analysis

Quantiatitve Analysis

Receive Criticism

Collaborative Leadership

Persistence

Proactive Determination

Advertising Principles

Public Relations

Advertising

Public Relations

Integrated

Communications.

Strategic

Communications.

Str ategic Communications /Variable

Title

Integrated

Comms.

Public

Relations

Advertisi

Applied Communications

Business Management

X X

X X X

118

X X

Corporate Social Responsibility

X X

New Media

Video Production

Website Production

Social Media Production

Public speaking X X X

Written Communications X X X

Digital Analytics X

Not-for-Profit Communications X X X

X X

119

Search Engine Optimization

(Single tail t-test, p<.05)

X = significant difference in mean value, shaded blocks = no significant difference

between strategic communications and the other associated disciplines by

variable.

Figures 5.4, 5.5 Charts of Mean Values of Importance

Following are two plots of the means in 3-D, which shows the overlap

between the means of each variable. The area chart, Figure 5.4, shows there is

little difference between the collective means among each communication

discipline. Figure 5.5 is a bar graph, which shows all of the variable mean values.

From both of these tables, it seems obvious that there are some differences in

the variables but not all of them can be used to distinguish strategic

communications from the other disciplines.

120

Communication Skills and Traits

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

X X

Positively Receive Criticism

X X

Collaborative Leadership

X X

Persistence X

Proactive Determination

Advertising Principles

X X X

Public Relations Principles

X X X

121

122

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Mean Values

Research Variables

Strategic Communications Integrated Communications

Public Relations Advertising

Figure 5.4 Charts of MVOI by Communication Discipline

Part 7 Implications of Single-Tailed Paired t-tests.

Comparing Mean Values of Importance (MVOI) for integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising against strategic

communications in single-tailed t-tests demonstrates some clear trends.

123

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Mean Values

Variables

Figure 5.5 Comparison of MVOI Variables

by Communication Discipline

Strategic Communications

Integrated Communications

Public Relations

Advertising

Significant differences in MVOI values between strategic communications

and the other three disciplines are replete. However there are also some areas

of differences with no significance, thereby demonstrating similarity across

discipline. For example, campaign planning is a universal requirement for the

successful practice of all communications disciplines, as is social media

production and, with the exception of advertising, the need to understand digital

analytics. The need to practice good qualitative research can also be implied by

the lack of significant difference across all disciplines. Similarly, persistence and

proactive determination are also described as universal MVOIs with the

exception of the integrated communications discipline.

So where does this leave us? Strategic communications is an emerging,

comprehensive discipline that requires cultivation of best practices from all

disciplines. This metric is useful for identifying where those best practices reside.

It stands to reason that if an applied communications practice or skill is valued

most highly in a specific discipline, then that discipline is where the best practice

resides. For example, looking at our MVOI valuations, if the highest MVOI value

for qualitative research resides in advertising (value = 3.62), then strategic

communications scholars and practitioners should look to the advertising

discipline as the source of best practices and incorporate those lessons into their

programs.

Part 8 Limitations of Research

124

The Instrument

As with all research, this one has its limitations. One of the most

important was caused by the variety of variables used. A total of 136 variables in

a forced response format using a forced, 4-point Likert scale were included in the

initial survey. It was felt this was the absolute maximum number of variables and

response points that could be included in the survey without suffering respondent

fatigue. This limitation left out many other variables that could have been asked

but were not. Part 10 of this chapter discusses additional MVOIs in detail.

In addition, in this research, there may have been some unintentional bias

against integrated communications because it was located next to strategic

communications in the pages of the survey. Based on the questions, some

respondents may have felt a need to distinguish strategic communications from

integrated communications.

Respondent fatigue was also a concern in terms of time taken to complete

the questionnaire. As mentioned, in post hoc analysis of results, some

participants who started the survey abandoned it and some others raced through

the survey. Data from those completing the survey in four minutes or less were

deleted from the pool of respondents. If future study is contemplated, it is

recommended that some of the MVOIs be removed to allow for less responder

fatigue, less time required to complete the questionnaire, and hopefully a higher

completion rate. It may also be a good idea to randomize which discipline

appears opposite of strategic communications in each survey to reduce bias

against any one discipline.

125

Part 9 The Sample: Professional Practitioner Perceptions Wanted

This database was thoroughly vetted and provides a clear representation

of faculty across the United States who are currently involved in teaching one or

more of the four disciplines of strategic communications, integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising, (n = 580 with 212 cases

reporting). It is, however, missing strong representation from professional

practitioners currently active in the practice of strategic communications and the

other disciplines. As the initial objective of this research was to develop a

definition of strategic communications that could be used to inform academia in

developing strategic communications curricula (both undergraduate and

graduate), it made sense to focus primarily on faculty. Moreover, the mean level

of years of teaching in this sample was 15, though specific questions of

nonteaching years of professional practice were not asked.

However, accepting the assumption that most undergraduate programs in

communications exist in whole or in part to equip students to enter the work force,

further research in this area would benefit from an added data set of professional

practitioners. This could be easily achieved in a follow-on study using a slightly

modified instrument and a database of professionals who currently work in the

industry as representative practitioners in all of the four disciplines.

How Old is Too Old?

In a related observation of sample, it is important to recognize that

age/experience was a factor in the sample selection. As stated previously, when

email addresses were being generated and verified for this research, and there

126

were multiple points of contact for a specific institution, preference was shown to

those with titles like dean, director, or adviser. Those individuals were thought to

be most familiar with strategic communications as part of a larger discussion and

would have formed some opinions as to the differences between the four

disciplines studied in this research. A route for future research could be to

intentionally seek out those faculty with less institutional experience or those in

newer programs to determine if there is a wide difference between the various

discipline definitions and associated MVOIs.

Part 10 Addition/Purification of Variables

As part of the research instrument, respondents were given an opportunity

to discuss what other aspects of the four disciplines should be included in further

efforts to define strategic communications. A complete list of the respondent

comments are included in Appendix E. A review of the input provided some

interesting variables that should be included in the next iteration of this research

as shown in the following table. Variables that should definitely be investigated

were selected based on the frequency of their appearance in the free response

answers.

Table 5.6 Additional MVOIs to be Included in Future Research

Suggested MVOI/Frequency of Appearance

Analytical/Critical Thinking Skills/11

Copyediting/Copywriting/5

Creativity/14

Design Literacy/8

127

Entrepreneurship/6

Ethics/7*

Graphic Arts/Visual Design/9

Marketing/5

Proactivity/9

Strategic Development/7

Teambuilding/Teamliness/6

*In the initial survey attempts there was an MVOI: “Provides competent ethical

counsel. However, in subsequent survey attempts, the word ethical was

removed. Since this invalidated the overall results of that particular MVOI, that

MVOI was removed from final calculations.

While copyediting/copywriting was felt to be a variable that would be

universal to all four disciplines and already touched upon in a broader question in

the existing research, some of the other trends would make for interesting

additions. However, several potential variables mentioned (like creativity, critical

thinking or proactivity) are highly specialized, so refining them to a measureable

mean value of importance will require refinement of the definition prior to

inclusion in future research.

Finally, two items of interest as it pertains to the future MVOIs for this

study: The discipline of business communications is touched upon in the original

set of MVOIs but it may be important to include established business

communication professionals in future efforts to better define business

communications and expand the MVOI range of variables.

It may also warrant some consideration that some additional advertising

measures be added to the MVOI count, in addition to (or perhaps in lieu of),

128

public relations variables. While not specifically identified by respondents as

deficient in advertising-based variables, the MVOI topic distribution could be seen

as more heavily weighted to public relations because of the researchers deeper

background of experience in PR and the highly specialized nature of advertising.

One suggestion to address the deficiencies in business communication

and advertising MVOIs in the survey efforts would be to accomplish a follow-on

study using a Delphi panel to assist in fine-tuning these variables for

incorporation in the measure and ultimately the practice. Composition of the

Delphi panels should include a combination of practitioners and educators to

offer a greater diversity of opinion and provide a more pragmatic solution to

defining strategic communication measurement.

Part 11 In Search of More Variance

Related to the question of which MVOI variables should be included in any

follow-on research, it seems appropriate to also add some more variance in the

scale. While a 4-point forced “Likert-type” scale was used initially for this

research, it might be interesting to pilot a larger 5- or 7-point scale using the

identified collection of variables. Within limits, the more response opportunities

espondents have, the greater the variance between principles is expected.

Part 12 Student-run Agency Integrative Learning Inputs

An important post hoc component to this analysis is the perspectives

obtained in part two of the survey targeting student-agency advisers.

Approximately 127 of the 212 respondents in this survey indicated some past or

present relationship with advising student-run agencies. While these insights

129

were mined to measure needs to teach strategic communications, further study

of that data will hopefully yield more input to better inform how to tailor a

studentrun agency curriculum to incorporate strategic communications into an

undergraduate program.

This set of questions addressed efforts student-run agency advisers

reported in the need to incorporate strategic communications into their curriculum

to make their students more attractive to future employers.

Table 5.7 Perceived Pressures and Efforts to Become More Strategic

Communications Oriented.

Question

Mean Value

(N= 127)

My student-run agency is actively trying to make my students

more attractive to employers by building strategic

communications skills

86.38

Relative to client pressures, my student-run agency has been

encouraged to become more strategic

65.05

Relative to institutional pressures, my agency has been

encouraged to become more strategic

61.70

Values 0-100 (Strongly disagree 0-19, Disagree 20-39, Neither Disagree nor

Agree 40-59, Agree 60-79 and Strongly Agree 80-100)

Part 13 Future Research

In addition to fine-tuning the variance with a broader Likert scale, exploring

practitioner opinions, enlisting the help of Delphi panels, and mining the

studentrun agency data collected in this survey, there are several areas of future

research. One option would be to expand this study internationally as there are

some additional schools of thought in other countries as to what the term

130

strategic communications means to their opinion leaders and educators (Tindall

& Holtzhausen, 2011). A literature review of parallel thinking in the areas of

convergence and digital migration indicate that the silos of public relations,

advertising, marketing, and even integrated communications are being subsumed

by the need for strategic communications capabilities and digital

entrepreneurship in terms of storytelling. Collaborating with some of those

scholars might also help inform the academy of not only what should be taught in

terms of content but what should be taught in terms of organic capabilities for the

next generation of communicators. Public relations, for example, has morphed

from a media relations-heavy practice to a more strategic mission. Similarly,

advertising has changed gears significantly from primarily a sales-driven function

to a brand management tool that extends into the traditional realms of earned

media.

Finally, the entire communications industry has been affected by the

incorporation of social media as not only a tactical tool for energizing traditional

word-of-mouth referrals, but also has become the solution for real time analytic

data. And, when that data, along with other tracking applications, is combined

into what is known as “big data,” the entire paradigm of marketing and

communications research shifts from inferential statistics to census data

collection. In order to capitalize on these transitions, strategic communications

needs to evolve into a comprehensive approach toward communications from the

big picture strategic perspective all the way down to the granular tactical

orientation.

131

As stated at the beginning of this research, more study of how to pilot

strategic communications curricula within the realm of student-run agencies is

strongly recommended. The number of student-run agencies is on the rise, the

focus on the pragmatic aspects of an undergraduate education is becoming

increasingly scrutinized, and the need for cross-platform competence will not go

away. Therefore if mass communications instruction at the undergraduate level

is to remain relevant, it is incumbent upon educators to learn how to incorporate

the significant elements of strategic communications education into the highly

successful integrative learning approach to better equip and add value to the next

generation of communicators.

Last Words

As mentioned in the first chapter, according to Hallahan et al. (2007)

strategic communications is defined as six relevant disciplines in the

development, implementation, and assessment of communications by

organizations. Those six disciplines are management, marketing, public relations,

technical communication, political communication, and information/social

marketing campaigns. While this is a workable definition of strategic

communications, this research seems to bear out a slightly different result. In the

insights put forward here, strategic communications is an amalgamation of three

communications disciplines — integrated communications, public relations, and

advertising — and it is expressed through various types of communications

(applied communications specialty communications, and communication skills

132

and traits. Looking more pragmatically, as Hallahan et al. (2007) and this

research bears out,

“A growing number of organizations have recognized that various

communications disciplines share common purposes and that their

objectives and strategies for achieving these objectives are similar. They

differ primarily by their tactics and are being pressed to adapt to changing

environment by their organizations desire to coordinate communications,

by the convergence of media, and by the blurring of communications

genres,” (Hallahan et al., pp. 1, 5).

However, unlike Hallahan, this study seems to find a more overarching

discipline of strategic communications that encompasses some public relations,

integrated communications, and advertising, but also offers a compilation of all of

the above traits into a larger umbrella discipline that stretches into other areas of

applied communications including business management, strategic planning,

marketing planning, branding, stakeholder and shareholder communication, and

campaign planning.

The practice of strategic communications also includes specialty

communication functions like event management, technical communications,

regulatory compliance, interpersonal communication, new media, video

production, website design, social media, public speaking, digital analytics, not

for profit communications, and search engine optimization. Additionally, to

complete the strategic communications definition, there should be skills and traits

included in the measurement like qualitative research, quantitative research,

positively receive criticism and practice collaborative leadership. The ideal

strategic communicator should also be able to demonstrate persistence and

proactive determination as well as understand advertising principles and public

133

relations principles. Moreover, if the free response question items test positively

for reliability, other aspects of the strategic communications definition may

eventually include graphic design, knowledge of law/ethics, the ability to

persuade, the ability to practice critical thinking, the ability to manage

expectations, the ability to positively manifest teamliness/personnel

management, practice storytelling, support diversity, and understand and

practice big data analysis and entrepreneurship.

Based on this study of faculty, strategic communications represents a

growth area for instruction and provides direction and trends that

communications professionals are embracing as a way to add value, quantify

results, and expand the overall success of mass communications on all levels of

professional organizations, corporations, and other entities. The challenge before

the academy is to prepare students to meet this paradigm shift, thereby

producing equipped and capable students with sufficient knowledge and

selfefficacy to succeed in this new environment.

As with any other innovation, the road to change can be bumpy, filled with

detours, and sometimes mired in confusion. There is also the occasional

disruptive technology outbreak or startling finding to further complicate adoption

and evolution. Therefore it is incumbent upon the academy to continue to study

the shift of the education and practice to a strategic communications orientation

both as a way to train others and as a way to improve the overall effectiveness of

communications.

134

Students also viewed