Cultural Perspectives On Communication In
Community Leadership
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Effective communication in the workplace is an issue, particularly for
immigrant workers with non-English speaking backgrounds (Akomolafe,
2013; Carr & DekemelIchikawa, 2012; Kulkarni, 2015). Communication
affects the way that people behave, how they think, and even how they feel
(Castells, 2013). It is a part of everyday life and necessary for continued
interaction among individuals (Castells, 2013). Communication has several
different functions within the workplace setting. It acts as a method of
motivation, allows for the retention of control, ensures information
dissemination, and permits the identification of social concerns of
individuals (Lewis, Goodman, & Fandt, 2006). Also, the practice of
communication has certain cultural boundaries, due to the variances in how
people with diverse perspectives and behaviors give and receive messages.
Appropriate care and attention should be given to ensuring that effective
communication is present across cultures (Lewis et al., 2006).
With more than 26 million foreign-born persons reported in the U.S.
labor force, American businesses face the challenges of language and
cultural barriers, which can inhibit effective communication and
subsequently hinder productivity and increase safety risks (Kulkarni, 2015;
United States Department of Labor, 2016). Information regarding how
business leaders can improve, manage, and better communicate with non-
English speaking workers is in the best interest of employers and business
leaders who want to help bridge the cultural and language divide as more
foreign-born workers enter
America’s workforce.
Certain methods of communication are universal, such as symbols,
gestures, and even specific body language that allow people to communicate
with one another regardless of the country of origin or the culture by which
one currently identifies (Castells, 2013). When individuals are speaking a
second or third language, nuances can be lost, creating a situation in which
one may misinterpret a message or how to accomplish a task (Castells,
2013). Consequently, when issues in communication arise, regardless of
what those issues may be, messages get lost in translation. A certain amount
of interference results in the failure to communicate (International
Association of Communication Activists; IACACT, 2016). In such
scenarios, the ill effects caused by the communication failure can be
detrimental to the successful completion of the overall goal of that
communication (Davis, 2016; Iglesias, Jimenez, Revuelta, & Moreno, 2014;
Stern, 2015; Tenzer, Pudelko, & Harzing, 2014).
Although research frequently covers communication barriers, most
previous research concentrated on areas associated with healthcare and
education. Researchers have sought to determine the way professionals can
more effectively communicate with those they are tasked to serve or how
such individuals can communicate more efficiently among one another to
create an environment that is more conducive to providing services
(Davis, 2016; Iglesias et al., 2014; Stern, 2015).
The primary focus of this qualitative narrative inquiry study is to
explore and describe the experiences of non-English speaking immigrant
workers. Also, I sought to share their experiences in overcoming language
and cultural communication challenges in the workplace. Such
communication problems are areas that researchers have overlooked within
the context of this field of study. Through the exploration of this topic, it
would be possible to understand the communication barriers present among
nonEnglish speaking immigrant workers and reveal the way such barriers
could be lessened, resulting in increasing overall productivity and efficacy
for all.
Background of the Study
Globalization could decrease distance barriers by acculturating
employees to a multicultural, multilingual workforce, which could, in turn,
lead to best management practices and success (Akhavan, 2012; Sanzone,
2015). Global expansion demonstrates, with the proper knowledge and skill
set, that such barriers can be overcome, allowing people and organizations
alike to flourish. If the appropriate knowledge and expertise necessary to
communicate within and between the two groups are not present, problems
can arise (Parthab Taylor, Nicolle, & Maguire, 2013; Tian & Borges, 2011).
Poor communication can contribute to lost time at work, resource loss,
rising overhead costs, and decreasing competitive advantage. In general, it
can create a host of issues for an organization that would be resolved if no
barrier was present because of either cultural or language differences
(Parthab Taylor et al., 2013; Tian & Borges, 2011). In working to study the
effects of communication and the associated barriers present within a
targeted group of individuals, it can become possible to negate issues that
may arise, allowing for the benefit of all involved.
Additional research has been undertaken regarding the difficulties that
barriers due to poor language communication cause within the business
world. Thus, many scholarly researchers have focused on education and the
healthcare professions within the context of their explorations (Akhavan,
2012; Carr & Dekemel-Ichikawa, 2012; Free, Križ, & Konecnik, 2014;
Parthab Taylor et al., 2013). These past studies offer general information on
how to address communication barriers that may occur within the workplace
due to cultural differences (Free et al., 2014; Jameson & Rymer, 1994;
Parthab Taylor et al., 2013; Sun, 2011; Tian & Borges, 2011). While these
past studies can be helpful on a broad scale, they do little to target areas in
which these communication barriers create issues that are cause for concern.
Akhavan (2012), Carr and Dekemel-Ichikawa (2012), Free et al.
(2014), and Parthab Taylor et al. (2013) have explored communication
barriers between teachers and parents or between medical staff and patients.
Nonetheless, they have not considered such barriers within the workplace
setting. They have also did not account for the context of both parties being
on the same side concerning being tasked with the provision of goods or
services. Instead, the researchers have concentrated on the issues that result
from those on two different sides of the transaction. One side gives the
goods or services, the other receives them (Free et al., 2014; Jameson &
Rymer, 1994; Parthab Taylor et al., 2013; Sun, 2011; Tian & Borges, 2011).
These studies leave several distinct gaps in the current body of research. For
example, one scenario present within the extant body of literature regarding
communication obstacles is the language barriers to communication within
the workplace, and the means of addressing those barriers as they relate only
to members of management communicating with employees (Lewis et al.,
2006; Lockwood, 2015; Mujtaba, Cavico, & Muffler, 2012). Little
information is present within the literature regarding other communication
barriers that may arise within the workplace among nonEnglish speaking
employees such as among different departments, different offices, or
different individuals within the same department (Chitakornkijsil, 2010).
Researchers have provided information regarding barriers that may
arise in communication because of cultural and language differences and the
difficulties that educators face in communicating with students (e.g., Free et
al., 2014). However, no information is present on the different barriers that
may occur in communications between principal and other teachers, among
teachers, or between teachers and parents (Free et al., 2014). Akhavan
(2012) posited that barriers to communication are numerous in healthcare as
an overall field, particularly in the nursing profession, and even from the
position of midwives. None of the researchers have looked at
communication barriers from the other side of the divide, from the patients'
perspective, and few touch on the communication barriers that may arise
among different healthcare staff members (Akhavan, 2012; Parthab Taylor et
al., 2013). Some of the remaining researchers in this area offer methods that
may be used to address general cultural communication issues. They advise
others to apply those suggested solutions in the manner best suited to their
communication barriers, leaving multiple areas that warrant further
investigation
(Dawood & O'Sullivan, 2012; Sun, 2011; Tian & Borges, 2011).
Problem Statement
Effective communication in the workplace is an issue, particularly for
immigrant workers with non-English speaking backgrounds (Akomolafe,
2013; Carr & DekemelIchikawa, 2012; Kulkarni, 2015). With more than 26
million foreign-born persons reported in the U.S. labor force, American
businesses face the challenges of language and cultural barriers, which can
inhibit effective communication and subsequently hinder productivity and
increase safety risks (Kulkarni, 2015; United States Department of Labor,
2016). Information regarding how business leaders can improve, manage,
and better communicate with non-English speaking workers is in the best
interest of employers and business leaders who want to help bridge the
cultural and language divide as more foreign-born workers enter America’s
workforce.
The general management problem is that language and cultural
barriers hinder the ability of a business to recruit and successfully employ
immigrant workers. The specific management problem is that some business
leaders and managers lack understanding of the language barriers and
cultural issues of immigrant workers from various backgrounds. An
understanding of such issues would help employers increase recruitment,
hiring, retention, and advancement of immigrant workers. Ultimately, better
communication may help businesses remain competitive by maintaining a
productive, safe, and healthy workplace environment. Although many
researchers have explored language and cultural barriers for English as a
second language (ESL) employees in business, healthcare and education,
there is a gap in the literature on the experience of immigrant employees in
the workplace.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study is to explore
and describe the stories, experiences, and challenges of non-English
speaking immigrant and ESL workers, in overcoming language and cultural
communication in the workplace. In this study, I aim to understand and
describe how communications and workplace culture influence the
perspectives of each participant's worldview and understanding.
Communication is the means of human interaction through which
cultural characteristics are created and shared. Communication itself creates
culture (Wang, Lin, & Chu, 2011). As such, the relationship between
communication and culture is a complex concept. This qualitative study may
contribute to the literature by revealing various approaches for decreasing
the challenges associated with communication barriers in the workplace that
immigrants face.
The aim of this study is to accomplish the task of understanding how
non-English speaking immigrants experience language and cultural
challenges by exploring various written and oral communication barriers that
occur among employers and immigrant workers. To accomplish the task of
understanding how non-English speaking immigrants experience language
and cultural challenges, I asked the participants to recount details of the
various communication barriers they felt that they have faced within the
context of their work environment. I explored various written and oral
communication barriers that occur among immigrants by recording the
experiences of culturally diverse non-English speaking and ESL employees
of American companies. By exploring these issues, it might be possible to
understand the communication barriers present among non-English speaking
immigrant workers and reveal strategies to remove the barriers and raise
overall productivity and efficacy.
Research Question
The primary research question to be addressed within the context of
the study is the following:
How do immigrant workers who are non-English speakers or ESL
speakers describe their communication experiences in the workplace?
Theoretical Foundation
Communication theories serve as the theoretical foundation on which
this study lays its groundwork. Communication theories take their frame
from a host of different researchers, all working to explore the methods of
communication using a targeted approach to the various aspects of
communication present within the context of daily life (Heath & Bryant,
2012). These theories serve as a way of allowing the examination of the
communication process and allow researchers to explore the similarities and
differences present within the communication that occurs among individuals
and groups, as well as within the context of organizational and mass media
approaches (Heath & Bryant, 2012; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). The theory
research process allows for the application of the knowledge of
communication within the given construct of a setting or scenario (Stacks &
Salwen, 2014).
To apply communication theory within the context of the research
setting, the researcher must first identify "an area of communication interest"
(Stacks & Salwen, 2014, p. 5). In this case, the exploration of non-English
speakers or ESL speakers and the difficulties they face within the workplace
setting as related to communication. Following this application, the
identification of interpersonal interactions within this setting, combined with
deductions and the application of knowledge, can allow for the use of
reasoning and understanding to the communication process within the given
setting (Stacks & Salwen, 2014). In the application of this process, it
becomes possible to identify the shifts in communication, the language in
use and its meaning, the uncertainty that creates barriers, and the means of
addressing those barriers through the dynamics of communication (Stacks &
Salwen, 2014). By viewing the collected experiences of participants in this
regard, it was possible to analyze each of the areas of communication failure
identified by the participants and in gathering and analyzing this information
to be able to identify practical solutions within this specific setting.
Conceptual Framework
I based the conceptual framework for this study on two
communication theories:
the cultural approach to organizations (Geertz & Pacanowsky, 1988) and the
transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 1970). Using specific
communications theories and applying them as the conceptual framework of
the study allowed me to utilize the lens of communication to explore each of
the different barriers to communication that occur because of cultural
differences within this target population. Thus, using the cultural approach to
organizations and the transactional model of communication enabled the
qualitative defining of each of these barriers, their characteristics, and
whether those barriers are present across all the different cultures being
investigated, or if some barriers are specific to certain cultures alone.
Cultural Approach to Organizations
Geertz and Pacanowsky (1988) developed the cultural approach to
organizations theory. Geertz was an anthropologist whose work was
originally with cultures in underdeveloped nations. Pacanowsky's
background was in speech communication and the basis of his work
stemmed from an interest in Japanese organizations. While the environment
of an organization is constrained by the freedom of action belonging to the
company (in other words, it controls corporate character and image), the
culture is not what an organization has but what it does (Geertz &
Pacanowsky, 1988). The theory is ethnographic and underlies the common
meaning of what people do and say. The description traces threads of a
tangled puzzle and starting with a state of confusion ends with a lessened
state of confusion (Geertz & Pacanowsky, 1988). The researchers discussed
metaphor, stating that metaphors are a starting point for understanding the
shared meaning that is part of the corporate culture. From shared meaning
comes stories, which shed light on the culture of an organization, yet Geertz
and Pacanowsky (1988) warned that interpreting stories might be too
simplistic. The cultural approach to organizations theory has been applied to
various studies involving corporate culture in a globally expanding business
world (e.g., Collier, 2016; Gambetti, 2013; Liu, 2010).
Transactional Model of Communication
The transactional model of communication is a symbolic rather than
physical model and functional model rather than the structural model
(Barnlund, 1970). Barnlund's (1970) diagrammatic model demonstrates the
complexity of human communication. Some of the principles of Barnlund's
model are that communication is dynamic, continuous, circular,
unrepeatable, irreversible, and complex. It is not a matter of a sender
delivering a message to a receiver and the receiver, in turn, delivering a
message back to the sender but instead a complex exchange involving
decoding, encoding, public cues, private cues, and nonverbal behavioral cues
(Barnlund, 1970). Among the different areas that were applied in this study,
within the context of the transactional model of communication are
communication noise, the communication cycle, and feedback, all of which
address the process of communication (Adler & Proctor, 2010; IACACT,
2016).
Connection of the Theories to the Present Study
Part of the feedback described by the transactional model would
involve different nonverbal communication and filters unconsciously
communicated by ESL immigrant employees to native English-speaking
employees as they simultaneously send and receive messages. These patterns
often present barriers to open communication in a multicultural company
and this is the focus of the present study. Additionally, the cultural approach
to organizations theory is an appropriate fit for this study; since it explores
and understand experiences told by non-English speaking immigrant and
ESL workers in overcoming language and cultural communication in the
workplace.
Pompper (2014) argued that those who have used communication
theories have not addressed questions of power and methodology regarding
differences in social identity and that the social position of the research
affects data analysis. In using the transactional theory of communication and
the cultural approach to organizations theory, I was able to gain increased
insight and understanding into what those barriers are and how researchers
might address them.
Nature of the Study
This research uses a qualitative method of inquiry. This research
approach was selected as the most effective design for this study because it
can provide the most beneficial results. It allowed me to answer the research
questions in their entirety. At the same time, it ensured that I could explore
the nuances of the communication process in a manner that would not be
possible using a quantitative study (Creswell, 2013, 2014). The design of
this qualitative study is that of a narrative inquiry, based on the experiences
of the participants as the primary data collected through semistructured
interviews (Creswell, 2013).
Narrative inquiry was first employed within the management science
field and later in the knowledge management field; it has also been related to
the information management field (Cleveland, 1989). Researchers in any
field who use narrative inquiry emphasize learning by focusing on the life
stories the study participants tell (Chase,
2013). Even if related to one individual, the narratives are considered
valuable (OMICS International, 2014), which makes narrative inquiry an
appropriate method for exploring the experiences of non-English speakers in
the workplace. Lenfesty, Reichling, and Schultz (2016) claimed that
narrative thinking gives the researcher a storytelling vocabulary from which
arise global meaning and sense making. The researcher can obtain data from
field notes, interviews, journals, and other sources (Lenfesty et al., 2016).
Further, a theoretical lens offers a structure toward advocating for particular
groups, and the findings can give a voice to those who are not always
acknowledged (Lenfesty et al., 2016). The participants in the study had
extensive experience as employees who are culturally diverse and speak
English as a Second Language.
I considered grounded theory design unsuitable for this study given
the fact that I used communication theory as the conceptual framework
within the context of this study; thus, no new theories need to be developed
(Marshall & Rossman, 2015). The ethnographical design was considered
unsuitable for this study as it would only offer scientific descriptions of
customs of individuals or cultures, but not provide an effective exploration
among multiple non-English speaking cultures (Denzin, 2012). I dismissed
case study because it would narrow the scope of the study to a particular
organization, environment, or individual, thereby decreasing the
effectiveness of the study and contributing to further gaps (Denzin, 2012).
Finally, I considered a phenomenological study, but I ultimately discarded it
in favor of narrative inquiry. Although such method addresses experiences,
generally through face-to-face interviews alone, interviews regarding
personal stories of communication challenges in the natural work
environment of the participant (Frost, 2011), would provide rich data in
fields where communication is essential to human interaction in the
workplace (Reissman & Speedy, 2006).
Definitions
The following definitions can assist the reader in understanding the
concepts employed within the completion of this study. Terms defined
herein are those that may be unfamiliar or have multiple meanings.
Presenting the single definition to be used within the study serves to increase
its overall validity and reliability and works to reduce potential
misconceptions that may otherwise arise within the readership.
Communication cycle: The communication cycle defines the three
primary parts of communication, wherein there is a sender, a channel, and a
receiver (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). It is modeled initially on the way a
telephone operates; this cycle became the primary means through which the
process of communication could be understood within the context of a
research-based setting (IACACT, 2016).
Communication noise: Communication noise refers to any interference
that may originate, causing difficulty in decoding the messages sent between
two or more parties in an attempt to communicate with one another
(IACACT, 2016).
Non-English-speaking workers: Within the context of this study in the
United States, this term is used to describe all individuals who do not speak
English as their primary language, typically those whose origins were from a
different country (Imberti,
2007).
Transactional model of communication: The transactional model of
communication is present when the sender and receiver take turns
exchanging messages, with one sending a message, the other receiving it,
then the second sending a message, and the first receiving it (Barnlund,
1970).
Assumptions
Within the context of this study, one can assume that individuals who
do not speak English, or who do not speak English as their primary language
in the workplace, have difficulties that arise as a result of communication
barriers. This assumption is based on the challenges associated with the
process of communication, from the subtleties related to nonverbal cues to
the varied meanings related to words and phrases and the different nuances
present from culture to culture (Argyle, 2013; Carbaugh, 2013). I further
assumed that the experiences of individuals who are non-English speakers or
ESL speakers served to shed light on these communication concerns by
allowing for a reduced gap within the literature. Moreover, it is assumed the
participants have sufficient experiences that the researcher could rely on
with the collection of the participants’ narratives. Their communication
exchanges provided the information necessary to explore this topic in depth
and would allow for the successful analysis of this area of concern.
I assumed that the individuals who were responding had recorded their
experiences truthfully for the purposes of the study and all of their narratives
were reported honestly, although I expected that a certain degree of bias was
present regarding their perceptions. The above circumstances would
necessitate a targeted exploration of the way communication failures occur
within this group of individuals. The exploration might contribute to
reducing future areas of concern and increasing the cohesion through which
individuals operate within the workplace setting (Kulkarni, 2015; United
States Department of Labor, 2016). Although these assumptions are
reasonable within the context of the study and considering the information
contained within the extant body of literature, it was still necessary to detail
such assumptions to increase the overall validity and reliability of the study.
Scope and Delimitations
The focus of this study was the exploration of the language and
cultural challenges that immigrant workers within the United States
experience during their workday and within the context of their work
environment. To focus on these problems, I concentrated the scope of the
study on an exploration of the experiences of immigrant workers and
identified employees who are non-English speaking or who are ESL
individuals. The experiences to be addressed were the written and oral
communication barriers that these workers believed they have faced within
the context of their work environment.
To complete such a task, I set certain delimitations for this study.
Delimitations act as a means of limiting the influences that constrict the
study capacity (Creswell, 2013). The delimitations present within this study
included the populations chosen to explore the study, non-English speaking
employees, and the choice to have the experiences reported by the
participants as opposed to using a Likert-style scale or another methodology
or design or instrument (Simon, 2011). Each of these delimitations helped to
ensure an exploration of the area defined for the study, while at the same
time ensuring that the study did not exceed its desired bounds, becoming so
large as to be insurmountable (Simon, 2011).
Although I might have obtained more information from the workers
and their employers regarding specific communication barriers that are felt
within the workplace setting, the specificity of the research question and the
time constraints of this study did not allow for such an exploration. As such,
I delimited the population of the study to employees, specifically tailoring
the research question to include the population of the study and designing
the study around the research question, as is appropriate. I also specified
how the responses of those participants would be collected to ensure that the
results obtained from the data collection kept the study within its scope, as
opposed to exceeding it (Simon, 2011).
Limitations
The limitations of the study work to describe the potential weaknesses
of the study itself (Creswell, 2014; Simon, 2011). One limitation is that the
participants needed to convey their written and oral communication barriers
that they have faced when English is not their primary language, which may
create a challenging situation. Under such circumstances, it may have been
difficult for these individuals to convey the information accurately, given
that the same communication barriers that were giving them cause for
concern may have been present within the context of the study itself.
Another limitation of the study was time. It would be more beneficial
to obtain data over a long-standing period to gauge accurately both the
presence of and the effects of the perceived communication barriers within
the workplace setting. However, due to completion deadlines, the amount of
time in which I had to collect these data was limited. This limitation could
not be mitigated or negated, so instead, it must be acknowledged, with the
recommendation that should this study bear fruit in terms of its conclusions,
further research can be conducted without the same time constraints.
Significance of the Study
Immigrant workers who are not proficient in speaking English not
only experience communication problems themselves but also with their
fellow employees and employers (Hinds, Neeley, & Cramton, 2014;
Kulkarni, 2015). The study may be significant in its creation of a foundation
to explore the implications for management regarding communications
issues in the workplace through a review of the issues as perceived by the
workers within a given organization or for a given employer. Cultural
language barriers are present daily in communication, and while some are
easily overcome, others can create larger issues, up to and including
preventing business transactions from going through (Kulkarni, 2015;
Mujtaba et al., 2012). As such, it is necessary to work to identify those
issues, in all their forms, and from all perspectives, to increase the overall
benefit to the organization, while increasing the ease and efficacy with
which workers can complete their given tasks. At the same time, in an
expanding global society, ways to identify and overcome communication
barriers from cultural diversity that affect social change may be determined.
Significance to Practice
This study has the potential to offer significance to practice in that
identifying the cultural and language barriers present within the workplace
for this specific group of individuals might make it possible to determine
appropriate strategies. Such strategies may be used to approach the
situation(s) identified and resolve them in a manner that provides a benefit to
all parties involved. In working to identify and resolve issues faced by
workers, companies can increase their overall efficacy and productivity,
which in turn generate increased benefits for the organization (Krol,
Brouwer, & Rutten, 2013; Landsberg, 2015). In identifying and determining
the practices that may ultimately resolve these language and cultural barriers,
a healthier workplace environment may be created. Then, employees become
happier and the workplace environment becomes improved. To improve the
efficacy and productivity of the worker, it must be ensured that the
environment becomes more effective in meeting the goals of the
organization (Jaskiewicz & Tulenko, 2012; Rongen, Robroek, van Lenthe, &
Burdorf, 2013). The better the organization or employer does, the better the
employees themselves do, creating a culture of increased fulfillment to all
parties involved.
Significance to Theory
The communications theories in the conceptual framework can aid in
the examination of the communication process and allow researchers to
explore the similarities and differences present within the communication
that occurs among individuals, groups, and within the context of
organizational and mass media approaches (Heath & Bryant, 2012; Stacks &
Salwen, 2014). In identifying the different cultural and language barriers
present within this particular body of workers, communications theories
including the transactional model of communication and the cultural
approach to organizations theory may be expanded to include this
information. At this time, however, such information is lacking due to the
gaps present within the current body of research. In detailing this
information, the theories that have continued to evolve as methods of
communication have developed will become more up to date, increasing
their relevance within the context of the modern world (Heath & Bryant,
2012; Stacks & Salwen, 2014).
The continued evolution of the theories, adapting to the current state
of the world, is necessary for them to continue to remain relevant. If the
means and methods of communication discussed therein are no longer
aligned with the actual communication practices such theories will no longer
be relevant, for they will describe something that no longer exists. Thus, by
ensuring that the gaps in the extant body of literature are reduced, and by
working to identify the current state of affairs regarding cultural and
language barriers in the workplace setting for this group of participants, it is
possible to ensure that the theories continue to remain relevant.
Significance to Social Change
If these language and cultural barriers can be identified for non-
English speaking and ESL employees and immigrant workers, it is possible
to increase the ease of individuals to do their jobs. If barriers to job duties
are removed, not only would the company, management, and the employees
benefit because of the same, but also the economy would benefit. With
increased efficacy and productivity within the workplace environment, the
organization itself can increase its output of the goods or services it offers
(Jiang & Liu, 2015). This expansion would provide the organization with a
competitive advantage, while at the same time providing it with ways to
improve other areas, such as increasing the efficacies of its supply chain
(Jiang & Liu, 2015; Mohan, Gopalakrishnan, & Mizzi, 2013).
The better an organization does, the better it is for the economy. It can
provide growth within a specified community, growth that can expand to
other areas as well, becoming regional or with an even wider presence, with
the right initiatives and appropriate direction and leadership (Christensen &
Raynor, 2013; Leigh & Blakely, 2013; Tribe, 2016). As one organization
takes off, so do others within the same area, as long as they are providing
quality services and goods at competitive prices (Christensen & Raynor,
2013; Leigh & Blakely, 2013; Tribe, 2016). If consumers flock to one area
to take advantage of the product or service being offered there, they are more
likely to complete the remainder of their shopping in that same area, when
possible (Christensen & Raynor, 2013; Leigh & Blakely, 2013; Tribe, 2016).
Thus, a boost can take place in all stores within the region while at the same
time leaving the competitive advantage with the original entity (Christensen
& Raynor, 2013; Leigh & Blakely, 2013; Tribe, 2016). Communication is
one of the most important aspects of productivity. When there are language
and communication barriers, productivity suffers. Lifting these barriers
would lead to social change and higher profits.
Summary and Transition
Research has shown that communication, and the presence or absence
thereof, affects the way that people behave, how they think, and even how
they feel (Castells, 2013). Consequently, when issues in communication
arise, the ill effects resulting from those matters or barriers can be
detrimental to the successful completion of the overall aim or goal of that
communication (Davis, 2016; Iglesias et al., 2014; Stern, 2015; Tenzer et al.,
2014). Still, to be able to negate such barriers and work to improve the
current situation within a given organization, it is necessary to identify the
barriers that are present. Researchers have conducted a significant amount of
research within the field of communications research. Still, while much
research has been conducted regarding the effects of communication barriers
and issues within the education and healthcare fields, the extant body of
literature fails to address the effects on non-English speaking workers or
ESL workers (Akhavan, 2012; Carr & Dekemel-Ichikawa, 2012; Free et al.,
2014;
Parthab Taylor et al., 2013).
Effective communication in the workplace is a concern for all parties
involved, employers and employees. There is an even greater difficulty
present for immigrant workers with non-English speaking backgrounds and
for foreign-born employees who do not have English as their primary
language (Akomolafe, 2013; Carr & DekemelIchikawa, 2012; Kulkarni,
2015). Every society and every culture have nuances of communication,
nuances which do not always translate from one culture to another, creating
barriers where none would be present among individuals of the same culture
(Castells, 2013).
This concern is greatly compounded since the U.S. labor force is
currently made up of more than 26 million foreign-born persons who are
documented and reported. (Kulkarni, 2015; United States Department of
Labor, 2016). This number is far greater that reported with no clear
indication as to how much larger it may be. American businesses face the
challenges of language and cultural barriers, which can inhibit effective
communication and subsequently hinder productivity and increase safety
risks (Kulkarni, 2015; United States Department of Labor, 2016).
To begin addressing such concerns, the study purpose was to explore
and describe the stories and experiences of non-English speaking immigrant
workers and ESL workers in overcoming language and cultural
communication challenges in the workplace. This study was aimed to
understand and describe how workplace communications and culture formed
the perspectives of each participant's worldview and understanding. To
accomplish this task, I defined the following research question for resolution
within the context of this study: How do non-English speakers or English as
second language (ESL) speakers describe their communication experiences
in the workplace?
To address the research question, I laid the theoretical foundation for
the study using communications theories, with the conceptual framework of
the theory likewise molded through such theories. Still, in this case, the
study involved the transactional model of communication, the
communications cycle, and communications noise a term used to describe
barriers to communication in general (Heath & Bryant, 2012; IACACT,
2015; 2016; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). The model, the communications cycle,
and the concept of communication noise were all defined to ensure that no
confusion would be present regarding these terms within the context of the
study.
In Chapter 1, I introduced the nature of the study, offering insight on
why I selected a qualitative narrative inquiry for the most appropriate
research design and method for use (Creswell, 2013; 2014). The scope of the
study was set forth, clearly marking the borders of the study using the scope
in combination with the delimitations of the study, which included time, the
sample population itself, the research question, and the study design. The
limitations of the study were also presented, reviewing everything from the
time constraints of the study to the potential for bias in the reporting of the
instances of perceived communications barriers by immigrant workers who
make up the sample population.
Many of the limitations were addressed, yet not all could be covered.
In instances where the limitations of the study could not be covered, I
provided information on why such limitations must remain or offered insight
into the situation and the associated reasons that I could not address such
limitations. In some instances, I made recommendations for ways in which
such limitations might be reduced in future iterations of this study. This
chapter concluded with why the study is significant, not only to its
significance in general, but also its significance to practice, to theory, and to
the realm of social change.
Progress and improvements cannot be made without completing the
first step toward the goal. In that same way, this study is significant because
it serves as the first step on the path to reducing the cultural and language
barriers present for the body of workers under study. Chapter 2 provides a
review of the extant literature. It offers the search strategy used in the
collection of information, giving more detail on both the theoretical
foundation to be employed and the conceptual framework implemented. It
also offers a review of the extant literature as associated with topics that are
pertinent to the study of this topic.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The lack of effective communication in the workplace is an issue that
creates a myriad of problems for immigrant workers with non-English
speaking backgrounds (Akomolafe, 2013; Carr & Dekemel-Ichikawa, 2012;
Kulkarni, 2015). With more than 26 million foreign-born persons reported in
the labor force, American businesses face the challenges of language and
cultural barriers, which can inhibit effective communication and
subsequently hinder productivity and increase safety risks (Kulkarni, 2015;
United States Department of Labor, 2016). The general problem is that
language and cultural barriers hinder the ability of a business to recruit and
successfully employ immigrant workers. The specific problem is that some
business leaders and managers lack an understanding of the language
barriers and cultural issues of immigrant workers. Ultimately, working to
address these concerns may help businesses remain competitive by
maintaining a productive, safe, and healthy workplace environment.
The purpose of the qualitative narrative inquiry study is to explore and
describe the experiences of non-English speaking immigrant workers and
ESL workers while looking at their experiences in overcoming language and
cultural communication challenges in the workplace. The aim is to
accomplish the task of understanding how non-English speaking immigrants
experience language and cultural challenges by completing a study designed
to explore various written and oral communication barriers that occur among
employees and immigrant workers. To accomplish this task, I conducted a
review of the extant body of literature, complete with information on the
search strategy employed.
Literature Search Strategy
To obtain the literature necessary to complete the literature review a
search of the school’s online library was conducted to gain access to relevant
academic journals and peer reviewed articles contained within the databases.
Next, available books on the subject matter were reviewed while ensuring
that physical literature on the topic was similarly included. Finally, relevant
online data published through reputable sources using Google and Google
Scholar were searched and was presented in the approved prospectus. In
completing such a search, I used EBSCOHost, JSTOR, Academic Search
Premier, ProQuest, Springer, PubMed, and Elsevier.
Among the many different academic journals accessed in the
completion of this literature review were the Journal of Cultural Diversity,
the International Journal of Organizational Innovation, the International
Journal for Equity in Health, the Journal of Mixed Methods Research, the
Journal of Family Psychology, Children & Youth Services Review, the
Journal of International Business Studies, and the Bulletin of the Association
for Business Communication. Different search keywords included the
following: communication and culture, communication and business,
business, cultural paradigms, work climate, inequalities, ESL, intercultural
communication, effective communication, leadership and communication,
business, leadership, communications theory, communications theory and
business, and communication.
To search the literature used in the completion of the literature review,
I employed all keywords and keyword sets within each of the three areas
(school database, print medium, and online). Relevant articles were
bookmarked, either with physical bookmarks in the case of works found in
print or via the browser for those found online.
Following the collection of articles and print media, I read all bookmarked
content to determine which articles and works were relevant to the study and
warranted inclusion. Those bookmarked that did not fit the topic being
explored within the context of this study had their bookmarks removed.
I took notes on each article or work deemed appropriate for inclusion
and used those notes throughout the process of creating the literature review
to ensure that I included all pertinent information. In instances where an
article or work was particularly relevant, the same three search methods
were employed, pulling up the references used in those works to ensure that
I excluded no relevant data. Most of the references used to complete this
literature review were published between 2011 and the present to ensure the
sources are current enough to be relevant to the topic at hand. Where
necessary, however, information is included from the original sources, such
as the creators of the constructs used in the theoretical foundation and
conceptual framework employed within this study.
Theoretical Foundation
Transactional communication theory and cultural approach to
organizations theory were selected to act as the theoretical foundation that
serves to provide the groundwork for this study. Seeking out the origins of
communications theory is not an easy task because it is created through the
works of a host of different researchers, each working to explore their
preferred area of interest, yet all exploring the process of communication
(Heath & Bryant, 2012). Due to the way communications theory has
evolved, there is some debate regarding its origins. There are those who
indicated that communications theory started with Aristotle, in his
documentation of what is now known as Aristotle's Model of Proof (Bob
Jones University, 2008). Others indicate that the start of communications
theory is not quite so far back in history and cite its origins in the 1920s with
Bell Laboratories and Nyquist's (1924) write up of the various factors
affecting the speed at which a telegraph can transmit.
Hartley (1928) continued this trend in the investigation of
communications through his work at Lucent Technologies and explored the
way information is transmitted from one point to another and the role that
technology plays in the process of making those actions occur. It is true that
one could go as far back as Aristotle for his Model of Proof as the basis for
the exploration of communication. Because that was not Aristotle's intention
in the creation of his model of proof, I opted instead to set the origins of
communications theory in the 1920s, wherein specific steps were taken to
explore the communications process.
It was not until the late 1940s, however, that research into the field of
communications started expressly using the term communication within the
context of their work (Shannon & Weaver, 2015). Bell Laboratories served
to provide the research that first expressly indicated it was exploring the
concept of communication as a whole (Shannon & Weaver, 2015). In 1948,
Shannon identified the different mathematical parameters that could be used
to break down the potential meaning that the speaker was attempting to
convey (Shannon & Weaver, 1948). Shannon (1948) carried out this work by
reviewing the various possibilities of interpretation and identifying the
interpretive meaning with the highest associated statistical significance.
Work such as theirs allowed communications theory to explode as a field of
study, sparking a high level of interest in the 1940s and beyond (Shannon &
Weaver, 2015). Although communication as a concept has existed since
Aristotle, it was not until the 20th century that it became a serious discipline.
Nyquist (1924), Hartley (1928), and Shannon (1948) were among the
academics who developed communication models and theories.
To apply transactional communications theory within a research
context, the researcher must first identify communication interest zones. In
this case, that is exploring non-English speakers or ESL speakers and the
difficulties that they face within the workplace setting connected to the
communications process (Stacks & Salwen, 2014). The identification of the
particular aspect of communication to be explored within the context of a
research setting is all that is required to implement communications theory
as the theoretical foundation of a given research study (Heath & Bryant,
2012; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). Communications theory allows for an
exploration of all aspects of communication as long as the applications of
that exploration are practical. Thus, it is argued that the broad context
required for a theoretical foundation consisting of communications theory
has been met within the context of the identified research topic for this study
(Heath & Bryant, 2012; Kincaid, 2013; Stacks & Salwen, 2014).
By using communications theory through a specific communications
model in applying the conceptual framework, I was able to utilize this study
to explore shifts in communication. I was also able to look at the language
employed within the context of this particular setting within this sample
population. There, the uncertainty present in communication that works to
create barriers, and even an exploration of the means of addressing those
barriers through the process of dynamic communication and the application
of communication strategies designed to mitigate such concerns (Kincaid,
2013; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). The interpersonal aspects of communication
and the communication differences that may arise are likewise able to be
explored, looking at the shifts in communication that are present due to
linguistic variation and cultural differences. In understanding the
amalgamation of work that makes up communications theory as a whole, it
becomes possible to gain increased insight and understanding of the
communications model (Kincaid, 2013; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). That is, the
model to be employed within the conceptual framework of the study, a
process by which one of the many communication models that help to form
the broad scope of communications theory is selected for application within
the context of the research study.
Conceptual Framework
In applying certain models of communication in this study, the
transactional model of communication and the cultural approach to
organizations theory are both be employed as the conceptual framework for
the study. These theories are useful for exploring the barriers faced by non-
English speaking workers and ESL workers within the business world. They
can also be used in defining those barriers, the characteristics associated with
those barriers, and whether the identified barriers are present across all
cultures or are culture specific (Barnlund, 1970; Geertz & Pacanowsky,
1988; IACACT, 2016).
Barnlund (1970) first put forth the transactional model of
communication. Within this communications model, there is a sender and a
receiver, with both parties involved in the communications process,
switching their roles as the communication occurs (Barnlund, 1970). The
first party sends the message, where the second party receives the message,
decodes the message, and responds to the message (Barnlund, 1970). The
process then allows the party of the first part to switch to the role of receiver,
obtaining the message from the party of the second part and then tasked with
decoding that message and responding as appropriately (Barnlund, 1970).
While such a model seems simple, Barnlund indicated that the process of
sending, receiving, decoding, and responding to the message, a process
referred to as a feedback channel, is one that is constantly interrupted by
noise. This noise can be anything, from the literal presence of other sounds
coming from individuals or objects to differences in culture, knowledge
base, awareness, and understanding of the subject being explored within the
context of the communication medium (Barnlund, 1970).
The barriers to communication within the context of this study are
what Barnlund (1970) would have referred to as noise in the communication,
with noise defined as anything disruptive to the transmission of the message
between the sender and the receiver. This particular model of
communication is ideally suited to the exploration of the concept and
phenomenon being explored within the context of this study. It provides a
framework identical to the topic being explored. At the same time, it
provides the structure necessary through which it is possible to complete the
exploration of the topic and the analysis of the information collected from
the participants. This visual representation of the transactional model of
communication in Figure 1 can be applied to the exploration of the barriers
faced by the participants; with each of the noise lines presented serving to
represent a different barrier to communication. Such lines represent
discrepancies in the receipt and decoding of the message, which can result in
response to the message that was different from the expected or the desired
result (Barnlund, 1970).
Geertz and Pacanowsky's (1988) work can increase the understanding
of management relating to immigrant employees whose first language is not
English. Still, Geertz and Pacanowsky noted that although the cultural
approach has been adopted by managers who want to use it as a tool, it is not
easy to micromanage cultural aspects of subordinates. Furthermore, such
management might not be ethical. If the researcher is an ethnographer, the
first rule of the method is nonintervention (Geertz & Pacanowsky,
1988). Therefore, managers should guard against undue influence on
corporate culture.
In applying the transactional model of communication, it was possible
to examine communication through the different viewpoints of
communications theory that involve cultural identity, workplace
communication, and managerial communication. Therefore, I could gain
additional insight and knowledge into the specific barriers that are present
within such communication (Pompper, 2014). Using Figure 1 as a visual
representation, as each of the barriers is identified and removed, the process
of communication, it can be argued, can flow more smoothly and more
efficiently. Issues stemming from problems associated with the decoding and
processing of messages between the sender and the receiver will thus be
decreased (Barnlund, 1970; Pompper, 2014). In using the cultural approach
to organizations theory, I gained a better understanding of organizational
culture as told through narratives of immigrants whose primary language is
not English and use the best means possible to avoid bias (Geertz &
Pacanowsky, 1988).
Literature Review
In dissertation research, the bulk of the material to be explored by the
researcher is found within the literature review. It is an extensive and
exhaustive exploration of the different topics associated with, related to, and
providing proof of the necessity for the completion of the identified research
topic. It also indicates the need for the study (Machi & McEvoy, 2016). To
accomplish this task, the researcher must display an understanding of the
basic topic covered by the study. He or she must also present that
information in such a way that it is a baseline of knowledge for those who
are reading the study, even though the topic may not be in their field of study
(Machi & McEvory, 2016). The literature review must be a synthesis of
literature associated with and related to the topic at hand, while at the same
time must be presented in such a manner so as even the layperson can gain
additional knowledge of the topics and constructs being explored (Machi &
McEvory, 2016). This literature review starts with an exploration of what
communication is, leads into an exploration into its use in the workplace,
and allows for the identification of the correlation between communication
and culture, before delving further into the topic being explored.
Communication
Communication is the means of human interaction through which
cultural characteristics are created and shared (Wang et al., 2011). Research
has shown that culture is created through the communication process, yet
researchers have failed to explore fully exactly what communication is, other
than to indicate that it is the transmission of information among parties
(Wang et al., 2011). While this definition is not a nonspecific one, it is not a
significantly detailed explanation either, which necessitates a further
exploration of what communication is to be able to understand its
application within different settings and about various aspects of life and
work.
The transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 1970) describes
the process of communication in which two or more parties take on the role
of either the sender or receiver(s) to convey a message between the different
parties, with each party completing certain actions before reversing their
roles. Still, more needs to be explored within the concept of communication.
Without communication, it might be argued, the very foundation of all that is
society could potentially cease to exist (Habermas, 2015). However, to be
able to understand the essential nature of communication, it is first necessary
to understand the different forms that communication between individuals
may take.
Communication may be both verbal and nonverbal (Burgoon,
Guerrero, & Floyd, 2016). Verbal communication refers to the process by
which individuals use the spoken word to directly relate thoughts, concepts,
and ideas between two or more parties (Heath & Bryant, 2011). This form of
dialogue also allows for the ability to convey directions or tasks that must be
completed (Heath & Bryant, 2011). Nonverbal communication refers to the
gestures, the body language, the cues, and even facial changes that one of the
parties involved in the communication process conveys, serving to add
additional meaning to the message (Burgoon et al., 2016).
Nonverbal communication, broadly, is any means of communication
that does not use the voice itself, including the use of sign language and
gestures, for while sign language is a language in and of itself, it does not
use the voice to convey the message (Burgoon et al., 2016). Any instances of
nonverbal communication documented by the study participants were
likewise analyzed for situations in which nonverbal communication causes a
misunderstanding. These instances are just as important as situations in
which verbal communication results in a misunderstanding because both
may be interrupted by noise, or barriers, many of which will have been
erected because of cultural differences and differences in worldview
(Barnlund, 1970; Habermas, 2015).
The process of communication allows for the evolution of society
(Habermas,
2015). It is what works to create the different cultures around the world
(Wang et al., 2011). Some of these different communication practices, verbal
and nonverbal alike, are universal, such as no, the gesture for no, the
"bathroom dance" done by children the world over, and so on. The way
different concepts and ideas are conveyed, and the different weights given to
those concepts and ideas vary among cultures. These, in turn, can cause an
increase in the number of communication barriers that may be present. The
variations are important, particularly when looking at the matter of cross
cultural communication and the application of cross cultural communication
within the more rigid structure of the workplace setting. An exploration of
each of these different areas made it possible to understand how such an
issue can arise and provide increased insight and understanding in exploring
the narratives collected from the research participants that is discussed later
in Chapter 4.
Communication Barriers
To better understand and explore the subject of communication, it is
necessary to review studies allowing for identifying barriers for culturally
diverse employees not dissimilar from what was explored within the
construct of the current study. The identified barriers presented within this
section range from those that arise when a minority leader is attempting to
communicate with nonminority individuals that may result in an
international organization to the linguistic barriers stemming from
crosscultural communication, among others. Presenting barriers before
addressing the areas of communication and culture, communication and
business, and communication and the workplace can allow an identification
of broad barriers present in communication engagements around the world.
Such a presentation can occur before focusing specifically on those in
American organizations.
Flores and Matkin (2014) conducted a study to explore the different
types of issues that minority leaders face within the workplace, showing a
difference between those issues and those faced by white leaders. Among the
various problems identified were their barriers of communication, a lack of
support from those they were to be leading, discrimination due to racial
differences, racism, and stereotyping based on racial profiles (Flores &
Matkin, 2014). Each of these different issues might all lead back to the realm
of communication. Many of these concerns arose from the communications
that occurred within the context of the environment, shaping the perspectives
of those who would otherwise be willing to accept the same information
from a different racial or ethnic leader (Flores & Matkin, 2014). In essence,
all aspects of culture, interaction, and society lead back to the
communication process and how and when it was taught to the individual
who is fulfilling either the role of the speaker or the role of the receiver
(Habermas, 2015; Wang et al., 2011).
While Flores and Matkin (2014) could identify multiple barriers to
communication affecting the effectiveness of minority leaders, the
researchers were not able to offer any means to address the identified
concerns. Instead, Flores and Matkin focused on the methods that such
nonwhite leaders used to persevere in the face of such issues, including
"developing a thick skin" (p. 5). While the identification of such issues is
pertinent, the lack of a means to address such an issue serves to indicate a
research gap, while at the same time providing conclusions that are neither
relevant nor beneficial toward the resolution and removal of communication
barriers.
Qiao's (2014) study explored the characteristics and barriers present in
internal organizational communications during the time that an organization
was undergoing transition. Qiao sought to identify the different barriers to
the change that were present because of the barriers in communication found
within a cross-cultural setting. Within this analysis, communication barriers
were one of the items identified; however, the primary focus of the study
was the application of Lewin's change model (Qiao, 2014). Despite the main
focus on this model, the presence of communication barriers was a
significant concern for the international organization. Such obstacles to
communication can ultimately stymie change and even drag it to a halt,
creating confusion, and reducing acceptance to and willingness to change.
Qiao's study serves to indicate just how deeply the problem of
communication barriers still runs within a cross-cultural setting, although
globalization continues to allow multiple organizations of all sizes and
within all fields to expand and grow.
Qiao (2014) was concerned about the successful use of change
management practices instead of concentrating on the resolution of issues
that may arise during such a time. In this case, a concentration on addressing
communication barriers would have been more effective regarding working
to resolve the identified problems and increasing the likelihood that such
change could occur effectively (Habermas, 2015; Qiao, 2014). As such,
Qiao's study, like the previous study (Flores & Matkin, 2014), identified the
presence of communication barriers and served to indicate many ways such
communication barriers reduce the overall efficacy and productivity of the
organization. Still, as previously, the research conducted failed to address
the issue of communication barriers cross culturally in and of them.
Tenzer and Pudelko (2015) determined particular methods that may be
employed by leaders to enable them to manage within the business setting
despite language barriers that may be present, specifically focusing on
"language-induced emotions in multinational teams" (p. 606). The study,
like other studies, identifies the presence of cultural barriers regarding
attempts to express one's emotions in a work-based setting from a linguistic
standpoint (Flores & Matkin, 2014; Qiao, 2014; Tenzer & Pudelko, 2015).
The researchers further indicated that such issues might be the most difficult
for leaders to overcome, as opposed to other issues found within the business
setting (Tenzer & Pudelko, 2015).
The difficulty comes when the cultural perspective and the societal
perspective, for the leaders, are firmly ensconced in their own culture and
their societal perspective and worldview, creating a situation in which the
hardest part of working to overcome these cultural barriers and language
barriers is not the acknowledgment of their presence. Instead, it is the
awareness of other cultures and worldviews to the point of being able to
identify the point at which the two concepts meet and clash, determining an
alternative means of working to address the situation, and moving forward
(Tenzer & Pudelko, 2015). Within this particular context, however, the
researchers were not addressing all culturally linguistic barriers, only those
related to displays of emotion within the context of the workplace setting, an
important distinction (Tenzer & Pudelko, 2015).
Instead of providing a solution to address this matter, however, Tenzer
and Pudelko (2015) suggested that leaders should instead work to control
their emotions, reducing the need for such language to be used and,
therefore, bypassing such an impediment altogether (Tenzer & Pudelko,
2015). While such a conclusion technically addresses the problem defined,
the removal of the language that created the cultural barrier does not address
the problem directly. Rather, it ignores the situation as though it does not
exist, which is the business equivalent of sticking one’s head in the sand and
hoping that if the problem is ignored, it will go away. While such an
approach may work in some cases, when the underlying problem is the
ability to communicate, no matter how much a person chooses to ignore a
communication issue, the issue does not go away. It may even, in some
cases, compound the situation, causing an even greater problem than that
which was previously present for the individuals involved in the
communication process and for the organization as a whole (Habermas,
2015).
Communication and Culture
Globalization has worked to decrease the number of barriers present
within the world today, regarding increasing the ease in which individuals
can interact with each other on a global scale and by reducing the number of
barriers present in accomplishing this task (Asante, Miike, & Yin, 2014). As
globalization brings society together in a way not previously seen in the
history of the world, it brings with it a host of issues. Some of these are
political, some are economic, yet one of the largest of these issues is the one
involving communication (Asante et al., 2014; Carbaugh, 2013). As many
business leaders well versed in the world of international business may
express, to be truly successful within this field, knowledge of intercultural
interactions is vital to ensuring the successful completion of any business
transaction (Goman, 2011). As Wang et al. (2011) expressed the link
between culture and communication is one that is inseparable. Culture
shapes and influences communication, just as communication influences
culture, a sentiment expressed by many other researchers (Asante et al.,
2014; Carbaugh, 2013; Goman, 2011).
Kokab and Abid (2014) explored the concerns regarding the linguistic
and cultural barriers that Pakistani leadership was facing due to the situation
in East Bengal.
The study stressed the high level of cultural barriers present in
communication between East Bengal and Pakistan. Unlike other studies
discussed herein that serve only to identify an issue that arises from cultural
barriers to communication, these researchers offered up an identification of
the different strategies that have been employed to effect a solution to the
matter (Kokab & Abid, 2014). While it was originally thought that Bengali,
the language that was creating the cultural barriers, should be simply
banned, it was instead determined that the language should be accepted.
Various strategies, including the use of translators versed in both languages,
could be employed as a means of decreasing communication barriers (Kokab
& Abid, 2014).
Kathriel (2012) sought to explore a similar situation in Israel, looking
at the communal webs that are woven by the combination of communication
and culture.
Kathriel's research indicated that the distinctive cultural patterns found in
communication served to not only highlight and accentuate the formation
and continuation of culture, but they also assisted in maintaining culture
while offering up a framework for change. There are those who are
unfamiliar with the nature and the interaction between communication and
culture. As such, they will find the completion of a given activity, a business
transaction, and even the communication process as a whole, to be complex.
Not having a working knowledge of the culture of the individual to whom
one is speaking increases complexity (Asante et al., 2014; Carbaugh, 2013;
Goman, 2011; Kahtriel, 2012).
In light of increased awareness of the interconnected nature of culture
and communication, some schools are taking the process a step further when
it involves the teaching of a second language. Thanasoulas (2001) was one
of the first researchers to explore whether the utilization of teaching culture
in conjunction with a given foreign language would serve to benefit the
students learning the language. Results of Thanasoulas' research indicated
that while certain issues must be worked out regarding the delivery of such
content, the presence of the content itself works to increase cross cultural
communication, increase communication efficiency, and decrease cultural
barriers (Thanasoulas, 2001). This researcher's findings have since been
confirmed by other researchers, perhaps most notably by Wintergerst and
McVeigh (2011) who determined that such applied concepts serve to
increase communication efficiencies when teaching ESL students the
English language.
The acknowledgment of the interconnected nature of culture and
communication has gone far toward increasing awareness of modern culture
and the effects of mass communication within the past several decades
(Thompson, 2013). Thompson's (2013) work has played a large role in
expanding the ability of advertisers to communicate more effectively with
alternative target audiences and enable organizations to expand their
presence within international markets. However, the very fact of such an
application provides additional proof of the close ties between culture and
communication and cultural awareness and decreases communication
barriers among individuals of different cultures around the globe (Asante et
al., 2014; Carbaugh, 2013; Goman, 2011; Kathriel, 2012; Thompson, 2013).
Communication and Business
The importance of communication in the current knowledge-based
economy cannot be underestimated (Goman, 2011; Guffey & Loewy, 2012;
Vasile, 2014). Business leaders in today's society are aware of the vast need
for awareness and knowledge of the culture of the individuals with whom
they are communicating. Still, such knowledge is a large part of working to
conduct successful business transactions at the international level. It is
equally important to ensure that the application of that knowledge ties in
with the appropriate vocabulary (Goman, 2011; Guffey & Loewy, 2012;
Vasile, 2014). Although there are certain universal words and phrases, as has
been discussed previously, of equal or greater consideration is that not all
words have the same meaning or connotation that translates between cultures
(Goman, 2011; Guffey & Loewy,
2012; Vasile, 2014). Idioms, metaphors, similes, and other nonliteral forms
of communication should be avoided to prevent misinterpretation or other
confusion that may arise, detracting from the translation of the message and
preventing effective communication when used (Guffey & Loewy, 2012;
Vasile, 2014).
When exploring business communication, it is critical to the success
of a transaction that the message the speaker attempts to convey is the one
that is being received (Guffey & Loewy, 2012). Business opportunities can
be lost because something that is innocuous in one language may translate to
something deeply offensive in another. By the same token, something that is
heartfelt and meant to convey solidarity may, if improperly translated, mean
something completely different. Perhaps the most notable example of this
would be John F. Kennedy's language debacle. At one time, he meant to
state that he was a person of Berlin to show solidarity with Germany, when
instead the phrasing he used could have been translated as "I am a jelly-filled
doughnut" (Hiskey, 2012, p. 1).
While research now reveals that native Berliners interpreted such a
statement in the spirit in which he meant it, the majority of the world, or at
least those who are aware of the speech, remember the alternative
interpretation over the figurative one. Although this story has been
debunked, the narrative of the president's breakfast faux pas received a
higher level of attention than did the secondary reporting. Such confusion
indicated that, in spite of the communication issues, the message was
ultimately understood at the time, with no hard feelings (Hiskey, 2012).
Coming from the President of the United States, such a translated
message is one that would be handled with the utmost decorum and tact by
those involved: by the media, less so, as was shown (Hiskey, 2012). The
average individual does not have the same power behind him or her as
President Kennedy did. Still, if a business leader secured a deal to start
manufacturing Tater Tots in the country, and instead used the term for a
child in place of tot in the translation, the receptivity would be likely poor as
a result.
Instances of organizations failing in communication have been rife
throughout the years, some stemming from communication issues, in which
the message was lost in translation, while others arose due to cultural
differences. Notable instances of such failures can be found in many of the
largest corporations in the United States. When Gerber originally started
selling its baby food in Africa in the 1950s, the same label used in the United
States was used on the food sold there. Gerber did not find out until later that
the image used on food products sold in Africa is meant to signify the type
of food in the container, given the low literacy levels (Fromowitz, 2013). In
essence, some consumers thought the containers held babies, as opposed to
baby foods (Fromowitz, 2013).
Puffs facial tissues attempted to enter the German market in 1974, not
realizing that their brand name translated to "whorehouse" in the common
vernacular (Fromowitz, 2013). KFC, when entering the Chinese market,
failed to realize that their slogan, "Finger-lickin' good" translated to "Eat
your fingers off" (Brooks, 2013). Coors found their error in translation when
they attempted to expand to Spain, where their American "Turn it Loose"
slogan translated to "suffer from diarrhea," a far less pleasant consideration
(Brooks, 2013). The Pampers problem was similar to Gerber's, wherein the
image on the box did not convey its desired effect. When attempting to enter
the market in Japan, Pampers used the same image on the box there as the
American box, a stork delivering a baby in a cloth. Confusion arose when no
one understood what the picture meant, for the Japanese birth myth told to
children involves children coming from the peach fruit instead of being
delivered by a bird (Brooks, 2013). Although the box was ultimately
changed, it never became a popular brand due to the first failed attempt at
market entry.
These stories may at first appear humorous to the layperson who
would hear them. Such failures in communication resulted in a high cost for
the organizations themselves. In some cases, the product was far less
successful than it otherwise would have been within the market if the
communication had been more effective (Goman, 2011; Guffey & Loewy,
2012; Vasile, 2014). In part, these issues were due to communication
barriers and communication failings within the business world, but those
barriers continued to the point of the products reaching the shelves, which
would have, in turn, created very costly mistakes for those organizations.
Leaders do not want their organization remembered because it failed
in its communication, creating a funny anecdote for those not of the culture
in which the failure occurred. Rather, they want people to remember their
marketing for their business savvy, their successes in communication, their
products, and their efficiency. None of these are conveyed through the
presence of such stories (Brooks, 2013; Fromowitz, 2013; Goman, 2011;
Guffey & Loewy, 2012; Vasile, 2014). These efforts and endeavors should
serve as a cautionary tale for those who wish to conduct business in the
international market. Without the appropriate communication, translation,
knowledge of culture, and cultural awareness, the likelihood of success is
dramatically decreased; creating a fiscal burden on the company that cannot
be easily resolved (Brooks, 2013; Fromowitz, 2013; Goman,
2011; Guffey & Loewy, 2012; Vasile, 2014).
Communication and the Workplace
The matter of communication within the workplace setting is not
dissimilar to that of communication within the business world or the
relationships present between culture and communication. Due to the
increased ease with which it has become possible to
move about the globe, it is not surprising to interact with many individuals
from different cultures and countries in daily life. With the increased usages
of outsourcing, it is possible that many of those daily interactions might
occur when speaking with others in other countries (Akhavan, 2012; Asante
et al., 2014). In light of these circumstances, communication within the
workplace must be equally concise, though within an open work
environment.
Idioms, metaphors, colloquialisms, any of these may not be
understood, for the majority of such tools of language are not conveyed
when translated into another language or translated by an individual whose
primary language was not English. In keeping with this knowledge, an
awareness of the effects of culture and communication within the workplace
setting must be present as well (Guffey & Loewy, 2012). To this end, many
researchers and many authors will recommend, to reduce confusion and
increase efficiency within the workplace setting, that individuals should
maintain their professional demeanor and use professional language, or
business language. If so, such a construct is designed to reduce the potential
for communication and decrease the likelihood for barriers in understanding
(Guffey & Loewy, 2012).
Nonverbal communication methods were discussed previously, a topic
that likewise affects the business world. By ensuring that the appropriate
nonverbal messages are being sent to the workplace, such barriers are
reduced there as well (Bonaccio, O'Reilly, O'Sullivan, & Chiocchio, 2016).
Nonverbal communications cover all of the messages that are being
conveyed with or without our knowledge, addressing gestures, body
language, posture, tension, carriage, eye contact, and a host of other
considerations. By increasing one's awareness of culture and
communication, the nonverbal means of communication may likewise be
addressed (Bonaccio et al., 2016). A prime example of this would be the use
of the left hand. Because this hand is considered to be unclean, the use of the
left hand within business transactions and dealings with the Middle East is
one that should be avoided (Embassy of the UAE, 2016). Handshakes,
written messages, eating with the left hand, and all other activities and
interactions with other individuals should all be conducted with the right
hand only, to prevent giving offense (Embassy of the UAE, 2016). In this
consideration, it becomes possible to understand just how complex are the
inner workings of communications.
The area of interpersonal communication within the workplace setting
(DeKay, 2012) is largely unexplored, with the majority of the information
known in this regard just being about the dissemination of people skills or
"soft" skills. Much additional research must be conducted in this area. The
basic knowledge present regarding interpersonal communication is that
failure to be aware of and consider cultural considerations when speaking
and interacting with others can lead to communication barriers within the
workplace (DeKay, 2012, p. 449). Given that there is no easy way to explore
the interactions between individuals within the workplace setting
authentically without being one of the participants, an ethnography, which
lends itself to the potential for additional bias, this area is simply one that is
little explored (DeKay, 2012). It may be hypothesized, however, that the
same barriers and issues that arise in business communication, in general,
would likewise apply to interpersonal communication within the workplace
setting.
Regarding the importance of interpersonal communication, in two studies,
Hofhuis, van der Rijt, and Vlug (2016) found that when workgroups
communicate with openness and trust, productivity will flourish in diverse
environments. Their studies with 91 and 256 participants identified the latter
two qualities as possible mediators for workgroup communication. In a work
climate that boasts many cultural backgrounds; such diversity connects to a
sense of inclusion, knowledge sharing, job satisfaction, and group
identification. Trust was the mediator of the work environment in study 1
regarding team inclusion, and trust also mediated workgroup identification
and climate in study 2. Moreover, openness leads to knowledge sharing.
Trust through increasing camaraderie was a key factor in several studies on
overcoming barriers in a diverse workplace (Clayton, Issacs, & Ellender,
2016; Hofhuis et al., 2016; Ling, Dulaimi, & Chua, 2013; Sui Sum Bosco,
2016). Hofhuis et al. have also recommended that leaders make strong
efforts toward diversity training and inclusiveness to enhance such openness
and trust among the workforce team members.
Lockwood (2015) noted that communication issues were arising not
only in person but in virtual teams within the workplace as well, in
particular, the communications between managers of virtual teams and the
team members themselves. Lockwood noted that virtual team managers
might have an increased amount of difficulty in communicating with team
members due to the increased communication challenges that arise within
the virtual environment and within text-based media. Furthermore, some of
those issues may be related to culture (Lockwood, 2015). Lockwood's
solutions were highly generalized and did not concentrate specifically on the
problems in communication within virtual teams. Still, the researcher did
recommend that additional training practices be implemented as a means of
addressing the cultural communication issues that arose within the
workplace setting as a potential way to mitigate such issues.
Lockwood (2015) likewise recommended that further analysis of
communication issues that arose within the virtual teams be conducted to
identify the causality of the given problem. Such identification would allow
for the means of being able to reduce the likelihood of future occurrences of
the same or similar communication barriers within the team-based setting
through identification and resolution (Lockwood, 2015). These
recommendations could likewise be applied to team-based workplace
environments that result from interactions with the real world in addition to
the interactions among those in the virtual environment (Sostrin, 2011).
Construction is an industry that requires a full on-the-ground force of
workers. Still, as a result of labor shortages in many countries, immigrant
workers have been enlisted to sustain the industry (Ling et al., 2013). Often,
communication challenges and mismanagement result from the mix of
cultural characteristics of the diverse workers regarding attitudes toward
work and how they handle conflicts and direction. Ling et al. (2013)
conducted a mixed methods study on management strategies in Singapore.
After surveying project managers who were experienced in handling such
diversity, the researcher interviewed several of the managers to get more
specific information on how they addressed the varying cultural styles of the
workers.
Though they generalized among the varying cultures (e.g., Indian,
Filipino, Thai, and Chinese workers), Ling et al. (2013) recommended
several strategies. The strategies arose from the study to address
communication problems in the construction industry: (a) taking care in
giving contracts of employment, (b) giving skills tests in the lingua franca,
(c) firmly supervising workers to prevent passive or bad attitudes, (d)
rewarding workers who meet quality targets, (e) gaining trust through
personal relationships, (f) engaging in safety training with the ends of having
workmanship of quality, (g) engendering team spirit through organized
social activities, and (h) reducing disputes at the root. All of these strategies
would aid in helping project managers meet the challenges of working with
immigrants (Ling et al., 2013).
Similar to the construction industry, migration into English-speaking
countries such as Australia has become the status quo for the medical
profession. Excellent communication is especially important during an
operation. Therefore, the addition of professionals from a multitude of
cultures in the operating room can present challenges. In a qualitative
phenomenological study, Clayton et al. (2016) interviewed 14 nurses who
served different functions in an operating theater. The major theme that
arose was difficulties in communication, which affected both the care of
patients and the environment of the theater. Similar to Ling et al. (2013),
social integration via regular activities improved communication,
transferring the benefits to patient safety and a collegial working atmosphere
(Clayton et al., 2016).
Finding the cause of cultural and language barriers in a diverse
workplace can be simple, though the solutions may take more work. Levitt
(2014) noted that some see globalization as an opportunity, yet others see it
as a problem. In a qualitative study, the researcher interviewed 27 people in
supervisory positions in a variety of fields (architecture through venture
capital) and teamwork was conducted on all continents throughout the
world. Levitt found that those in managerial positions tended not to view
personal relationships and others' self-identities as important, which served
to impede efficient teamwork. Different communication styles and cultural
backgrounds often led to frustration (direct, low-context communication
versus more indirect high-context communication). Ethnocentrism always
stood in the way of job satisfaction and positive intercultural workplace ties.
Levitt recommended that supervisors examine their own cultural values and
ethnocentrism so that they could appreciate others' cultures more. Because
diverse teams will always have polarized value systems, managing them by
recognizing others' self-identities should lead to better balance (Levitt,
2014).
Sostrin (2011) indicated that barriers are present within any
multicultural team, stating that although certain barriers may be easily
overcome, others may not be so readily addressed. As a means of attempting
to suggest a resolution to such a concern, Sostrin suggested that all teams
explore the different barriers that they find themselves facing as a result of
cultural variations. These teams should address each consideration one at a
time until all parties feel that a successful resolution has been attained,
which is a logical approach to resolving any communication issues that may
be faced within the workplace setting. Still, depending on the makeup and
composition of the team, such a solution may be one that is long drawn out,
causing decreased efficiencies in other areas of team operation. It should
likewise be noted that this solution is more of a generic approach to the
resolution of the issue, as opposed to a more targeted approach designed to
address individual concerns or situations that may arise.
Akomolafe (2013) referred to the Invisible Minority, a group of
individuals described as "foreign-born Americans who number in the
millions. For the most part they are law-abiding, tax-paying, productive
members of society but are nevertheless denied some of the most basic
constitutional rights and privileges extended to native-born Americans" (p.
8). The researcher claimed, regarding advancing within a given organization
to a position of higher power, one qualification is the need of the individual
to speak fluent English to communicate with coworkers (Akomolafe, 2013).
Although such a requirement seems a logical one in a country in which the
majority of domestic business transactions are conducted in English, the
ability to assess this particular qualification or skillset is one that is highly
subject to bias (Akomolafe, 2013). Furthermore, there is a high level of
difficulty in being able to establish a conclusive correlation between such a
practice and nondiscrimination laws to those who have foreign accents due
to the subjectivity of the matter (Akomolafe, 2013).
Akomolafe (2013) suggested that if the individual can successfully
pass a TOEFL or TOEIC test, two tests that are used to display a mastery of
the English language, he or she should not experience job discrimination for
a foreign accent. Moreover, the researcher recommended that those who do
pass the tests should lobby for such a position in an attempt to gain
promotion. The solutions Akomolafe presented are strong ones, and there is
a large degree of merit present in these solutions. Nevertheless, this
researcher laid out no clear path regarding how the individual should work
on applying that information within the context of his or her job without
creating a different type of discrimination. In this kind of discrimination, the
individual may not only lose out on the position but may be forced to change
jobs as well.
Many of the immigrant employees to whom Akomolafe (2013)
referred lack the skills to negotiate the cultural barriers of the workplace.
Canagarajah (2016) noted that many immigrants are not professionals. They
do not have the wherewithal to negotiate “scales of interaction” (p. 55)
through education or lack of other resources. However, the researcher did
acknowledge multilingualism at the grassroots as in the case of street
vendors and “considerable shuttling between scales,” stating that the context
for communication can be oversimplified (Canagarajah, 2016, p. 55).
English Communication in the Workplace
The term lingua franca was originally used to refer to a pidgin
language combination of Italian, French, Spanish, Greek, and Arabic that
enabled cross cultural communication. Since that time, the meaning of the
term has changed and is now used to refer to a language that is used as a
bridge language, one that enables individuals from different cultures, with
different primary languages, to communicate (Jenkins & Leung, 2013;
Merriam Webster, 2016). Given that English is one of the most spoken
languages in the world, and one of the most commonly used languages in
business, it is unsurprising that this area of study, English communication
within the workplace, has gained attention in recent years (Briguglio, 2015;
Jenkins & Leung, 2013). Interpersonal communication within the workplace
setting was a largely unexplored area of research in the past, yet with the
increased push toward globalization, the area has come under greater
scrutiny (DeKay, 2012).
It is not a matter of dispute that a great deal of communication occurs
in English, particularly in the areas of international business and in
multinational corporations. Nor is it surprising that such a trend associated
with the use of English as the primary means of international communication
will continue within the business world (Briguglio, 2015). In spite of the
surety associated with such statements on the part of current researchers and
analysts on English continuity, a good portion of the extant body of literature
only explores the use of English within the business world as a broad topic.
Researchers have failed to shift their focus to a more internal exploration of
the use of English within the workplace setting (DeKay, 2012). Still, in
recent years, there has been somewhat of a shift (DeKay, 2012).
Cavaliere, Glasscock, and Sen (2014) called the English phenomenon
the Englishnization of business. They posited that difference is present
between globalization and internationalization, whereby they view
globalization as an activity and internationalization as a mindset (Cavaliere
et al., 2014). These phenomena both help and hinder doing business on a
global scale, particularly when the standard language for doing business has
become English. On the positive side, Englishnization, a term coined by the
CEO of Ratuken, has made business easier by (a) introducing money/time
savings, (b) making recruitment easier, (c) helping to narrow applicant
selection, and (d) providing negotiating advantages. Conversely,
Englishnization (a) leads to ethnocentrism, (b) conveys racism and a White
Man's Burden mentality, (c) engenders backlash, (d) reignites colonialist
tendencies, and (e) elevates a low-context individualistic culture. Cavaliere
et al. concluded that lack of attention to internationalizing business points of
view is akin to companies that ignored the importance of product quality
"with a high probability of the same disastrous results" (p.
167).
English has become the main language in business in many non-
English speaking countries, such as Japan (Moody, 2014). However, despite
the push to focus on English as the business lingua franca with yearly
TOEIC test requirements for promotions, one intern, whom Moody (2014)
shadowed, found in reality that most employees conduct their daily
conversations in Japanese and were likely to have few chances to speak
English. Using humor (he was seen both as marginalized by his low status
and wielding star power because he was the only English-speaking
employee), the intern was able to use his outsider (gaijin) status to achieve
the goal of imposing on coworkers but accomplishing work. His style
resulted in building relationships among the workers and rising above his
marginalized state (Moody, 2014). Again, interacting in unique personal
ways helps to build trust, which begins to eliminate barriers.
Within a multicultural workplace setting, certain communication
challenges arise due to the use of English as a lingua franca without
considering that issues, often loosely understood, may arise from slang,
colloquialisms, metaphors, and similes. Challenges also include the
variances that occur due to the difference between how languages are taught
(Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013). Slang, colloquialisms, metaphors, and similes
are a part of the common vernacular, even though those who speak English
as a primary language are often not fully aware of their use within the
conversational context (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013). For a person who
speaks English as a secondary language, however, difficulties may arise
because these types of language structures are not easily translatable if they
are translatable at all (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013). Failure to ask for
clarification or the assumption that the message, complete with symbolic
context, is understood results in communication failure due to
misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and lack of awareness (Angouri &
Miglbauer, 2013).
While many people improve their use of a secondary language over
time, the manner in which any language is taught is different from the
manner in which it is spoken by a native language speaker (James, 2013;
Richards, 1971). In spite of awareness of this discrepancy for more than 40
years, the practical application of this awareness is not commonly employed,
creating further barriers to communication (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013;
James, 2013; Richards, 1971). This lack of awareness is not to state,
however, that it is not taken into consideration at all. Instead, it indicates that
a practical means of addressing language barriers within the workplace is not
commonly explored. Furthermore, although it is known that those who have
taken a second language are less proficient than native speakers, allowances
are not made to ensure that communication occurs smoothly within the
workplace setting within the confines of most organizations (Angouri &
Miglbauer, 2013; James, 2013; Richards, 1971). Aware of this discrepancy
between the awareness of a given piece of knowledge and the application of
that knowledge toward a resolution of a problem, certain researchers have
started to explore the manner in which such concerns and considerations
may be addressed.
Lu (2016) recognized the presence of this particular form of language
barrier. To determine ways in which this consideration could be addressed,
Lu conducted a case study within a business in Taiwan where English was
used as a primary means of communication. The researcher sought to
determine whether the use of role playing activities within a group-based
setting could increase workplace communication (Lu, 2016). In creating and
implementing these workplace activities, it was found that all parties, both
native speakers and ESL speakers, were able to reduce barriers to
communication within the workplace setting. In this case, all employees,
both those acting out their parts and those who were in the audience awaiting
their turns to engage in the activity, were able to see the areas in which the
communication barriers arose (Lu, 2016).
Those business employees in Taiwan were able to practice their
communication skills. They were able to learn how to communicate more
effectively through the use of body language, reflection on the experience,
and increased awareness of the situation itself (Lu, 2016). This activity
served to indicate that the matter is less one of a linguistic barrier and more
so about the amount of time and attention given to the other party in the
communication process. In actively working to try to understand the other
person, instead of simply assuming that understanding in communication
occurred, the participants were able to increase the overall effectiveness of
their organization (Lu, 2016).
This lack of attention to the matter was further explored, not through
the use of role playing, but instead as a result of a test designed to assess the
competency of Malaysian students in the English language. The research
took place in an organization whose primary form of communication was in
English (Sarudin, Noor, Zubari, Ahmad, & Nordin, 2013). While knowing
English was a requirement for working in the organization, the researchers
wished to explore communication barriers within the workplace. In
conducting their study, the researchers devised a 14-item survey
questionnaire, the results of which were backed up with the use of interviews
and discussion groups (Sarudin et al., 2013). The findings indicated that
while the individuals may have been able to speak English, their grasp of the
language was not extensive, creating interoffice communication barriers
(Sarudin et al., 2013).
Sarudin et al. (2013) stressed the need for the creation of an
international competency test in English to ensure that workers had the
appropriate qualifications. The matter, however, is far from that simple, for
the ability to provide answers on a test is far different from speaking the
language and communicating using that language (Richard, 1971).
Moslehifar and Ibrahim (2012) explored the same topic within Malaysian
organizations and pointed out that what is needed is an understanding of the
use of English oral language communication skills. The researchers claimed
that it is the responsibility of the human resources department to provide
additional training options as needed. That way, no individual would
experience discrimination, while at the same time communication challenges
would decrease and the ability of workers to communicate with one another
would improve (Moslehifar & Ibrahim, 2012).
The process of providing training in speaking the English language is
known as English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) training and has become
quite common in many Asiatic countries (Xie & Adamson, 2015). In spite of
this process, English language training options are not offered by the
majority of companies within the United States, given the assumption that all
of America's inhabitants speak English. This assumption is one that could
not be further from the truth. America was, at its time of founding, a melting
pot, and its status has not changed to this day. It is often that individuals
from all over the world makes their way to the United States, for reasons
ranging from the completion of business deals to a desire to move to another
country.
The reason itself does not matter. What is of concern is that these
multicultural shifts mean that though English is a majority language spoken
within the United States, it is by no means the only one. In America, as in
other countries, English has become lingua franca (Jenkins & Leung, 2013).
Thus, the awareness of a communication barrier stemming from the
variances between the spoken word and the way that the language is taught
means that the problems that are being addressed overseas are not being
addressed, or not being addressed on a large scale within U.S. companies
(Ladegaard & Jenks,
2015).
The problem stems from the fact that, while there has seemingly been
a decreased focus on culture within the workplace setting, in theory, it is not
a process that has a smooth transition (Ladegaard & Jenks, 2015). Simply
ignoring the problem of intercultural communication in the workplace does
not make it go away. It also does not work to assume that because
globalization is common, all people are versed in the culture, mannerisms,
body language, or methods of communication as much as everyone else
(Ladegaard & Jenks, 2015). This matter is further exacerbated by the fact
that while there are many theories regarding the best means by which to
address the matter, there is limited evidence of the application of those
theories to practice within U.S. businesses
(Ladegaard & Jenks, 2015).
Communication and Leadership
Not all communication issues occur between customers and
employees, or between employers and employees. Some of those concerns
occur because of communication barriers between leaders and those they are
tasked with leading, the other employees within the organization. Ellis
(2013) indicated the importance of accountability by those in leadership
positions, focusing on the realm of communication. Ellis’s primary concern
was communication and the removal of communication barriers from the
leadership perspective and within leadership positions. Ellis claimed that the
responsibility for the removal of such barriers should be placed primarily on
the individual within the leadership position, but that equal blame should be
laid on the leader and the other members of the communication interaction.
As with the previous studies that have sought to explore the matter of
addressing communication concerns and barriers within the workplace
setting, this researcher did not offer up any recommendations as to address
the matter.
Other researchers have explored leadership-driven communication
initiatives within a given workplace setting to identify the various obstacles
present within these types of initiatives (Donahue, Miller, Smith, Dykes, &
Fitzpatrick, 2011). Donahue et al. (2011) sought to explore one such
program present at the Danbury Hospital. The researchers determined that
communication issues do arise because of cultural issues and language
barriers and that such barrier and issues are not limited to one single
discipline (Donahue et al., 2011).
The process employed by the hospital as a communication initiative
was referred to as the EMPOWER program, acting as a four-step process by
which the administrators believed that communication barriers would be
reduced (Donahue et al., 2011). This process consisted of the
communicator/receiver employed by the hospital assessing the situation,
identifying the cultural background of those involved in the communication,
evaluating the best means of approaching the topic to be discussed, and
implementing recommendations toward the completion of effective
communication (Donahue et al., 2011). While the researchers explored the
initiative implemented by the hospital in great depth, offering what appears
to be a viable means by which to address such barriers and issues, they failed
to indicate whether the program was successful in the actual reduction of
communication errors (Donahue et al., 2011).
The method that was used in the present study is qualitative narrative
inquiry. Most of the studies reviewed in Chapter 2 were qualitative, yet I
found only one study that used narrative inquiry. Bosher and Stocker (2015)
gathered narratives from 19 nurses on their use of English in the workplace
in Taiwan, a non-English speaking country. The inquiry yielded rich results
regarding understanding how and why English is used. The themes that
emerged were professionalism care for patients, and advancement in one’s
position. Using English had benefits in conversing with health care
professionals as well as international caregivers. It also was of significant
benefit to keep up with medical literature for professional development.
Bosher and Stocker found that nurses emphasized English more for
communicating with foreign caregivers than they did for foreign patients or
their family members. The researchers recommended the study results to be
used in ENP course development and the use of English in places where it is
considered a foreign language.
Summary and Conclusions
The lack of effective communication in the workplace is an issue that
creates a host of concerns for those involved, and for immigrant workers
with non-English speaking backgrounds, this issue becomes even more
complex (Akomolafe, 2013; Carr & Dekemel-Ichikawa, 2012; Kulkarni,
2015). I selected communication theory as the theoretical foundation that
provides the groundwork for this study. Communication theory allows for
the exploration of the basic means by which individuals communicate with
one another, though there is some variation regarding when researchers
believed that the theory came into existence. I selected the transactional
model of communication as the conceptual framework for the model, a
model that has its roots in communications theory itself. Barnlund presented
this model of communication in 1970, a model that involves sending and
receiving messages. While such a model might appear simple, Barnlund
(1970) indicated that the process of sending, receiving, decoding, and
responding to the message, a process referred to as a feedback channel, is
one that is constantly interrupted by what is known as noise. Noise can be
anything, but it can specifically involve differences in culture, knowledge
base, awareness, and understanding of the subject being explored within the
context of the communication medium
(Barnlund, 1970).
Among the other topics explored within the literature review, in
addition to a thorough review of the theoretical foundation and conceptual
framework were communication, communication barriers, communication
and culture, communication and business, communication and the
workplace, and communication and leadership. A thorough exploration of
each of these topics serves to provide an understanding of this complex
matter. The matter involves not only at the issues that are present therein, but
also some of the solutions suggested by researchers and the myriad ways that
communication can fail. As a result, negative interactions can occur between
culture and communication in the business environment, both domestically
and internationally.
Although many studies have focused on communication in the
business world and how culture and communication relate, there are fewer
studies in the literature on the lived experiences of non-English speaking
immigrant workers in overcoming language and cultural communication
challenges in the workplace. Globalization has resulted in diverse employees
in not just business but also in many different fields from maintenance work
to professional positions (Akhavan, 2012; Akomolafe, 2013; Levitt, 2014).
Not only is communication through language important, but for immigrant
employees, culture has major effects on how people communicate in
interpersonal relationships (Guffey & Loewy, 2012). One example is
nonverbal communication in which common hand symbols in one language
would be offensive in another (Bonaccio et al., 2016).
A common theme among many studies was identified as trust.
Developing trust (often through encouraged camaraderie and diversity
training) has been a prevalent theme in many studies that explore cultural
and language barriers and how to overcome them (e.g., Clayton et al., 2016;
Hofhuis et al., 2016; Ling et al., 2013; Reznickova, 2015). Due to
ethnocentrism and stereotyping common in human nature all around the
world, trust is indeed a characteristic that needs development to overcome
the former negative traits common in the workplace as it transitions into a
nonhomogeneous setting (Ling et al., 2013). One cannot take for granted that
employees who have experienced the transformation from a monocultural
workplace to a more diverse one will accept the changes without the biases
inherent in ethnocentricity. Therefore, diversity training and informal
socialization are important to help overcome barriers to communication
(Clayton et al., 2016; Hofhuis et al., 2016; Moslehifar & Ibrahim, 2012; Xie
& Adamson, 2015).
An increased awareness of the difficulties that are faced by most and
ignored by many makes it possible to gain increased insight and
understanding of cultural communication experienced by immigrant
employees. It is not possible to completely negate the effects of culture and
communication, or to separate the two within the workplace setting.
However, awareness of the problem is the first step in mitigating the issues
that are currently found regarding obstacles caused by cultural and
communication issues in the workplace. Chapter 3 provides detailed
information into the way the study was conducted, thereby increasing the
validity and reliability of the study itself.
Following the presentation of such information, the results of the study are
discussed in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3: Research Method
The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study was to explore
and describe the experiences of non-English speaking immigrant workers
and ESL workers. I examined the participants' narratives on overcoming
language and cultural communication challenges in the workplace, which
allowed for a description and understanding of how communications and
culture in the workplace form the perspectives of each participant's
worldview and understanding. The aim of this study was to accomplish the
task of understanding how non-English speaking immigrants experience
language and cultural challenges by exploring various written and oral
communication barriers that occur among employees and immigrant
workers.
In this study, the participants were asked to recount details of the
various communication issues they had faced within the context of their
work environment. I explored such issues by recording the experiences of
the participants through the lens of culturally diverse non-English speaking
and ESL employees of American companies (Akomolafe, 2013; Neeley,
2013). Chapter 3 details the steps through which the research study itself
was completed. The presentation of this information can increase the validity
and reliability of the study. To ensure the presence of the same, Chapter 3
presents the research design, role of the researcher, methodology, and
various issues of trustworthiness.
Research Design and Rationale
The research question set forth for resolution during the study
completion is identified as "How do non-English speakers or English as a
Second Language speakers (ESL speakers) describe their communication
experiences in the workplace?" The central concepts that were explored
within the context of the study are the application of communication within
the workplace setting and an exploration of the myriad of ways in which
culture and communication influence one another within the context of the
work environment (Wang et al., 2011). The complex and interconnected
nature of the relationship between culture and communication can create
areas of concern not only when looking at the communication practices
among individuals, but also in identifying current issues, allowing for the
creation of recommendations that may be tested in future studies.
To accomplish such a task, I selected a qualitative narrative inquiry as
the ideal means by which to collect, analyze, report, and present the data.
The qualitative research tradition enables exploring of the sum of the area of
interest, allowing the researcher to collect pertinent information that is not
available in numerical format (Creswell, 2013). Given that the information
that was collected from participants concerned their thoughts and
perceptions regarding workplace communication, a qualitative study was the
most appropriate choice, for such information cannot be presented in a
quantitative format (Creswell, 2013).
Five primary research designs can be employed in the completion of
qualitative studies: the case study, a phenomenological study, an
ethnography study, a grounded theory study, or a narrative research study
(Creswell, 2013; 2014; Lewis, 2015; Maxwell, 2012; Merriam, 2014;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The narrative inquiry, or narrative study, was
determined to be the most effective after reviewing each of the five different
selections. Narrative inquiry was first known in the management science
field and later in the knowledge management field, which can also be related
to information management (Cleveland, 1989). This form of qualitative
research is centered on the life experiences narrated by people who had an
experience with an emphasis on learning in any field
(Chase, 2013). Even if related to one individual, the narratives are
considered valuable (OMICS International, 2014), which makes narrative
inquiry an appropriate method for exploring the experiences of non-English
speakers in the workplace.
Lenfesty et al. (2016) claimed that narrative thinking gives the
researcher a storytelling vocabulary from which arise global meaning and
sense making. The researcher can get data from field notes, interviews,
journals, and other sources (Lenfesty et al., 2016). Further, a theoretical lens
offers a structure toward advocating for particular groups, and the findings
can give a voice to those who are not always acknowledged (Lenfesty et al.,
2016). The participants in the study had extensive experience as employees
who are culturally diverse and for whom English is not their primary
language.
Looking first to the case study research design, I knew this particular
method is most appropriate when researchers seek to explain a set of
circumstances surrounding a given phenomenon. Case study can assist in
making contributions to the extant body of literature, regarding both the
knowledge of a given group and its associated phenomena (Yin, 2012;
2014). The extant body of literature indicates that there is a need to explore
areas of communication barriers pertaining to cultural and linguistic
differences outside of the realm of education or healthcare. Indications are
present for the need to explore the construct within the context of other
business environments as well as dictating the necessity for more than
simply generalized information regarding the way to address such concerns
(Akhavan, 2012; Carr & Dekemel-Ichikawa, 2012; Chitakornkijsil, 2010;
Dawood & O'Sullivan, 2012; Free et al., 2014; Parthab Taylor et al., 2013;
Sun, 2011; Tian & Borges, 2011).
In the case of the present study, the participant sample was less rigid
than the type of group definition that is best suited to the case study, and
case study would narrow the scope of the study to a certain organization,
environment, or individual (Denzin, 2012). Under those circumstances, the
effectiveness of the study would decrease and contribute to further gaps
(Denzin, 2012). Therefore, case study was dismissed. Ethnography is most
commonly employed in cultural anthropological studies or when the
researcher is to act as an observer participant (Denzin, 2012). However,
because neither of these criteria would be present within the current study,
this design was deemed unsuitable as well (Creswell, 2013; 2014; Lewis,
2015; Maxwell, 2012). Likewise, ethnography was considered unsuitable for
the study because it would only offer scientific descriptions of customs of
individual people or cultures, but not provide an effective exploration among
multiple non-English speaking cultures (Denzin, 2012).
I considered phenomenology because this design could have enabled
me to explore a given phenomenon. Still, considering the nature of the target
population and the number of hours necessary to obtain the data for use in a
phenomenological study, I deemed this design inappropriate due to time
constraints (Creswell, 2013; 2014; Lewis, 2015; Maxwell, 2012). Thus, I
discarded phenomenology because it addresses lived experiences, generally
through face-to-face interviews, interviews relative to narrative inquiry
regarding communication challenges in the natural work environment of the
participant (Frost, 2011). It would provide rich data in fields where
communication is essential to the participants' stories of human interaction in
the workplace (Reissman & Speedy, 2006). Finally, grounded theory design
was considered unsuitable for this study because the communication theory
was used as a conceptual framework and no new theories needed to be
developed (Marshall & Rossman, 2015). This elimination process left the
narrative approach, which allowed for multiple participants from different
target groups to make up the participant pool. This situation made narrative
inquiry ideally suited to the completion of this study and the collection of
varied perspectives through semistructured interviews until data are
saturated and no new information is obtained
(Creswell, 2013; 2014; Lewis, 2015; Maxwell, 2012).
Role of the Researcher
The researcher has several different roles, responsibilities, and actions
that must be adopted to finish the study. These roles included the following:
(a) the role of the researcher, which includes researching the data necessary
to complete the literature review, collecting the data from participants, and
analyzing the collected data; (b) the role of the analyst, in which I reviewed
all of the data collected, ensuring that all necessary information was present
and completing a full analysis of available data, ensuring that the research
question being asked was answerable with the collected information and that
the material would be evaluated in full; (c) the role of the writer: After
reviewing the information uncovered during the research and analysis
processes, I wrote up the information ensuring that all data were taken into
consideration, all pertinent information was included, and all collected
information was appropriately considered; (d) the role of proofreader and
editor, in which I reviewed the completed document, ensuring that the
appropriate levels of continuity were maintained throughout the document,
that spelling and grammar were correct, and that the paper not only flowed
logically but that it also addressed all aspects relevant to and required by the
study; and (e) the role of the submitter, in which I would submit the
completed write up of the study, ensuring that the research and submission
process were concluded.
In addition to the adoption of each of these roles, I took on the role of
the observer, obtaining data from the participants, and observing their body
language and facial expressions during the interviews. No prior personal or
professional relationships were present between the participants and me. As
in the completion of all studies, there was the potential for researcher bias,
wherein the researcher views the data through the lens of the expected
outcome, inadvertently skewing collected data (Pannucci & Wilkins, 2010).
To negate the possibility of bias, I maintained awareness of the
potential for bias but also worked to ensure that, in the review of the data,
there were no preconceived notions as to what to expect the results of the
study to be. There were no other ethical issues to be considered outside of
those that were discussed in detail in a subsequent section. There were no
interviews conducted at my office and there was no relationship between the
participants and me.
Methodology
The purpose of presenting the methodology employed in the
completion of a study is to ensure that other researchers have all of the
information necessary to replicate the study, should they so desire (Ladwig,
2016; Pickard, 2012; Wiberg, 2014). The presence and inclusion of this
information ensure test-retest reliability, which serves to increase the overall
validity of the results collected (Ladwig, 2016; Pickard, 2012; Resch et al.,
2013; Wiberg, 2014). To ensure that all information necessary was present
and included, I presented the participant selection logic, the instrumentation,
pilot study, procedures for recruitment and participation, and the data
analysis plan.
Participant Selection Logic
To ensure that the participants were able to provide the data necessary
to answer the identified research question, 20 participants who were over the
age of 18 and who were not native English speakers were asked to share
their experiences about workplace communications. Such criteria ensured
that all aspects of communication relating to those of different backgrounds
for whom English was not a primary language were taken into consideration.
All individuals were required to have full time jobs. The participants I
recruited were individuals in their mid-30s and above, with mid-career level
jobs in fields such as accounting, banking, management and administration,
finance, IT, and marketing, with at least 5 years’ experience.
The sampling strategy was purposive sampling to ensure that all
participants were of various cultural backgrounds so that no one cultural
background was overly representative within the sample population. This
strategy ensured that more than one individual perspective from a given
culture was included to ensure a greater level of generalizability. The sample
size was selected to make sure that there was representation from different
non-English speaking cultures.
Participant recruitment occurred through the use of physically posted
signage in the form of fliers and in the form of online posts requesting
individuals who fit the criteria listed in the previous paragraph to respond to
a given phone number or email address if interested in participating. Once
the potential participants contacted me, I asked them to state their age, to
provide information on their cultural backgrounds, and to confirm that
English was not their primary language. When the potential participants
confirmed these facts, I explained the purpose of the study and provided
information on the semistructured interviews regarding how and where
English becomes a language problem at their work. If potential participants
agreed to participate in the study, they were requested to provide an email
address in which an informed consent form was sent to them. The
individuals were then asked to sign the informed consent form electronically
and forward the document back to me. Once I received the informed consent
forms, I counted the individuals as active participants in the study.
Instrumentation
Following the recruitment of participants, I scheduled semistructured
face-to-face interviews with the 20 participants in which I asked them a list
of open ended questions (see Appendix A). The interviews took place in a
conference room at the participant’s workplace or another place of their
choosing at the participant’s convenience. The interviews were recorded on a
digital recorder and lasted appropriately half an hour to 45 minutes.
Furthermore, I was taking handwritten notes on the narratives and including
my observations on body language and facial expressions to capture the
personal and emotional impact of the involvement in coping with
communication barriers on the participants. For a sample interview
transcript, see Appendix B.
Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection
Once the participants were recruited, the interviews were concluded,
and the digitally recorded interviews were transcribed by a professional
transcriber, I contacted all the participants by either phone or email. I
explained that the study was concluded and that I could answer any
questions that the participants had. I reminded them that participation in the
study was voluntary and confirmed the responses provided to me. If the
participants thought of anything else to expand or elaborate on in the
described situations, I noted that, including the date and time of the event, if
the event was described in the interviews, what was missing, and what
additional information the participant had. This process served as a form of
member check to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data (Harper &
Cole, 2012; Reilly, 2013; Torreance, 2012).
Data Analysis Plan
Given the presence of a single research question, all the data collected
via the instrument were directly connected to the identified research
question. Since all the recorded information was in direct relationship to
barriers and culture in the workplace, all the data collected were pertinent to
the resolution of the research question. I was looking for common threads
throughout the participants' stories about communication barriers in the
workplace to help me in my data analysis, at the time that I conducted the
semistructured interviews. When the interviews went through the
transcription process via a professional transcriptionist (who signed a
confidentiality agreement), I compared the transcripts and my handwritten
notes to aid in developing categories and themes (Marshall & Rossman,
2014; Stake, 2013). Coding the data assisted in the understanding of the
participants' narratives of communication barriers they experienced in the
workplace as immigrant employees whose first language was not English.
When conducting qualitative research, the coding system typically
consists of reviewing the collected data for a word, phrase, or construct that
the researcher assigns to a given piece of data or data set (Creswell, 2013;
Saldana, 2008). The identification of this word or phrase serves as a means
of assisting the researcher in summarizing the type of content present within
the collected raw data. It guarantees that the researcher is not only able to
retrieve the information easily, promptly, and precisely but that all themes
are identified to ensure the successful exploration of the collected data
(Saldana, 2008). Without the use of such a system, the researcher would be
less efficient in the analysis of data; the coding process ensures efficiency
while at the same time ensuring that others are able to understand the system
being employed should the experiment need to be replicated (Saldana,
2008). Any discrepancies in theme or information presented were noted
carefully, allowing for accuracy in the reporting and presentation of the
collected results.
Issues of Trustworthiness
Credibility
I established credibility through the collected data, member checks,
and saturation reached through the consistent identification of themes, as
documented through the codification process (Harper & Cole, 2012; Reilly,
2013; Saldana, 2008; Torreance, 2012). The self-reported data did have the
potential for decreased credibility. However, member checks were used to
confirm what the participants said and my knowledge and awareness of the
same words to boost overall credibility (Harper & Cole, 2012; Reilly, 2013;
Torreance, 2012). I achieved saturation through the continued presence and
representation of common themes.
Transferability
The transferability of the study refers to the external validity of the
study (Koos, Mouret, & Doncieux, 2013; Wenger & Olden, 2012). Such
transferability was present because data saturation was achieved even if the
participants worked in different industries and had different cultural
backgrounds. In fact, those self-same variations in participant selection
assisted to ensure the transferability of the study, for it served to indicate that
the collected data were similar regardless of workplace environment or
cultural background. Such factors for consideration were present due to the
absence of
English as the primary language of the individual.
Dependability
Dependability assumes that the study is replicable and repeatable and
that the results obtained when the study is or was repeated would be similar
to those obtained by the initial researcher. The findings would be in keeping
with the documentation presented by the original researcher in the write up
of the study (Funder et al., 2014; Saldana, Scherer, Rodriguez-Barraquer,
Jampel, & Dickersin, 2016). The presence of the content contained within
the chapter and within the study should offer the necessary information to
assist future researchers in recreating the study. This situation would depend
on whether my recommendations are implemented and whether additional
efforts are made in the future to address this growing concern within the
business world (Wang et al., 2011). It would depend on the likelihood of the
answers matching up. I would expect that the answers would not match up in
the future, for I believe that efforts would have been made to decrease
communication barriers within the workplace setting regardless of primary
language through future endeavors.
Confirmability
Confirmability refers to "the degree to which the results could be
confirmed or corroborated by others" (Trochim, 2006, p. 1). Member checks
assist in confirming the study data, serving as both a means of providing
credibility by confirming the recorded data (Harper & Cole, 2012; Reilly,
2013; Torreance, 2012). By the same token, additional audits of the data
may be conducted, and, if necessary, additional data can be collected from
participants to confirm their additional experiences, verifying the presence of
the communication barriers and the manner in which they present
themselves within the construct of the participant's workplace. Still, another
method that could be used, if necessary, would be to contact various
nonaffiliated employers. Researchers could request they discuss their
interaction with non-English as a primary language staff to confirm the types
of events that participants detailed using the "Devil's advocate" approach
(Trochim, 2006, p. 1).
Ethical Procedures
When a researcher undertakes the task of conducting primary
research, certain matters must be considered, particularly when the primary
study being conducted requires human participants (Driscoll & Brizee,
2012). Since the research was conducted while I was affiliated with an
institute of higher learning, the most important consideration was the
acquisition of approval by the Institutional Review Board (IRB Approval
#04-18-17-0311755), an entity tasked with ensuring that there are no human
rights violations or ethical violations in the completion of the research.
When researchers conduct studies using human participants, they are
responsible for ensuring that all ethical standards for research are followed
before, during, and after the data collection process (Driscoll & Brizee,
2012).
If materials collected from humans are being utilized in the
completion of the research project, obtaining written consent is not
necessary, particularly if the written content is part of public domain already
(Driscoll & Brizee, 2012). An example of material in the public domain is
published content written by a third party in which the third party is not a
part of the information being gathered. This practice does not mean,
however, that such use can go without acknowledgment. Citing this
information to ensure that the author receives credit is sufficient (Driscoll &
Brizee, 2012).
Returning to the human participants, however, said participants must
agree to participate in the study. It is not enough, however, to simply obtain
verbal consent from the individuals who have agreed to participate in the
study. When human participants are providing data directly to the researcher
to be used in the completion of the study, the researcher is responsible for
obtaining written consent from the participant to use the information
collected (Driscoll & Brizee, 2012). The consent form may be made by the
researcher or a generic consent form may be used, with the researcher tasked
with inputting study specific information to ensure that all ethical
considerations are addressed (Driscoll & Brizee, 2012).
Ensuring that the research being conducted is ethical is a vital part of
the research process, for studies that extend beyond the boundaries of
acceptable norms, behaviors, or content, such as instances in which
participants are manipulated, serve to invalidate the data being collected
(Resnik, 2016). Thus, the inclusion of ethical considerations is vital to not
only providing credibility to the research but assisting others in replicating
the process while at the same time ensuring that all participants are treated
appropriately, a vital practice since World War II (Resnik, 2016). In the case
of this study, I first obtained IRB approval (IRB Approval #04-18-17-
0311755; see Appendix C). Following this, I obtained informed consent
forms from each of the participants. Once the informed consent forms were
obtained from the participants, they were reminded that their participation in
the study was voluntary and that they could stop participation at any time.
They were provided with information to contact Walden University and me
if they had any questions or concerns (Punch, 2013).
Rowley (2012) suggested that letter coding can be used to protect each
participant's confidentiality. The participants received an assigned code
identifier specific to them even if the participant withdraws. The consent of
participants is consistent during the interview process. Participant consent is
primary to the research process (Punch, 2013). If at any time the participant
did not want to continue the interview process, the interview would conclude
immediately. If a participant withdrew from the study, the participant would
receive the audio, transcripts, and any notes of his interview during and after
the interview process.
In addition to ensuring that informed consent was obtained, the
participant data was kept confidential. I used number coding so that each
participant's identity was confidential (Rowley, 2012). Each participant was
assigned an identification code and it was kept even if the participant
withdrew from the study. Furthermore, all the participants’ data are to be
kept confidential, and any identifying information is to be scrubbed from the
collected data.
I am the only party to have access to the collected data, and all the
data collected are to be stored in a locked location (i.e., in a password locked
file on my computer if emailed back to the researcher, or in a locked drawer
in my office if mailed back to me). I shared the interview transcripts with the
participants to conduct member checking to ensure the collected narratives
as told in the interview are valid and depict the reality of their experiences
(Denzin, 2012; Harper & Cole, 2012). All the data collected are to be stored
for a period of no more than 5 years following the completion of the study
and then they would be destroyed.
Summary
Chapter 3 detailed the reasons that a qualitative narrative inquiry was
chosen as the research design and method justifying the use and indicating
why the other potential design options for a qualitative study would not be
effective or would not be as effective as the design chosen. The role of the
researcher was discussed to define the actions that I took in the completion
of the study. Next are the findings that were used to complete the study.
Chapter 3 allowed for identifying the participant selection logic and
discussing the instrumentation to be used in the completion of the study; the
procedures for recruitment, participation, and data collection; and the plan
for data analysis. Next, I addressed the issues of trustworthiness, including
those of credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and all
ethical procedures and practices as well as the reason for their inclusion.
With the provision of this information, it is possible to increase the overall
validity of the study by ensuring that it could be recreated if another
researcher so desired. It would also be possible to make sure that there
would be no confusion on the part of any reader regarding how I acted to
complete the study. The presentation of such information ensures that the
data presented in the following chapter, the results of the study, are
appropriately framed within the context of the study as a whole.
Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study was to explore
and describe the experiences of non-English speaking immigrant workers
and ESL workers. To accomplish this task, I completed 20 interviews with
participants who matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria previously
discussed in Chapter 3. I completed them over a 1-month period. The
participants in the study were provided with informed consent forms. Once
they signed and returned the forms, I coordinated with them to set up the
best date and time that did not conflict with their schedules.
At the interview, I provided the interviewee with a copy of the signed
informed consent form with a number written at the top right-hand corner. I
wrote the corresponding number on my copy of the transcript to ensure that
if the participant desired to remove him or herself from the study, I could
find the interview coded with the same numerical value and pull the
information without breaching his or her confidentiality. It also provided a
means for me to identify participants to complete the member check process
following the interview transcriptions without including any identifying
information in the collected data used in the completion of this study.
The participants agreed, as indicated on the informed consent form, to
the audio recording of the interviews. Each interview was transcribed less
than 48 hours following its completion. After the transcription process, I
completed a quality check by listening to the interviews again and compared
the transcribed interview to the audio recording to ensure accuracy of the
transcription. Once I was satisfied that the text of the transcribed interviews
matched the spoken words on the recording then I contacted the participants.
I sent the transcribed interviews for them to review for accuracy and to
confirm that the spoken words were in alignment with what they wanted to
express on the study topic (Harper & Cole, 2012; Reilly, 2013; Torreance,
2012). None of the participants indicated that I needed to make any changes
to the transcribed interviews.
After I completed the member check process, I used Manual Level 2 coding
(Creswell, 2013; Saldana, 2008). Within the proposal stage of this project, I
thought that I could use Atlas.ti in the completion of this project. However,
the trial version of the software would not allow me to analyze the 20
documents. The fees associated with the purchase of the program were cost
prohibitive which led me to use manual coding. The process took longer to
complete than using a computer program, but it allowed for a more thorough
analysis of results since different verbiage was used by individual
participants to discuss the same subject. Chapter 4 presents these results
followed by an evaluation of the findings within the context of the literature
previously identified and synthesized in Chapter 2. The demographic data
are presented first, followed by the analyzed results as they pertained to each
of the identified research questions.
Demographics
The demographic data I collected from the participants are within this
section. There are four different demographic data sets that I compiled from
the interviews: they are gender, age, job position, and location.
Gender
There were 11 males and nine females who were interviewed.
Age
Some of the interviewees only provided their ages range for the data
collection process. All the participants were over the age of 18 per the
inclusion criteria of the study and their ages were in the mid-30s.
Job Position
The interviewees were given the opportunity to provide information
about their jobs or the setting in which they worked. The collection of this
information has the potential to allow for greater exploration and analysis
concerning the types of situations faced within specific types of jobs,
industries, or positions. Table 1 provides information on the job positions of
participants.
There were four managers, nine assistant managers, and seven
supervisors who participated in the interview. They worked in finance,
accounting, banking, IT, and marketing.
Location
The participants were from New York City (Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan,
Bronx, and Staten Island) and Long Island.
Results
The information collected during this study was designed to answer
the primary research question: “How do immigrant workers who are non-
English speakers or English as Second Language speakers describe their
communication experiences in the workplace?” Participants were asked to
think of specific incidents that would provide a storied narrative about their
experiences as employees where English was a second language.
Table 1
Job Positions
Participant Job Position Type of Industry
Participant 1 Assistant Manager Banking
Participant 2 Assistant Manager Finance
Participant 3 Supervisor Finance
Participant 4 Manager Finance
Participant 5 Assistant Manager Accounting
Participant 6 Supervisor Marketing
Participant 7 Manager Accounting
Participant 8 Supervisor Information
Technology
Participant 9 Assistant Manager Marketing
Participant
10
Manager Finance
Participant
11
Supervisor Information
Technology
Participant
12
Assistant Manager Banking
Participant
13
Supervisor Accounting
Participant
14
Manager Information
Technology
Participant
15
Supervisor Accounting
Participant
16
Assistant Manager Marketing
Participant
17
Supervisor Banking
Participant
18
Assistant Manager Accounting
Participant
19
Assistant Manager Finance
Participant
20
Assistant Manager Information
Technology
The first question in the interview process asked participants to
describe their most memorable story, either negative or positive, about
communication barriers in the workplace. Table 2 documents the different
types of communication barriers they identified. Through a review of the
primary communication barriers faced by participants in the workplace
setting, it showed that the main communication issue that occurred was
miscommunication. Some participants indicated that their coworkers used
this lack of understanding that resulted in miscommunication between the
parties to blame those (participants) for the adverse job situations. The
second most common communication barrier faced by participants in the
workplace environment was not being aware of the appropriate terms to use
which resulted in one of two types of situations.
One situation resulted when the participants were unsure of how to
communicate effectively with a coworker or a customer and they did not
know the appropriate terms to use to describe succinctly what needed to be
done. The other situation was when they found themselves in circumstances
in which they were unsure of what they were being asked since they did not
know the meaning of the words that was being used to describe an object or
to explain a task that needed completing. The individuals involved in these
situations occasionally created adverse conditions for the participants.
Table 2
Communication Barriers
Participant Communication barrier
Participant 1 Unable to clearly express self/ Need to use alternative
means of communication
Participant 2 Miscommunication/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant 3 Miscommunication/ Need to use alternative means of
communication
Participant 4 Loss of respect/ Need to use alternative means of
communication
Participant 5 Delays in work completion/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant 6 Miscommunication
Participant 7 Miscommunication/ Delays in work completion
Participant 8 Lack of appropriate terms / Need to use alternative means
of communication
Participant 9 Miscommunication/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant
10
Miscommunication/ Loss of respect
Participant
11
Miscommunication/ Delays in work completion
Participant
12
Miscommunication/Lack of understanding
Participant
13
Miscommunication/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant
14
Miscommunication/ Loss of respect
Participant
15
Lack of appropriate terms/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant
16
Lack of appropriate terms/ Unable to clearly express self
Participant
17
Miscommunication/ Delays in work completion
Participant
18
Unable to clearly express oneself/ Need to use alternative
means of communication
Participant
19
Miscommunication/ Lack of appropriate terms
Participant
20
Miscommunication/ Lack of appropriate terms
Sometimes the interviewees would find themselves facing disciplinary
action with their supervisors. Other times, they had the potential to lose the
respect of the employees who they were managing. The verbatim description
by Participant 3 of one such situation: “The persons who I work with were
more fluent in English and they were able to address the problem much
better.” Participant 3 continued, “And that put me into a position where as a
supervisor I was seen as ‘okay, you cannot address the situation.’ So, you do
clash sometimes with your coworkers.” So that was one barrier like you
know I had at the workplace and there are many more miscommunications
like that.”
The participants were next asked to explain the extent to which their
English language fluency affected their performance in the workplace. All
the participants who provided a direct answer to this question indicated that
their level of English language fluency highly impacted their performance
within the workplace setting. Participant 19 provided a somewhat succinct
explanation of how the lack of fluency could affect a business: “I did have a
problem when…when they speak with me tell me to pick up this I don’t
understand. I pick something else. And when I go after two, three months,
then I pick up their accent, you know?” Participant 19 continued: “Then at
first, I feel some more problems than I used to. Then, after they tell me to
bring something, then I understand after like five, six months.”
Participant 19 was not the only one who explained this phenomenon
during the interview. As the others increased their grasp of the English
language, they were able to improve the overall ease with which they were
able to accomplish their job. Only one participant had a job where it was felt
that the use of English, however poor or well spoken, was not necessary.
Participant 8 explained that they worked in a highly multicultural setting,
stating, “English is very easy and is very strong and helpful, but if there is no
English language I cannot work here. I work with many types of client
accents. So, if I don’t know English, I cannot communicate with them.” This
story was the only example from a participant who believed that the
communication barriers of
English are so high that it is a hindrance in using English as an international
language. All the other participants expressed that if a person’s English was
poor; it was detrimental to workplace performance.
The next question asked was an exploration of the extent to which
they felt English language fluency was vital when it came to getting a
promotion. I should note that the initial question on the semistructured
interview guide was the following: “To what extent is English language
fluency important when it comes to getting promotions?” I asked many of
the participants the question as presented in the interview guide, however, I
asked some a variation on this question such as Participant 7 and the
question asked was, “How important is English language (fluency) when
considering promotions to your staff?”
While changes in the question, such as this, may seem initially
different, these variations ultimately served to decrease the overall ability to
analyze the responses because they finally change the question and change
the type of answer being given. As such, in analyzing the answers given to
questions asked of participants that included the combination of the idea of a
promotion within the workplace and the relationship of that to fluency in
English, I had to complete a more generalized analysis. The responses
provided by participants varied in relation to the question I asked of them.
Each participant did answer the specific question asked of him or her, but the
variations provided served to focus on the creation of a more overall picture
of perceived influence in the scope, as opposed to allowing for the collection
of answers to a specific question that could be analyzed. Participants
expressed, on the whole, that their level of English fluency did affect their
likelihood of attaining a promotion.
Participant 16 used an example of a coworker’s predicament as a
means of explaining the crux of the problem:
One of our coworkers, he is very good. He has almost 10 years of
experience. He is very good in business. Everything he knows about
the store, the staff, but the reason he cannot be promoted is his
language barrier. When it comes to handling people or the vendors,
his verbal skills are not that good. So, he simply, you know the
managers, they don’t want him to get a new position because they
know he cannot handle money matters and management level matters.
Many other participants had similar stories either about themselves and their
abilities or about the abilities of others with whom they worked.
The participants who were asked if they took English language
fluency into account when considering promotions to employees indicated
that the matter was less of a concern and it depended on the type of work
done. Participant 7 explained that the tax laws remained the same, regardless
of the language spoken and since the company worked with many
international clients, language barriers did not influence promotion as a
result. Participant 7 was the only one to indicate, however, that English
fluency was a factor in the acquisition of a promotion.
Participant 4 looked at the matter on a much broader scale, stating,
“I…think
English is important not only in America, but I think it (is important)
everywhere. But here especially because it is a main language everyone
understands and works with.” By looking at the answers provided by all the
participants, it became possible to see that the effects of English language
frequency were all encompassing, influencing their ability to move forward
in their careers and affecting their ability to advance within the companies
for which they worked.
These matters led to an exploration of the participants’ ideas regarding
the level of effort that they felt was required to be able to communicate
effectively within a workplace setting. Due to the variations of the
participants’ responses, no clear picture could be made to indicate the level
of effort that participants believed is required. Some stated that employees
must be fluent in English, others indicated that one should be able to
communicate in English at the high school or college level, while the rest of
the participants mentioned that individuals should only need to be able to
communicate to the point of making themselves understood. As Participant 4
stated, “Communication must be so much, so fluent, that it should not be an
embarrassment for a speaker and the listener.” Although the levels of
communication difficulty varied, all participants described personal
challenges.
I asked the sixth question, “To what extent would you consider (a)
lack of English language fluency a barrier towards work productivity?”
There were no two similar answers. Participant 7 stated that a lack of
English language fluency was a barrier “about maybe 5-10%,” but did not
elaborate as to the reason for providing that response. Participant 6 stated,
“Obviously I lack a vocabulary, so that is a barrier. I usually have to struggle
to find the words to explain the situation and the scenario.” This answer
explained how the barrier was present, but not the degree to which the work
productivity was affected as a result. There was no indication as to whether
this barrier caused performance issues, decreased efficacy, or only created
frustrations. Participant 1, on the other hand, just stated, “It’s a…it’s a
barrier, yes. If you could not speak good English, it’s a barrier.” It seemed
that participants had difficulty expressing the communication barriers they
faced.
The seventh question was to discuss the extent to which language
barriers could have the potential to cause emotional issues. All the
participants indicated that language barriers could result in the presence of
such challenges however briefly those emotional issues might be present.
Participant 1 explained that it was emotional there were certain problems and
the participant had to determine whether to go to a supervisor, and how to be
able to present the setback in a manner so that it might be understood and
taken seriously.
Participant 17 stated that the emotional issues came from another area
“because sometimes people make fun of you due to not knowing English and
it really affects you…it really affects all your emotions.” Others, like
Participant 19, stated that their lack of English fluency used to cause
emotional issues but that they have moved beyond such concerns. At the
same time, Participant 7 indicated that it did not cause any emotional issues
for her nor had she ever seen a language barrier create any emotional issues
for anyone else. The situational context in which the participants associated
the question, in terms of their own experiences, played a significant role in
how they answered the question. Most indicated that language barriers
could, had, or did create emotional issues or emotional setbacks for them, for
others, or both.
The participants were asked to identify whether they preferred written
or oral communication. Almost all the participants provided variations of the
same response. The type of communication preferred by participants varied
depending on the task. While there were some, like Participant 10, who
preferred one type of communication over another, this choice primarily was
focused on the kind of work being completed by the individual. Participant
10 worked with computers, so he stated that he preferred written
communication because the computer was able to assist him in ensuring that
the appropriate message was conveyed through the use of grammatical
checks. Some of those who noted that the method of communication
preferred was dependent on the situation also indicated that in written
communication, computers proved beneficial in this regard. However, the
preference for method of communication was dependent on the task.
Question 9 requested that participants explore the extent to which
English language fluency had influenced their career choices. Some
participants did not answer the question directly and they indicated that it
influenced not the career choices but how they would be able to advance
within the organization. The majority of participants answered the question
directly stating that they had been turned down for jobs that they had applied
for because they were unable to communicate effectively or speak clearly
and comprehensively. Many, like Participant 2, stated that they preferred
working for larger companies as it is the larger “companies who give you
more benefits.” Still, their lack of mastery of the English language prevented
them from being hired or being qualified for such positions, resulting in a
need to look elsewhere for employment.
Participants were next asked to describe their relationship with native
English language speaking coworkers. The responses were varied. Some
participants stated that they had strong relationships with their coworkers
because their coworkers were supportive of them learning English and
assisted with the process. Still, of those who indicated their response in such
a manner, some, like Participant 1, stated that even though their relationships
were good, they felt as though their coworkers were better than they were. In
other words, due to their lack of proficiency in the English language, they
felt inferior to those who were already well versed in the language. Others
indicated that they had fractious relationships with coworkers, due to the
way that their coworkers treated them, mocking their attempt to grasp the
English language. The type of relationship that participants had with their
coworkers seemed wholly dependent upon the type of work environment
that was present within their organizations.
Question 11 asked participants to explore the extent to which they felt
left out during team meetings due to a lack of English proficiency. Some,
like Participant 1, stated that when they do not understand something in a
team meeting, they feel left out, but they were also too shy to say anything,
or did not know the words to ask for an explanation. Others, like Participant
3, stated that although he was a supervisor, his lack of English proficiency
made it seem as though those who were working for him were not taking
what was being said seriously as a result of those language barriers or
communication difficulties. Participant 6 was one of the few participants
who indicated that she did not feel left out during team meetings due to this
lack of proficiency, stating, “I know that even with the lack of English I have
skill also. That is balanced out in both ways.” In other words, she was
confident, regardless of her lack of English proficiency, her skills and work
ethics ensured that she was not left out of the meetings.
The second to last question asked the participants to explain whether
they would prefer to work with someone who understood their native
language, or if they would prefer to work with someone who did not know
their (participant’s) native language who had a higher skill level. Responses
were equally divided between the two areas; however, the reasons for the
division between the two were different. For those who indicated that they
would prefer to work with someone who understood their native language,
the reasons given included an ability to reduce confusion, to increase ease of
understanding, and to perform better in a team.
Participant 10 stated, “I definitely prefer to work with co-workers who
speak my language and it’s really easy for me to communicate, so we can, I
think, perform better instead of working with the workers like they don’t
speak my language.” Participant 17 explained, “My native language would
be really more useful for me because I can explain things.” He continued, “I
could explain each and every point to my native language coworker and that
is very skillful. In my language, I cannot miss any point, so if we have any
confusion, we can discuss with each other.”
The other half of the participants stated they would prefer to work
with someone who did not know their language but who had a higher skill
level. A reason given in this regard included the ability to improve the
participant’s own English skills through interactions with more skilled
coworkers who do not know their (participants) own language. Another
reason was a desire for someone who knows what he or she is doing to be
the one in that position; they want the best qualified person for the job,
regardless of primary language spoken.
Participant 3 provided a response representative of the answers given
by those who would prefer to work with someone who understood their
native language, stating,
“I would say to someone who does understand, ‘We’re working at the same
level,’ which I would say is preferable. Presumably, you would say that
you’re at the same level, so you feel like you can communicate better.”
Participant 13, on the other hand, provided a response representative of those
who indicated that they would prefer someone who had a higher skill level
but who did not know the native language, stating,
I believe I’ll go with the person who is more skillful because the
language you must learn it; it’s not something you know by birth. So,
everybody can learn so many languages, but if somebody is not good
at work then yes you cannot work with that person because that’s
simply going to waste the resources, the time, the money, everything,
So, I’m going to prefer somebody who even does not know the
language, but they are good at work because it saves you the time and
energy to explain it to them. If somebody knows my language, but is
bad at work, what am I going to do with that person? I can’t teach
them because skills are not to be taught; they are to be polished; they
are to be self-learned. So, I can’t tell them do this do that or make
them do something. I have to be very careful in choosing the person,
and I’ll definitely choose the person who’s good at work.
The final question asked was if they were willing to share any stories
regarding their day-to-day interactions with coworkers and communication
barriers that arose between them in their place of employment. Some
participants provided stories to explain the different communication barriers
faced within the workplace. Others indicated that they did not wish to
provide any additional information, and still others simply provided the
communication barriers that they identified within the workplace.
There were those who were willing to tell stories from which the
communication barriers identified within the workplace setting was
experienced. There were those who were willing to list the communication
barriers that they faced in the workplace setting. In telling the stories, several
primary communication barriers emerged, in addition to the previously
identified areas of a lack of vocabulary and presence of miscommunication.
These narratives included an “anti-immigrant” climate, as described by
Participant 20. When additional personnel were needed to work overtime, it
was challenging due to the need of an interpreter, according to Participant 1.
There were difficulties with accents, whereby the individual was made to
“feel uncomfortable” when it involved communicating with coworkers or
customers, according to Participant 14. Many of the participants reported a
lack of confidence. The primary communication barriers described by the
participants were a lack of knowledge of appropriate terms or vocabulary;
and in miscommunication among coworkers, superiors, or clients, these
other communication barriers were manifest as well.
A total of six themes emerged from the manual coding and analysis of
the data available in the transcripts (Table 3). These themes were (a)
miscommunication, (b) lack of ability to express oneself clearly, (c) need to
use alternative means of communication, (d) lack of appropriate terms, (e)
delays in work completion, and (f) loss of respect. Each of these themes was
associated with the different communication theories explored within the
context of this study (Geertz and Pacanowsky’s). Awareness of these
themes, acknowledgment of their presence within the workplace setting, and
identification of the steps that can be taken to reduce their presence within
the workplace are critical for the success of companies in a global
environment that increasingly uses English as the lingua franca.
Interpretation of Findings
Following the analysis of collected data, it is imperative that the study
findings be interpreted within the context of the current body of literature.
Such interpretation would allow for identification of areas of similarity to
previous findings and areas of difference. This identification process could
indicate a potential discrepancy in the study data, or it could indicate a shift
in the current state of the topic itself. When looking to identified
communication barriers, participants suggested that a lack of vocabulary or
specific terminology and miscommunication were the two primary issues
within the workplace
setting.
Other secondary communication barriers identified included the
following: (a) a need for an interpreter, thus hampering the working
environment; (b) difficulty with accents and comprehension associated
therewith; (c) lack of support from coworkers and; (d) feelings of
discomfort, preventing the individual from speaking up or obtaining further
clarification on an unknown issue. The communication barriers identified by
participants during the study were not dissimilar to those present within the
extant body of literature on the subject.
Table 3
Emerging Themes
Six emerging
themes
Specific theme
1 Miscommunication
2 Inability to express oneself clearly
3 Need to use alternative means of
communication
4 Lack of appropriate terms
5 Delays in work completion
6 Loss of respect
Flores and Matkin (2014) identified similar barriers to communication
in their research. Also, multiple researchers have confirmed that there is a
distinct need for workers to maintain an appropriate knowledge of
vocabulary for the industry in which the individuals work and for the
specific businesses where they hold positions (Goman, 2011; Guffey &
Lowey, 2012; Vasile, 2014). Certain words, phrases, and gestures are
universal. The need to communicate effectively within the workplace is
crucial within the business world, including knowing the appropriate slangs,
idioms, metaphors, similes, and other nonliteral forms of communication,
although they should be avoided to prevent miscommunication (Goman,
2011; Guffey & Lowey, 2012; Vasile, 2014).
Regarding communication in the workplace, the results showed that
the increased ease brought about by globalization has translated to a host of
difficulties, the majority stemming from the communication barriers
identified. There is an issue of being concise in the interoffice
communications which in turn translates to challenges to the ESL
employees. These communication barriers serve to create situations in which
employees are unable to be as effective as they could if they were speaking
and communicating in their native language, which further stresses the need
for concise communication within the workplace (Akhavan, 2012; Asante et
al., 2014).
Most of the participants expressed the idea that communication was
difficult due to the need to communicate primarily in English, the lingua
franca of the United States (Jenkins & Leung, 2013; Merriam Webster,
2016). It should be noted, however, that current literature indicates the
majority of the communication done in the workplace is in English. Still,
there are organizations, as evidenced by participants’ responses, where this
standard is not the case (Briguglio, 2015). It is of note, however, that the
participants who indicated that difficulty in English communication was less
of a concern due to the multiple languages used within the workplace setting
still revealed that they had difficulties because their English was not
proficient.
Another concern present within the workplace setting was that
participants indicated that there were times when they did not understand the
topic of discussion or what someone asked them to do, or how to respond
when asked for answers regarding a specific issue. In many of those cases,
the participants indicated that they would either not ask for clarification,
would pretend to understand what was being asked of them, or would simply
disengage from the conversation without resolution. Researchers have
previously identified that such situations are common (Angouri &
Miglbauer, 2013; James, 2013; Richards, 1971). Although most participants
indicated that they were actively taking steps to improve their grasp of the
English language, researchers have shown that although secondary language
use does improve over time, discrepancies between the native English
speaker and the second language English speaker will continue (James,
2013; Richards, 1971).
Summary
This chapter has presented the analyzed and synthesized results
obtained from the completed participant interviews. The collected data
indicated that there were high levels of communication barriers present for
individuals who spoke English as a second language. Many found these
barriers to affect adversely their ability to advance in their careers or expand
their businesses. Many had difficulty with the English language in a
primarily English language workplace which caused issues associated with
respect, selfperspective, or embarrassment.
An interpretation of these findings concerning the synthesized
literature presented in Chapter 2 revealed that the data collected during the
study bore a marked similarity to data previously collected in this area of
research. When written in a flowing manner through the interview process
from start to finish, the results create a comprehensive narrative of
experiences. The results take the experiences of the participants and
transform them into a coherent exploration of the problem of communication
barriers in the workplace. Certain issues were present with the interview
process itself, ultimately creating new study limitations due to variations in
the presentation of the questions asked of participants. However, once the
information was collected and analyzed, ample data were provided for the
resolution of the identified research questions, which are presented in more
succinct detail in the following chapter.
Chapter 5: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations
The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study was to explore
and describe the stories of non-English speaking immigrant workers and
ESL workers. I examined the participants’ narratives on overcoming
language and cultural communication challenges in the workplace. These
narratives allowed for a description and understanding of how
communications and culture in the workplace form the perspectives of each
participant’s worldview and understanding. The aim of this study was to
accomplish the task of understanding how non-English speaking immigrants
experience language and cultural challenges by exploring various written
and oral communication barriers. Chapter 4 allowed for the presentation of
that narrative. Chapter 5 is devoted to identifying the answers to the research
question, determining some of the implications of the answers to that
research question, and presenting recommendations for future research and
practice based on the results and their subsequent implications. The
presentation of this information should lend further significance to the study.
Nonetheless, based on the limitations identified in the previous chapter
during the data collection and analysis, there is a need for additional research
with the removal of some of the limitations.
Conclusions
The research question asked at the start of this study was the
following: How do immigrant workers who are non-English speakers or
English as Second Language speakers describe their communication
experiences in the workplace? I interviewed a total of 20 participants to
obtain data that could be used to explore this question further.
While participants’ answers varied, the analyzed results indicated that
participants found
a host of difficulties within the workplace setting because of their status as
ESL speaker. I could identify the difficulties described by participants
because of several communication barriers present, either large or small,
within their own experience or within their workplace setting.
These same communications barriers were present, regardless of
whether the individuals were employees of an organization or whether they
held management positions. The uniformity of communications barriers
served as the best and perhaps most accurate description of the workplace
experiences of these individuals. The experiences of participants
documented throughout the completion of this study showed a marked
alignment with literature conducted in this area, literature spanning from the
1970s to the present (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013; James, 2013; Richards,
1971).
Interpretation of Findings
The interview responses obtained from these 20 participants
encompassed a discussion of their insights, practices, and experiences, as
much as could be collected through the 14 interview questions. The
questions were designed to represent the communication experiences of non-
English speakers and ESL speakers within the workplace setting. During the
interview sessions, participants reflected on their beliefs, behaviors, and the
various methods that they used to identify not only communication barriers
found within their various workplace environments, but also to discuss the
way those problems affected their ability to work efficiently.
The participants also discussed some of the steps that they took to
mitigate those issues. The documentation of the different communication
barriers the participants identified allowed for six themes to emerge. A
review of those themes and their relationship to the primary research
question explored within the context of this study allows for the presentation
of those findings. A discussion of the implications of those findings follows,
which in turn can offer practical applicability recommendations.
Research Question and Themes
Research Question 1
The primary research question explored within the context of this
study was: “How do immigrant workers who are non-English speakers or
ESL speakers describe their communication experiences in the workplace?”
The 14 interview questions were designed to provide me with the
information necessary to resolve the research question. The data collected
from these interview questions, after analysis, resulted in six primary
themes.
Theme 1: Miscommunication. The first theme to emerge from the
interview data in support of the research question representative of the
participants’ communication experiences within the workplace was
miscommunication. I identified miscommunication as one of the primary
barriers to communication found within the workplace (Flores & Matkin,
2014). Although the identification of this particular communication barrier is
unsurprising, the presence of this barrier across a wide range of industries
and within those different industries suggests that this particular theme may
be more pervasive within the typical workplace environment than previously
thought. Theme 2: Inability to express oneself clearly. The second
theme that emerged as a result of the analysis of the interview data was that
the participants found it difficult to express themselves clearly. The inability
to express oneself clearly refers to the difficulties present in conversing in an
unfamiliar language. This inability can cause loss of words, difficulty
expressing ideas, or not understanding what one is being asked to do or
complete. Not expressing oneself clearly is another common barrier to
communication that researchers have identified within the current body of
literature (Flores & Matkin, 2014).
Theme 3: Need to use alternative means of communication. As
previously discussed, some methods can be used to communicate that allow
individuals to be able to convey what it is they desire. Additionally, as the
participants noted, a person may experience difficulties in verbal
communication that are either decreased or negated entirely. They may also
have difficulties when using written communication, either physically or
digitally, or with diagrams (Goman, 2011; Guffey & Lowey, 2012; Vasile,
2014).
Theme 4: Lack of appropriate terms. According to the participants,
the lack of appropriate terms refers to knowledge of how a term might be
stated in one language but not in another. The lack of appropriate terms may
also involve not knowing the word or phrase that is meant to describe a
particular object, subject, or task. Within the extant body of literature,
researchers like Goman (2011), Guffey and Lowey (2012), and Vasile
(2014) found this deficiency of vocabulary to be a common theme. Also
noted was the inability on the part of the participants to retrieve and use
efficiently and consistently the industry specific terms necessary for the
effective completion of job duties. While many terms are universal, as are
many gestures or actions, when working in a professional setting, employees
need to communicate clearly and efficiently using the appropriate
terminology for that industry. A word used in a general sense can have
multiple meanings. Thus, if a worker does not understand the terminology
particularly when the consumer of the good or service does then that could
pose a problem.
Theme 5: Delays in work completion. Delays in work completion, in
this case, refer to the inability on the part of participants to be able to
complete their job duties or any additional tasks that they are assigned within
the workplace. Such delays can be the result of a lack of knowledge,
understanding, or awareness of the tasks that they are being asked to
complete. This particular theme ultimately stems from previous issues within
the workplace setting, such as being unwilling to speak up to ask for further
clarification or being unwilling to make oneself heard. Decreasing the speed
at which they get that explanation then slows the speed in which the task will
be accomplished (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013; James, 2013; Richards,
1971). Other potential outcomes include lack of completion for that job
period, trouble at work stemming from failure to get tasks completed, and
not getting the task completed within a certain period, thereby decreasing
employee effectiveness and the workplace as a whole (Akhavan, 2012;
Asante et al., 2014).
Theme 6: Loss of respect. The final theme to emerge from the
analysis of the interview data was a loss of respect. Participants indicated
that their lack of understanding and awareness of the English language
resulted in situations in which coworkers, supervisors, and sometimes those
who reported to them, displayed a marked lack of or loss of respect when
those coworkers became aware of the linguistic challenges. This loss of
respect has been shown to decrease the effectiveness of the employee and
the efficacy of the company because such communication is necessary to
complete the job duties. An inability to complete those tasks can create
further barriers
(Burgoon et al., 2016).
Implications
The results of the study indicate that the current state of affairs for
ESL speakers within the workforce in the United States has not changed
since the 1970s. The same cultural and communications barriers have been
present in the workplace environment for almost 50 years. Such
circumstances might indicate that efforts made within the workplace
environment are either insufficient to meet the needs of the ESL population
or are not effective within the context of the past and current culture of the
country (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013; Flores & Matkin, 2014; Goman, 2011;
Guffey & Lowey, 2012; James, 2013; Richards, 1971; Vasile, 2014). Indeed,
these six emergent themes have been present in the workplace since the
1970s (Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013; Flores & Matkin, 2014; Goman, 2011;
Guffey & Lowey, 2012; James, 2013; Richards, 1971; Vasile,
2014).
The implication is that despite an increased amount of attention on this
particular subject matter, either effort to decrease these communication
barriers in the workplace have been unsuccessful, or steps have not been
taken to target these communication barriers individually or reduce the
likelihood of their occurrence. This implication suggests a need for
modifications to workplace policy, and perhaps even a need for changes or
modifications to current policies. It is imperative that the researcher avoid
overstating the implications of the study when discussing the potential
implications of a study. Still, the continued and ongoing presence of the
same communication barriers within the workplace implies that either little
is being done to address the matter or the steps that have been taken have
been insufficient to address the matter at hand.
Study results were in alignment with the current body of literature,
discussing the need for more concise communication within the workplace
setting (Akhavan, 2012; Asante et al., 2014). Specifically, the results of the
study indicated that there were many issues for ESL speakers within the
workplace setting, stressing the need for precision in communication. This
finding is in alignment with the current body of literature, yet it is not a
newly identified area of concern. The matter, as with the issue of
communication barriers discussed previously, is one that still exists within
the workplace, with little to no forward progress being made to address this
situation (Akhavan, 2012; Asante et al., 2014). This information implies
that, as before, policy changes in general are needed regarding
communication practices within the workplace.
Researchers can take these implications a step further. One can argue
that, if such policies exist within the workplaces of the participants, the
current policies regarding communication practices within those workplace
environments are ineffective. They are ineffective in actively identifying
communication problems within the workplace and taking the steps
necessary to resolve identified concerns. All the participants discussed the
need for more concise communication practices within the workplace
setting. However, none knew how to accomplish this or adequately debate
the matter with their coworkers to bring about change. All viewed the lack of
effective communication as one in which the burden of resolution should be
placed solely on the participant’s shoulders. This situation is one that was
manifest across the responses of most participants who held positions of
varying levels across all different industries, including front line employees
and management. In light of this identified pattern, additional
communication training is needed across the workforce in general and that
could be completed internally or externally or some combination of the two.
From the results of the study, a further indication was manifest within
the context of the current body of literature regarding the participants’ lack
of knowledge of the English language. They admitted to feelings of
inferiority, embarrassment, and in some cases, shame (Akhavan, 2012;
Angouri & Miglbauer, 2013; Asante et al., 2014; James, 2013). As a result
of these negative feelings, the participants indicated that they did not wish to
speak up because they did not want to call attention to their linguistic
difficulties.
They did not want to face ridicule because of a lack of knowledge on a given
subject. This fear of speaking up implies that the culture within the
workplace settings they experienced did not foster a sense of understanding
with the participants. They did not feel as though their questions would be
well received regardless of whether it would enable them to perform their
job duties more expediently, or whether that information was needed to
understand what those functions were.
A further implication of the results of this study stems from the
awareness of the participants of their shortcomings regarding comprehension
of the English language. Most of the participants indicated that they were
actively taking steps to improve their grasp of the English language and
expand their vocabularies and communication skills. Researchers have
suggested that although secondary language use will improve over time,
discrepancies may continue to be present between native English speakers
and second language speakers (James, 2013; Richards, 1971). The
researchers who have conducted studies on this matter have seen gradual
improvements with similar actions currently being taken by participants.
Such an improvement implies that if steps are taken to improve English
within a more targeted setting (e.g., in a classroom), it is likely that both
rapid learning and expedient acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities
would take place.
Implications for Social Change
The implications for positive social change to which the present study
could contribute include business leaders’ increased understanding of
effective management and communication strategies to be employed with
non-English speaking and ESL workers (Asante et al., 2014; Kincaid, 2013;
Ling et al., 2013; Stacks & Salwen, 2014). My hope is that such
management and communication strategies can assist these employees to
gain confidence and become more comfortable in the workplace. When they
feel self-assured and respected, their productivity would naturally increase,
which would ultimately add to the profitability of their company (Papa &
Whelan, 2015; RootBernstein & Ladle, 2014). Employing good
communication strategies would also help to bridge the cultural and
language divide that exists in many U.S. companies (Akomolafe,
2013; Dawood & O'Sullivan, 2012; Parthab Taylor et al., 2013).
The present study could contribute to company leaders encouraging
positive behavior of coworkers. Better understanding of communication
barriers of ESL and nonEnglish speaking workers can eliminate low self-
esteem issues for these immigrants who have entered the U.S. workforce.
This research will help minimize barriers related to issues of diversity
through inspiring employers to develop training and development manuals
and workshops for their entire workforce. Such materials could help to
increase sensitivity of people who consider themselves part of mainstream
American culture to those who have unfamiliar customs and ways of
communicating (Dworak-Peck, 2016). Staffing and recruitment companies
can use these results to better match company positions with the candidates
to avoid stress and pressures on potential employees to be less genuine to
avoid being met with cultural bias in job interviews (Fell, König, &
Kammerhoff, 2016). Educational institutions can use the research to better
equip the emerging professional work force, both immigrant and
nonimmigrant, for their fields to prevent discrimination and emotional
setbacks their students may perpetuate or experience when they start
working (Bentley-Williams & Morgan, 2013).
Recommendations
Two types of recommendations can be explored based on the results of this
study:
recommendations for future practice and recommendations for future study.
Such areas can include means to improve the current study, recreating the
study to gain information that was lacking throughout the study process.
Also, researchers can identify new gaps that need further exploration.
Recommendations for future practice include exploring the practical
applications of the results of this study and determining what potential
changes can be made, based on the newly identified information, to improve
the general state of the workplace for English as a Second Language
speakers.
Recommendations for Future Study
Several recommendations can be made regarding the areas of future
research and the first is the potential ways in which this study could be
improved to allow greater understanding of this research area. These
recommendations stem from the analyzed data obtained from the interview
responses given by participants and the interpretation of the findings, which
are present as a result of the study implications. I have documented these
recommendations within this section as viable suggestions for areas of future
study, instances where gaps are still present in the literature, or cases in
which one needs further information to understand the topic better.
The first recommendation would be the collection of data of the
socioeconomic status of the individual, which would allow a more targeted
breakdown of the specific communication industries present based on the
different demographic segments or work industries. This protocol would
facilitate identification of the area’s most likely to be affected by this
phenomenon. Based on the results obtained through the completion of this
study, it is clear that such instances do appear to occur at all levels of
management. Still, there is no clear indication on the widespread nature of
this phenomenon. In completing a study, during the interview process, it is
possible that the participant did not get the crux of the question, or we can do
snowballing. Notably, during the completion of the analysis stage of the
study, several interview questions had their verbiage changed to make it
easier for the participants to understand and respond.
Other recommendations for future study come from areas identified
throughout the study’s completion. I suggest further research regarding the
types of activities in which participants are engaging to improve their
English language skills. While the majority of participants indicated that
they were actively working to improve their knowledge and grasp of the
English language, additional information on the steps and their effectiveness,
including perceived improvement levels, were not collected. Identifying this
information would serve as an additional step regarding what is currently
being done to address the identified problem of communication difficulties
for ESL speakers.
I would recommend that further studies be conducted on
organizational culture to find out the perceptions of the treatment of ESL
speakers both from personal narratives and their primary language English
speaker coworkers. Furthermore, data collection from the human resources
department is needed to determine the nature of the phenomenon. Such
information would reveal whether any changes have occurred, or if changes
have not occurred because reports of difficulties have not been generated,
leaving companies unaware of potential issues within the workplace setting.
I recommend further studies be conducted on organizational productivity to
find out with the lack of concise communication, miscommunication and
work delays how it impact the company
financially.
Recommendations for Future Practice
Despite the difficulties identified during the completion of the study,
and needed future research, there are still individual recommendations for
future practice that can be made based on the collected data. These
recommendations stem primarily from the implications of the study itself. I
recommend that organizations, regardless of its size or the industry in which
it operates, should reiterate its policies to assist in improving communication
within the workplace setting. I also recommend that these policies detail
exactly what effective communication is and how employees can achieve
effective communication practices.
I would recommend specific policies designed to assist second
language English speakers in the communication arena. Such policies,
through human resources, could provide a recourse through which these
individuals could get additional clarification for tasks completion. I further
recommend, for larger organizations, that steps be taken to provide
employees who have the technical knowledge and skills necessary to
advance but lack the English skills necessary to do so, with training
programs to ensure that they receive the assistance needed for advancement.
Finally, I recommend a review of terminology within the standard
training policies of the organization that all employees are required to
complete. Even if some employees do know the terms, the inclusion of
terminology within basic training for all staff would go a long way toward
ensuring that all working within the organization are familiar with the
application of terms within the context of that specific organization. This
strategy would decrease confusion and ensure that all employees are clear on
what is under discussion within the context of their job duties, their
positions, and the organization as a whole.
Although it is unknown at this time whether anyone would take these
recommendations seriously or take steps to implement these
recommendations within the general workplace setting, I hope that
employers would give increase care and attention to this ever-growing
segment of the population, which would ensure a smooth transition for
employees for whom English is a second language. A caring environment
would increase the overall positivity of the workplace culture and improve
the efficacy of workers within the organization. By creating a workplace
culture that is designed to benefit all instead of some, each organization
would be taking steps to improve societal interactions as a whole.
