Assignment introduction A Technology-Enhanced German Language Course_ Effects of Technolo.pdf

Chapter 1

Introduction

Introduction and Background

Recent research (Wang and Vásquez, 2012) has shown there has been a clear shift and

increase in the implementation of interactive, Web 2.0 technologies in foreign language learning

environments. While this trend has become more common, transformations continue to occur in

how these technologies are integrated (Yang, Gamble, and Tang, 2012). Previous research

highlights a paradigm shift from audio-lingual methods utilizing audio cassette tapes common in

the 1970s (Warschauer and Meskill, 2000), to drill-and-practice types of computer-assisted

language learning (hereinafter CALL) common in the 1980s, to more interactive types of CALL

technologies developed and integrated in the 1990s and early 2000s (Liu, Moore, Graham, and

Lee, 2003; Zhao, 2003).

In the 1970s, the development of the audio cassette tape was the primary medium used to

practice the audio-lingual method, which is learning through oral repetition. Language

laboratories were typical settings where university students practiced repetitive drills via audio

prompts. In the late 1970s researchers recognized that this method was leading to poor results.

The focus of instruction was purely on language form, namely pronunciation, and the teaching of

communicative meaning and interpreting of the target language was ignored. Conversely, the

1980s and 1990s experienced a shift from this drill and practice method toward a communicative

teaching approach (Warschauer and Meskill, 2000). Liu et al. (2003) and Zhao’s (2003) reviews

of literature portray uses of technology in language learning environments during the 1990s.

Much of the technology focused on interactive tools such as email, as well as the use of specific

software such as grammar checkers. Zhao’s (2003) meta-analysis of previous literature shows

there were consistent, positive results with the effectiveness of technology on student learning.

However, it should be noted that only nine studies were included in this review, making it

difficult to deduce the impact of technology in language education. With that said, Zhao

calculated the effect size for each study, then an overall effect mean of the nine studies combined

which was “quite large, indicating an overwhelmingly positive effect of technology applications

on language learning” (Zhao, 2003, p. 19).

Current research indicates that tens of thousands of educators, including those in second

language education, have experimented with Web 2.0 technologies (Wang and Vásquez, 2012).

The concept of Web 2.0 technologies was born in 2004 (O’Reilly, 2005), and is described as

online tools, such as blogs, wikis, and chat that assist in collaboration among users, not merely

with a computer (Kennedy and Miceli, 2013). Wang and Vásquez (2012) believe the attributes

of these technologies, such as collaboration, ease of sharing, communication and participation,

are primary reasons for the aforementioned paradigm shift for using them in second language

acquisition (SLA). Moreover, when utilized effectively, technology may enhance the acquisition

of a second language by exposing students to authentic materials, such as listening to native

speakers through podcasts (Schmidt, 2008) as well as linking students with native speakers

(Ware, 2005), resulting in higher learner achievement (Zhao, 2003). Yet, properly integrating

technology in the foreign language classroom has been problematic in certain instances

indicating there are challenges in finding the appropriate balance of technology use for teachers

as well as for students. A common challenge reported was the lack of faculty training on how to

incorporate technology (Wiebe and Kabata, 2010).

Improvements in the interactive abilities of technology (Toyoda and Harrison, 2002),

including that of computer-mediated communication (hereinafter CMC), have given educators

(and students) the opportunity to create and enhance foreign language learning environments

with increased asynchronous and synchronous interaction both in and out of the classroom

(Chenoweth and Murday, 2003). As such, the literature suggests these technologies allow

students to take advantage of informal learning scenarios which foster constructive learning

(Comas-Quinn, Mardomingo, and Valentine, 2009; Elola and Oskoz, 2012; Pasfield-Neofitou,

2007), enhance student motivation (Morton and Jack, 2010), promote student accountability

(Ducate, Lomicka, and Moreno, 2011), improve student performance and achievement (Perez,

2003; Shang, 2005; Volle, 2005), increase student collaboration (Oskoz, 2009; Shekary and

Tahririan, 2006), and promote social interaction with native speakers from a distance (Helm,

Guth, and Farrah, 2012; Kötter, 2003; Ware, 2005; Yang et al., 2012).

Despite the ever-increasing use of technology to enhance language learning in the past

decade, “research on the application of Web 2.0 technologies to second language (L2) learning is

still quite limited” (Wang & Vásquez, 2012, p. 416). Therefore this study developed from my

own interest of using Web 2.0 technologies to enhance classroom instruction and student

learning in a German language course, more specifically in the areas of: 1) reading, writing,

listening, and speaking comprehension, 2) cultural awareness, 3) linking students with native

speakers, and 4) understanding student perceptions of using these tools and experiences to learn

a foreign language.

Problem Statement

The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) “acknowledges

and encourages using the potential of technology as a tool to support and enhance classroom-

based language instruction” (ACTFL, 2014). Furthermore, ACTFL’s 21st Century Skills Map

(2014) declares that students should be “using digital technology, communication tools, and/or

networks appropriately to access, manage, integrate, evaluate, and create information in order to

function in a knowledge economy” (p. 14). There is a growing body of research providing data

about the impact of technology on student learning, as well as the status of research on the use of

technology in foreign language instruction. For example, a recent study (Jahner, 2012) surveyed

4,500 high school students enrolled in foreign language courses. Results revealed that a large

amount of funding was spent to enhance technology resources in the schools, including language

laboratories. Students surveyed found the labs to be helpful, websites focusing on skills practice

to be useful, and websites that provide authentic, cultural materials in the target language to be

beneficial. Notwithstanding these positive findings, a significant number of students indicated

that several technologies were not utilized, including social networking sites, podcasts, blogs,

wikis, smart phones, and interactive boards. This strongly suggests there is room for

improvement regarding a more comprehensive integration of technology. “In order to provide

effective and individualized language instruction, students need to encounter the language on a

daily basis, which is certainly possible based on today’s applications and interconnectivity”

(Jahner, 2012, p. 4).

The improvements in interactive technologies open the door for researchers to find the

best possible means of integrating technology into language instruction. For instance, Lord

(2008) found the use of podcasts revealed that students became more conscious of their

pronunciation with the aid of said technology, and the majority stated the project was useful and

should be continued in future semesters. Nonetheless, Oliver (2010) concluded that Web 2.0

tools, including blogs and wikis, are “just the tip of an integration iceberg” (p. 50), further

indicating a critical need to explore the depths of what these technologies have to offer

educators, particularly in foreign language education.

A number of technologies have been utilized in foreign language learning environments.

These include but are not limited to the following: (a) blogs; (b) wikis; (c) podcasts; (d) online

chat; and (e) video conferencing. A blog is a web log which displays entries that are presented in

reverse chronological order, and are then interlinked with other media (Castaneda, Ahern, and

Díaz, 2011). Wikis are designed for online group collaboration and function as shared

repositories of information among users (Castaneda et al., 2011). A podcast is an audio file that

is created by using a computer, microphone, and a software program (Ducate and Lomicka,

2009). Chat is synchronous online communication via text message transmission from sender to

receiver (Wikipedia). Skype is a telecommunication application that allows for synchronous

video chat (Wikipedia). These technologies have been found to promote collaboration (Comas-

Quinn, Mardomingo, and Valentine, 2009; Ducate, Lomicka, and Moreno, 2011), enhance

writing (Armstrong and Retterer, 2008; Kessler, Bikowski, and Boggs, 2012; Sun, 2010),

improve listening comprehension (Schmidt, 2008), create environments conducive to

constructivist learning among students (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009) and provide authentic

language learning experiences with native speakers (Chen and Yang, 2014). These studies

illustrate how the use of specific technologies can be used to enhance the teaching and learning

of a foreign language.

In a review of literature between 2004 and 2009, Wang and Vásquez (2012) highlighted

the latest trends of Web 2.0 technologies used in language learning scenarios. Their examination

of 43 empirical studies found that 35% utilized blogs, 23% focused on the use of wikis, 12%

examined the use of podcasts, while 5% detailed the use of multiple technologies. They suggest

that these technologies “exploit the participatory potential of the Web” (p. 412). Yet, their

results suggest that the use of Web 2.0 technologies is still limited and in its beginning stages.

Of the 43 empirical studies highlighted in their review, 10 address technologies which enhance

writing, eight explore students’ attitudes and perceptions regarding the use of Web 2.0

technologies in learning a foreign language, four examine student pronunciation and proficiency,

three focus on culture, and one tackles reading comprehension. Additionally, only four (9%) of

the studies specifically pertained to the German language, two (5%) utilized a mixed methods

approach, while none of the studies from their review indicated the use of technology to

communicate with native speakers via distance exchanges. These findings are instrumental to

this study, and are therefore further detailed in the following section. Wang and Vásquez (2012)

also found that the majority of the studies analyze how these Web 2.0 technologies assist

educators in creating a favorable learning environment for students. Conversely, very few

studies illustrate students’ progress and learning outcomes using these tools. Moreover, their

review found that these studies lack in-depth analyses of the investigated phenomena, suggesting

more qualitative research techniques should be implemented because they “enable researchers to

offer rich descriptions of observed phenomena, and to address issues related to participants’

individual perspectives as well as to their personal, lived experiences” (Wang & Vásquez, 2012,

p. 422).

Therefore, a need still exists to provide empirical research – both quantitative and

qualitative – which analyzes the uses of Web 2.0 technologies in foreign language learning

environments, especially German, with particular focus on technology’s effects on: (a) language

skills; (b) cultural awareness; (c) ease of linking students with native speakers in cross-cultural

studies; and (d) analyzing students’ perceptions on the use of these technologies to learn

German. Echoing Wang and Vásquez’s (2012) sentiment regarding the need for more research

on students’ progress and learning outcomes, Li (2012) recommends future studies center more

on quantitative data to analyze the impacts technologies have on students’ language skills.

Authors such as Pellettieri (2010) suggest that future research should include qualitative data to

help understand students’ perspectives on the phenomena of Web 2.0 technologies in learning

foreign languages, as well as offer insight into the instructors’ perspectives when employing such

a study. In response to Wang and Vásquez’s (2012) findings that 56% of reviewed studies

utilize no identifiable theoretical framework, other researchers (Elola and Oskoz, 2012; Perez,

2003) call for more studies which are designed through specific theoretical lenses. This is

another aspect that was pivotal for this study, as the researcher utilized technology that fostered a

social constructivist learning environment among the participants.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects of Web 2.0 technology tools,

including blogs, online chat, podcasts, wikis, Internet searches, video tutorials and video

conferencing, and cross-cultural exchange on students’ acquisition of German language skills

and their cultural awareness of the German-speaking countries. Additionally this study analyzed

students’ perceptions of these technologies as a tool to enhance their language learning and

cultural awareness. The researcher gauged whether students believe their German language

skills were enhanced by having additional exposure to the language in authentic contexts using

these technologies, and whether this method may be used in future teaching scenarios. To

accomplish this, the researcher employed the aforementioned technologies, in addition to the

regular use of the course textbook, to increase communication on an individual basis, with

classmates, and by linking students with native German speakers at the university level in a

cross-cultural communication project.

Research Questions

In order to provide an understanding of students’ achievement in learning the German

language and culture in a course that is enhanced by technology, as well as to gain deeper

insights into students’ perceptions of learning a foreign language which is enhanced by

technology, this study was guided by the following questions:

1. What effect will the TSGLE intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video

conferencing) and cross-cultural exchange have on the dependent variables: students’

language skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking)?

2. What effect will the TSGLE intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video

conferencing) and cross-cultural exchange have on the students’ cultural awareness?

3. How do students perceive the use of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange

in their process of learning German?

Study Procedures and Objectives

In addressing the identified research questions, this mixed methods study employed a

concurrent triangulation process (Creswell and Plano-Clark, 2011). Quantitative data

(Technology Implementation Survey results), and mixed methods data (blog entry and podcast

recording results) were collected and analyzed to determine the effect of technology on students’

learning of German by examining their reading, writing, listening, speaking skills, and cultural

awareness. Qualitative data were collected and analyzed to determine student perceptions on the

use of technology in the learning of German. More specifically, this included two focus group

interviews, students’ post-chapter reflections, the researcher’s observations, and open-ended

student responses to questions focusing on the virtual, cross-cultural exchange. The findings

developed from both quantitative and qualitative datasets were synthesized to answer the

research questions.

Significance of Study

Wang and Vásquez (2012) highlighted several underrepresented areas in their review of

literature from 2004 to 2009. These included, but were not limited to the following: studies

focusing on the German language, lack of mixed methods studies, scarcity of research depicting

multiple technology implementation, small percentage of literature incorporating a theoretical

lens, limited research of less-used Web 2.0 tools (Skype), and no mention of virtual, cross-

cultural studies. Therefore this study contributes to the literature as it provides insight into the

aforementioned gaps, which has the potential to benefit educators and students of foreign

languages, especially educators interested in learning how to implement technology in the

classroom. As a mixed method study, it provides mixed method, qualitative, and quantitative

data with the goal of better understanding the effects technology has on the learning of a foreign

language, namely, German, as well as gaining a deeper understanding of students’ perceptions on

how effective technology can be in their pursuit of enhancing their learning of a foreign

language. To contribute to the lack of theory implemented in previous research, the researcher

of this study used a social-constructivist theoretical lens to evaluate the implementation of the

aforementioned technologies. Finally, by embarking on a cross-cultural, distance project via

blog, email, and video conferencing, this study linked students in the United States with

university-level students in Germany; providing a unique venue of how technology can be used

to connect students with authentic materials and real-life learning scenarios.

Previous research (Baker, 2006; Crozet and Liddicoat, 1997; Crozet, Liddicoat and Lo

Bianco, 1997) has shown that learning a foreign language, which is inextricably linked to the

target culture, can provide students with a better understanding of their own cultural traditions.

The study of a foreign language gives students the access required to engage with the target

culture, which allows them to explore and identify the values and boundaries of their own

cultural perspective. Therefore, studying German allows students to identify their own culture,

as well as provide an understanding of the German culture, its language and literature as a

discipline. This process requires students to speak and read in German, exposes students to

linguistic structures different from English, and requires analysis of the German language,

preparing them to be global citizens. This aligns with the German course from this study, as it

qualifies as general education course (See Appendix B), the goals of which echo the

aforementioned research (Baker, 2006; Crozet and Liddicoat, 1997; Crozet et al., 1997).

Furthermore, the researcher of this study will have the potential to provide a model of German

language instruction of how to incorporate technology in future curricula, including the

possibility of linking students with native speakers.

Reflexivity Statement

My interest in learning the German language began at an early age when my family spent

our summer vacations in Vermont visiting our German cousins from Stuttgart, who immigrated

to the United States in the 1950s. While I was not speaking fluently as a youth and teenager,

these visits allowed me to learn letters, numbers, simple phrases, and even some prayers that we

recited at the dinner table. This interest in learning how to communicate with my cousins led me

to study German in high school and college. My interest was particularly sparked when I had the

chance to live and study in Salzburg, Austria during my junior year of undergraduate studies.

This eventually led me to spend a summer in Heidelberg, Germany at an intensive German

language school before embarking on a Master of German Studies at the University of

Cincinnati. The latter institution is where I also learned some essentials of technology, for

example, how to organize classroom materials with tools such as Blackboard, the university’s

Course Management System (CMS). My methodology professor also demonstrated how to

include video, web searches, and recordings of our lectures as graduate assistant student teachers,

which were made available to our students.

After spending a year as a Fulbright Commission English Teaching Assistant in the small

town of Bruck an der Mur in Styria, Austria, I honed my teaching skills and improved my

German to where I felt confident communicating with natives in their local dialect Steirisch

(Styrian). In order to stay in touch with my family and my now wife, I utilized the synchronous

video conferencing tool Skype as well as the instant chat option available through the online-

gaming website Pogo. At LSU I worked and trained with fellow faculty on the use of Moodle, as

well as how to efficiently integrate technology into language teaching. This dissertation study

illustrates the skills I learned and developed, and was enhanced by the multiple opportunities I

have experienced and described above.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Introduction

This literature review provides an overview of the following: an examination of the

historical background of technology (instructional media) in education, the historical background

of technology use in foreign language learning environments, and recent trends in use of

technology to teach and learn foreign languages. This is followed by a section providing an

overview of constructivism and social constructivism, including previous examples of this

approach when using technology in foreign language teaching and learning.

Historical Background of Instructional Media

Reiser and Dempsey (2007) developed a definition of instructional media in their text

Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. This was based on a number of

previous definitions offered by the Association for Educational Communications and

Technology (AECT) and is as follows:

The field of instructional design and technology (also known as

instructional technology) encompasses the analysis of learning and

performance problems, and the design, development, implementation,

evaluation, and management of the instructional and noninstructional

processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a

variety of settings, particularly educational institutions and the workplace.

Professionals in the field of instructional design and technology often use

systematic instructional design procedures and employ instructional media

to accomplish their goals. Moreover, in recent years, they have paid

increasing attention to noninstructional solutions to some performance

problems. Research and theory related to each of the aforementioned areas

is also an important part of the field.

While the inclusion of technology in education is not a new phenomenon, it is important

to include this definition in order to provide a basis for how educators and researchers

have refined their use of technology in educational settings over the years in the field of

foreign language education. However, before describing the current trends of

instructional media in foreign language learning environments, the following depicts the

earliest uses and subsequent developments.

According to Saettler (1990), use of media as an instructional tool in the United States

traces back to the beginning of the twentieth century when school museums were first

introduced. The museum exhibits included mostly visual media such as stereographs (three

dimensional photographs), slides, films, study prints, and charts. The interest of visual media

was the impetus for the visual education movement which was established by the Keystone View

Company, who in 1908 published Visual Education, a publication providing educators an

informative guide to lantern slides and stereographs (Reiser, 2007). This movement led to the

use of the motion picture projector as the first media device to be used in schools such as the

public school system of Rochester, New York, who adopted this form of media in 1910. Over

the following decade and several years after World War I, the visual education movement had

developed into a professionally-recognized entity. This included the establishment of five

national professional organizations for visual instruction, five journals focusing on visual

instruction, more than 20 teacher-training institutions that offered courses in visual instruction,

and numerous school systems having developed bureaus of visual education (Saettler, 1990).

The 1920s and 1930s became an era marking the beginning of another movement of

instructional media, audiovisual instruction and instructional radio. “Technological advances in

such areas as radio broadcasting, sound recordings, and sound motion pictures led to increased

interest in instructional media” (Reiser, 2007, p. 19). This movement continued its expansion,

particularly due to a major merger of three professional organizations for visual instruction into

one organization, the Department of Visual Instruction (DVI). The DVI was a unit within the

National Education Association, which over the years eventually became called the Association

for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) (Saettler, 1990). With the

establishment of the DVI, the audiovisual movement gained momentum in the field of education,

particularly due to the value educators were witnessing in the use of audiovisual materials used

in presenting content. One medium that became particularly recognized was radio. Many

advocates strongly believed this technology would become revolutionary in the field of

education. However, it was found that radio, as well as the audiovisual movement, lost its

momentum in school environments. Much of this was caused by World War II, a time which

saw a shift in the use of audiovisual materials from the school setting to that of the United States

military. “For example, during the war the United States Army Air Force produced more than

400 training films and 600 filmstrips, and during a two-year period, from mid-1943 to mid-1945,

it was estimated that there were over four million showings of training films to United States

military personnel” (Reiser, 2007, p. 19). Training films were not only used by military

personnel but also by citizens, particularly in training for employment, which led to more

effective training programs that reduced training times as well as absenteeism by employees

(Saettler, 1990).

According to Saettler (1990), additional audiovisual materials were also developed and

implemented to train military forces during World War II. These included overhead projectors

and slide projectors, which were used to teach aircraft and ship recognition, audio equipment,

which was used to teach foreign languages, and simulators for flight training. The use of these

materials, as well as the aforementioned instructional film, was perceived as a success, especially

in areas of training. This led to a revived interest in the use of audiovisual materials in schools in

the years following the war, with an additional effort to establish intensive research studies.

These studies were “designed to identify how various features, or attributes, of audiovisual

materials affected learning; the goal being to identify those attributes that would facilitate

learning in given situations” (Reiser, 2007, p. 20). The majority of studies conducted in the

years following World War II focused on comparing uses of specific mediums, such as film,

versus use of traditional, live instruction with no technological medium. According to Clark

(1983), such studies typically resulted in students having learned equally regardless of the

medium.

Due to these repeated results, critics suggested that research should shift its focus to other

areas, such as how the media affects learning or how instructional methods in the use of

technology, versus simply the technology, affect learning outcomes (Reiser, 2007). In the 1950s,

different theories of communication began to steer research in another direction that focused on

communication processes, which helped expand the focus of the audiovisual movement.

However, while this new direction in research helped increase its presence, “perhaps the most

important factor to affect the audiovisual movement in the 1950s was the increased interest in

television as a medium for delivering instruction” (Reiser, 2007, p. 20).

The growth in use of television as a medium in education was due to two primary factors.

The first was the Federal Communications Commission’s decision in 1952 to designate 242

television channels for educational purposes, which led to the increased development in public

television stations, whose primary mission was to present instructional content. The second

significant factor in the expansion of the use of television as an educational tool was the stimulus

in funding provided by the Ford Foundation. This led to the adoption of closed-circuit television

into various school systems, for example, in Maryland and Chicago. Unfortunately, poor

instructional television projects, high costs of installation and maintenance, and teacher

resistance, were all factors why educational television did not experience a larger expansion

(Reiser, 2007).

The 1970s witnessed a major development in instructional media

. The term audiovisual

instruction was now recognized as educational technology and instructional technology. Two

journals published by the AECT had also experienced a name change; Audiovisual

Communication Review changed to Educational Communications and Technology Review, and

Audiovisual Instruction became Instructional Innovator (Reiser, 2007). Not only were changes

happening in the naming of key organizations and publications, but other changes and

advancements in technology, namely the computer, were also happening during the 1970s, 1980s

and beyond. The development of the microcomputer in the early 1980s led to an increased

interest in instructional environments. “Many educators were attracted to microcomputers

because they were relatively inexpensive, were compact enough for desktop use, and could

perform many of the functions performed by the large computers that had preceded them”

(Reiser, 2007, p. 22).

By the mid-1990s, although the schools in the United Stated averaged one computer for

every nine students, the impact of their use was minimal, and a number of teachers even

indicated that there was little to no use of computers for educational purposes. Research studies

revealed that the majority of uses of computers and technology were primarily for drill and

practice exercises, and for teaching computer-related skills; they showed minimal signs of

having any impact on teaching methods. Despite these revelations, there is evidence that

indicates positive uses of technology (Reiser, 2007).

The 1970s also marked a period in which technology played a more significant role in foreign language education.

While use of audio equipment was used to instruct military personnel during World War II, technology during the

1970s was being implemented more in language laboratories (Warschauer & Meskill, 2000). This will be further

discussed in the following section that highlights the historical uses of technology in foreign language instruction.

Throughout the 1990s and beginning of the twenty-first century, developments and

improvements in access to the Internet increased the use of technology for instructional purposes,

especially in training and business. There was also an increased use in technology in higher

education settings, particularly in distance learning and online course delivery. In 2004/2005

nearly two-thirds of all colleges and universities offered accredited online degrees. In 2002, 83%

of colleges and universities used course management systems such as Blackboard and WebCT

(Market Data Retrieval, 2005). The United States military, including the United States Navy,

United States Army, and United States Marine Corps all offer online course delivery or provided

digital training facilities (Chisholm, 2003a; Chisholm, 2003b; Fuhr, 2004).

Moore (1989) recognized new developments such as the interactive capacities of

technology, in particular three modes of interaction supported by media: learner with

instructional content; learner with instructor; and learner with learner. The types of media

described by Moore include: email, chat rooms, and bulletin boards. While there is a learning

curve becoming accustomed to new technologies, these types of media, along with new

capabilities in technology enhancements, allowed for types of information to be more easily

presented. This includes print, video, audio, and feedback capabilities. “Moreover, the ability of

computers to present information in a variety of forms, as well as to allow learners to easily link

to various content, has attracted the interest of instructional designers having a constructivist

perspective” (Reiser, 2007, p. 23).

This section has offered a concise historical overview on some of the earlier traces of

technology in education, with particular focus on the twentieth century. While it is important to

gauge the implementations and developments in educational technology over time, the primary

focus of this project, aside from analyzing the uses of technology in a German language course,

is also to provide insight into the uses of educational technology in foreign language instruction.

The following section therefore provides a historical preview of this which will then lead to an

overview of current trends in the use of technology in foreign language instruction.

Historical Background of Technology in Foreign Language Learning

As was previously mentioned, technology use in foreign language instruction dates back

to World War II, when United States military forces trained by using audio equipment during the

audiovisual instructional and instructional radio movement (Saettler, 1990). Warschauer and

Meskill (2000) have provided a brief summary on the history of educational technology in

foreign language instruction, with particular focus on higher education. This provides some

insight into the shift of approaches that occurred starting in the 1970s to today’s uses.

In the 1970s, the development of the audio cassette tape was the primary medium used to

practice the audio-lingual method, which is learning through extensive memorization and oral

repetition (Taylor, 2003). This method was typically used in language laboratories where

university students would practice repetitive drills following audio prompts. However, in the

late 1970s researchers began to recognize that this method was leading to poor results. The

focus of instruction was purely on language form, namely pronunciation, and the teaching of

communicative meaning and interpreting the target language was ignored. Resultantly, the

1980s and 1990s experienced a shift from this drill and practice method toward a communicative

teaching approach (Warschauer and Meskill, 2000).

The focus of the communicative teaching approach was to foster student engagement in

authentic and meaningful interactions. Educators utilizing this trend focused on two perspectives

in order to provide the best learning scenario for students via technology, namely cognitive and

socio-cognitive approaches, not simply based on habit formation (Chomsky, 1986, as cited in

Warschauer and Meskill, 2000). Chomsky (1957) (as cited in Slife and Williams, 1995),

discusses the language learning process as not based on simply stimulus and response. “Rather,

it seems that human beings have an innate capacity to learn and use language, a capacity that

unfolds naturally rather than being shaped. Learning and using a language is more like following

rules than being shaped by reinforcement” (p. 39).

Warschauer and Meskill (2000) highlighted several technologies supporting cognitive

approaches allowing for exposure to language in meaningful contexts where learners construct

their own individual knowledge. Examples of these technologies include text reconstruction

software, concordancing software, and simulation software. An example of text reconstruction

software is NewReader, designed by Hyperbole, which allows instructors to alter a text by

deleting or scrambling words for students to then complete it by filling in the blanks or re-

scrambling the words. Monoconc, designed by Athelstan, is an example of concordancing

software, which allows instructors and students to search through texts to find instances of the

actual uses of particular words. Not only does the program provide a dictionary definition of a

particular word, it also provides additional examples and particular uses of that word in a variety

of ways. An example of a multimedia simulation is the French program A le reecontre de

Philippe, produced by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). This program allows

learners to enter into computerized microworlds with exposure to the target language and culture.

Students “walk around” in a virtual world and explore simulated environments, which allow for

control and interactivity. While these examples of software products can be used in foreign

language teaching and learning contexts, they are limited to individual or partner exercises,

working solely with the computer, and do not require student to student interaction (Warschauer

and Meskill, 2000). The following section briefly discusses socio-cognitive approaches, and

provides examples of technologies that foster student to student interaction.

According to Schieffeln and Ochs (1986) (as cited in Warschauer & Meskill, 2000),

language learning is a process of socialization and participation in a variety of discourse

communities. Students need exposure to authentic interaction, and this can be accomplished by

engaging in student collaboration or authentic tasks which prepare them for the communication

they will encounter outside of the classroom, for example, in the Internet. Examples of the

computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools can be implemented to support this type of

environment including email, blog, online chat, podcasts, wikis, and course management

systems. Several other categories including social media sites, online video games, interactive

television programs, and individual tools such as iPads have also been utilized to enhance the

teaching/learning of a foreign language. Additionally, these technologies have also been used in

foreign language distance learning (FLDL) and in long distance exchanges between students.

The following section will highlight these trends in the use of technology to enhance language

learning and instruction.

Technology Use in Foreign Language Learning Environments

This section primarily includes studies in higher education, but also highlights several at

the K-12 level simply to illustrate the use of specific technologies that were effectively

implemented. This review also includes several studies in English as a Foreign Language

(hereinafter EFL) as they also illustrate effective uses of technologies. Studies in FLDL

environments and for long distance exchanges are also included. It should be noted that

throughout this review key terminologies related to technology, including the following:

asynchronous computer-mediated communication (hereinafter ACMC), computer-mediated

communication (hereinafter CMC), synchronous computer-mediated communication (hereinafter

SCMC), blog, online chat, podcasts, and wikis, will be described, defined, and used

interchangeably and often.

Several studies found that the use of email exchange, an asynchronous form of

communication, helped assist students’ reading skills (Shang, 2005), writing skills (Shang,

2007), and pronunciation skills (Volle, 2005). Shang (2005) explored students’ attitudes when

exchanging emails with one another demonstrating that “incorporating email into a reading class

may positively influence student reading achievement” (p. 208). For this study, students

exchanged emails for peer feedback and corrections. Results indicated that negative attitudes did

exist among participants in that there was either not enough time to complete the task, or that

some students prefer communicating face-to-face (F2F). While this may have been the case for

some, the majority of students who participated in the intervention maintained a positive attitude,

indicating email helped improve their reading skills; they also found the technology to be a

useful exercise to practice their L2 learning, (Shang, 2005).

In a similar study, Shang (2007) again employed the use of email exchange among

students, however, with a focus on improving writing. Results showed that “most students

believe that it [email] is a positive strategy that helps improve their foreign language learning

and attitudes toward English, as reflected by the positive responses to the survey” (Shang, 2007,

p. 92). To gauge student achievement using the email as a medium of communication, the

researcher, (Shang, 2007), analyzed total words, use of subordinate and coordinate clauses,

sentence complexity and vocabulary complexity. The results revealed that students thought they

had more practice in the target language, engaged in more social interaction and self-monitoring

of their work, and claimed their language skills and attitude toward English improved, (Shang,

2007). Volle (2005) also used email exchange but with a slightly different approach. In her

Spanish courses students exchanged two types of voiced audio emails that took place on a

weekly basis; read-aloud passages and grammar-drill completions. In addition, students

participated in two oral conversations via MSN messaging, an instant chat tool for oral

communication. The researcher analyzed students’ articulation, accuracy, and proficiency and

found that although improvement in articulation was not significant, improvement in

conversation proficiency was significant. The researcher observed that “synchronous online oral

tasks and online oral interviews are valuable experiences to the students and provide permanent

records of oral development” (Volle, 2005, p. 156). Another valuable aspect of requiring

students to complete oral communication tasks asynchronously and synchronously, when

compared to F2F classes, is that “each student has a true voice and cannot hide online” (Volle,

2005, p. 156). The use of email exchanges, as seen in these studies, shows how students can

practice their L2 learning in interactive contexts outside of the classroom, in some cases

analyzing and critiquing fellow classmates and constructing new knowledge. In the next section,

the review depicts studies that utilized synchronous communication technology through the use

of online chat.

Online Chat

Chat is synchronous online communication via text message transmission from sender to

receiver (Wikipedia). Studies that analyzed the use of online chatting found that this technology

can enhance learner to learner interaction (Oskoz, 2009), promote negotiation of meaning

between learners (Pellettieri, 2010; Shekary and Tahririan, 2006; Toyoda and Harrison, 2002;

Tudini, 2003), and increase vocabulary (Perez, 2003). Perez (2003) compared productivity of

asynchronous (email) versus synchronous (chat) communication in a first semester Spanish

course. The use of online chatting “allow[s] students more opportunities to negotiate meaning

and to converse in spontaneous, everyday language away from textbooks” (Perez, 2003, p.90).

Moreover, this technology has the ability to promote equivalent or higher production of the

target language versus traditional, F2F courses (Perez, 2003; Abrams, 2003). Although students

in Perez’s (2003) study showed equal preference to email and online chat use on a weekly basis,

the analysis indicated that on average, chat produced more new words. Students also indicated

that chat room sessions allowed them to practice more words and learn sentence structure faster.

Sykes (2005) analyzed the quantity of supportive moves in partner-assigned dialogues.

These are apologies or explanations used when practicing how to decline an invitation. In this

study, students in a Spanish course observed a modeled dialogue by native speakers before being

designated to one of three groups, online chat, oral chat, or F2F. Results found that F2F groups

produced more supporting moves when conducting partner-assigned dialogues as compared to

synchronous oral chat and synchronous written chat. Although the F2F group produced more,

Sykes (2005) found that the written chat “group was the only discussion group that allowed for

consistent practice of the strategies in two modes of communication: written and oral” (p. 420).

Sanders (2006) compared chat room production in a lab setting with the presence of a

teacher (control) to use of chat out-of-class without the presence of a teacher (experiment).

Students chatted about their experiences with Spanish, their favorite places, and a typical day.

Production in the experimental group was greater than that of the control in minutes spent

chatting, turns taken, use of Spanish, and correctly spelled Spanish words. Students in the

experiment group needed to prioritize their schedules outside of class time which may have

resulted in being more productive with their work (Sanders, 2006). Ene, Görtler and McBride

(2005) also observed student chat room production in a German class and found that students

took more turns while the teacher was absent versus when the teacher was present.

Shekary and Tahririan’s (2006) study of online chat for an EFL course “focused on the

naturally occurring negotiation of meaning” (p. 561). The researchers found that this form of

SCMC promotes negotiation of meaning and noticing which they describe as mini-dialogues or

language-related episodes (LREs), where students notice errors or raise questions during their

chat exchanges (Shekary and Tahririan, 2006). After analyzing multiple identified LREs from

over 125 hours of recorded chat sessions from eight dyads, the researchers found that the

majority of them were correct and concluded that a blended learning environment using

technologies such as online chat “enhances the process of noticing and subsequent L2 learning”

(Shekary & Tahririan, 2006, p. 570).

Although these studies show how online chat can enhance student learning by promoting

students’ negotiation of meaning (Shekary and Tahririan, 2006), and by helping increase the use

of the target language (Perez, 2003), the increased use in the language does not always translate

into more effective language use. Böhlke (2003) found that while student use of chat in a

German course yielded higher productivity compared to F2F student interaction, the F2F

students produced more syntactic changes including the use of subordinate clauses, inverted

word order, and verb separation. It is important to consider some of the learning curves involved

when implementing these technologies, and to know that some students may produce better

results in one environment versus another. In order to create an ideal learning scenario,

researchers should keep in mind the importance of training students, and the design involved

when using these technologies

Oskoz (2009) observed student behavior in the use of four online chats by exploring

“ways in which learners assist each other” (p. 49) by pairing expert with novice learners. In this

Spanish course, the researcher also hoped to find whether learners’ feedback helped assist in

student learning. Results revealed that “learners engage in a collaborative dialogue and that they

provide one another with both direct (explicit) and indirect (implicit) feedback” (Oskoz, 2009,

p.64). While this study does show that use of online chat can promote student collaboration, it

was recommended to incorporate posttests to check language items used in the student

exchanges (Oskoz, 2009).

Pellettieri (2010) compared SCMC students using online chat to a F2F group and focused

on structural interaction. Similar to Shekary and Tahririan (2006), this study also hoped to use

online chat as a tool to promote negotiation of meaning where students resolve a problem they do

not fully comprehend while using SCMC (Pellettieri, 2010). Students in both groups completed

informational-gap exercises where the partners would describe an image to each other to then be

drawn by the partner. The F2F groups did produce more turns in their exchanges, however, the

SCMC groups produced more words (Pellettieri, 2010). Hirotani (2009) investigated the effects

of SCMC and ACMC on the development of linguistic features of learners’ speech in a Japanese

language course. Discussions from two SCMC groups, one utilizing synchronous chat via MSN

messenger, and one ACMC group utilizing online discussions via a virtual bulletin board were

compared to the discussions of a F2F group. The researcher concluded that while CMC is a

good tool to prepare students for oral discussion, it may not be the most effective way to help

students develop oral skills in terms of quantity of output (Hirotani, 2009). Despite this

assertion, the findings indicated “that, overall, the participants significantly improved their oral

proficiency skills over the course of a semester” (Hirotani, 2009, p. 423).

Blogs

A blog is a web log which displays entries that are presented in reverse chronological

order, and are then interlinked with other media (Castaneda et al, 2011). Some examples on the

uses of blogs include but are not limited to the following: use as a digital repository for

uploading documents from mobile devices (Comas-Quinn, Mardomingo, and Valentine, 2009),

use as an extensive writing task (Armstrong and Retterer, 2008; Sun, 2010), and use for

producing collaborative, creative writing projects (Armstrong and Retterer, 2008). Given the

nature by which blogs can promote collaboration, they may also play a pivotal role in creating

constructivist learning environments (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009).

Comas-Quinn et al. (2009) conducted a study to gauge the impact mobile blogging has on

student learning during a week-long study abroad course in Spain. Students developed a blog

which was a repository for digital file uploads and comments. Due to ease of use and cost

effectiveness, students used their own phones, digital cameras, and MP3 recorders to collect

content. Students participated in a content gathering phase by documenting their travels to a

town center and uploading that content to the blog. By the end of the study abroad excursion

multiple images and audio recordings had been uploaded to the blog, which sparked additional

commentaries by the student participants (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009). Armstrong and Retterer

(2008) analyzed student participation using blogs in an intermediate Spanish course to observe

the effect of blog writing on students’ language acquisition skills. The authors observed that

student writing improved in the areas of verb tense and an increased ability in writing complex

sentences including T-units (sentences including main and secondary clauses). It was evident

that this experience was positive for the students. The majority indicated that they enjoyed

writing blogs, and felt this tool was easy to use. All participants indicated they felt more

comfortable and confident writing in Spanish, (Armstrong and Retterer, 2008).

Ducate and Lomicka (2008) used blogs to help improve French and German students’

reading and writing skills. Results from their study revealed that students felt a sense of

ownership and enhanced creativity when writing their blogs. Students also felt the blog was a

more relaxed learning environment that allowed them to experiment with the language.

Additionally, the blogs provided students a window into the target culture that normally would

not have been experienced by the textbook alone. Sun and Chang (2012) found that students

who used blogs to develop dialogue exchanges in an EFL course improved their strategies to

cope with difficult language situations. Results from this study also revealed that participants

engaged in knowledge sharing and creation which enhanced their sense of autonomy and

ownership when writing. Similarly, Sun (2010) found that blog use improved students’ writing

performance in that the medium promoted autonomy, improved attitude, and enhanced

motivation among participants. Lastly, Castaneda et al., (2011) found that the use of blogging in

a Spanish language course provides students with the potential for learning problematic grammar

structures. Results from their study indicate that students found the blogs easy to use and that

they were satisfied with their regular contributions and exchanges with other participants.

Podcasts

The use of podcasts in language learning environments was also evident in multiple

studies, ranging from student-created recordings to practice pronunciation (Ducate and Lomicka,

2009), to searching for downloaded podcasts used to enhance listening skills (Schmidt, 2008).

Ducate and Lomicka (2009) define a podcast as “an audio file that anyone can create using a

computer, microphone, and a software program” (p. 68). Not only can podcasts be student-

created, but students can also search, subscribe, and listen to a number of podcasts created by

others. Academic scholars propose a four-part definition of a podcast as a digital audio or video

file that is: 1) episodic; 2) downloadable; 3) program-driven, mainly with a host and/or theme;

and 4) convenient, usually via an automated feed with computer software (Gil de Zúñiga, 2010).

Schmidt (2008) required students in his German language classes to find podcasts

through the internet, as well as create their own. Students were trained during the first few

weeks of a semester on how to find podcasts, as well as how to create their own. Schmidt helped

facilitate, offered support, and provided feedback to students having difficulty finding podcasts,

as well as understanding the faster-paced tempo of the language. Students were required to listen

to podcasts two to three times a week and reflect on them in written form, group collaboration, or

oral presentation, all in the target language. Even though students faced challenges adapting to

listening to authentic German, they eventually became accustomed to the material, even when it

was more advanced material. “The main advantage of the long term podcast assignments is that

students will hear authentic German on a regular basis” (Schmidt, 2008, p. 189).

Ducate and Lomicka (2009) utilized podcasts to analyze student pronunciation in German

and French courses. Students were required to create five scripted recordings and post them to a

blog from which students would listen to each other’s podcasts and provide commentaries. After

taking a pre-/post-test pronunciation attitude survey, no significant difference was found in

student pronunciation. Despite these results, the French students’ accents did improve between

their first and second podcasts, and half of the German students’ accents improved between the

pre-test and post-test.

Abdous, Camarena, and Facer (2009) analyzed student responses from surveys and

interviews from two groups; podcasts as supplemental material (PSM), and podcasts integrated

into curriculum (PIC). The PSM group indicated they were helpful, but would have found them

to benefit their language skills more had they been made compulsory to access and use. The PIC

group indicated the podcasts had a positive impact on their study habits, helped improve their

listening skills, and increased their vocabulary. Results revealed that when compared to the PSM

students, more PIC students indicated the podcasts helped make learning the material easier. In a

similar study, Abdous, Facer, and Yen (2012) analyzed student achievement by comparing final

grades between PIC and PSM groups. This study yielded different results compared to their

2009 study suggesting “a relationship between podcasting use and final grade that is inconsistent

with the theoretical expectation” (Abdous et al., 2012, p. 50). In this study more than half of the

PSM students achieved an A/A-, whereas less than half of the PIC students achieved an A/A-.

Lord’s (2008) study of podcast use found a significant improvement in students’

pronunciation. Participants were required to record texts read aloud, tongue twisters, and

phonetic exercises. Students’ perceptions indicated that the integration of podcasts was useful

and beneficial to their Spanish speaking skills (Lord, 2008).

Wiki

Another popular Web 2.0 tool used in a variety of foreign language learning

environments is a wiki, which is a website that can be edited by anyone asynchronously allowing

for collaboration among its users (Ducate, Lomicka, and Moreno, 2011). Wikis are designed for

online group collaboration and function as shared repositories of information among users

(Castaneda, Ahern, and Díaz, 2011). Their use in educational settings have included student-

created pre-reading tasks, collaborative stories (Ducate et al., 2011), and peer-reviewed writing

projects (Kessler, Bikowski, and Boggs, 2012).

Ducate, Lomicka, and Moreno (2011), analyzed the use of wikis in three language

courses, French, German, and Spanish. The French, German, and Spanish courses created three

individual wikis, a micropedia, pre-reading project, and branching story, respectively. The

micropedia required students to compile text, images, and sound files. The pre-reading wiki

required students to add cultural and historical aspects of a text for fellow students to consult as a

resource. The branching story required students to create their own version of a story to be

added to the wiki from which other students could choose to read. It was found that the wiki

promoted responsibility and accountability on the students. Results from quantitative and

qualitative data also “suggest that students viewed the wiki as a valid learning tool and found the

wiki environment to be enjoyable” (Ducate et al., 2011, p. 515).

Kennedy and Miceli (2013) also used a wiki in an introductory Italian course. Despite

some challenges of integrating this technology, and some signs that showed a lack of interest by

the students, the participants did create some creative pages within the wiki. The researchers

also found that even though the wiki did not reach its full potential in establishing a sense of

community, student perception of this technology was favorable (Kennedy and Miceli, 2013).

Recent Trends of Technology

Social media websites including Facebook have also been integrated into language

learning environments. Leier (2011), for instance, used Facebook in a German course for a film

project. Students were required to create mini-films and upload them to the class-created

Facebook page. Students viewed each other’s films and judged their contents in a discussion

forum. Post-survey results showed that students enjoyed this type of interaction. Rama, Black,

Van Es, and Warschauer (2012) observed student behavior, interviews and game logs for two

individual students after playing a Spanish-language version of the massively multi-player online

game (MMOG) World of Warcraft (WoW). Results show that playing this type of game

provides authentic L2 social interaction and an engaging and low anxiety setting to explore the

Spanish language (Rama et al., 2012).

Pardo-Ballester (2012) used the online television program LoMásTV, created by Yabla

Inc., to allow students to practice their listening and speaking skills by reviewing authentic video

clips. The program also includes a chat tool allowing students to communicate with one another

while viewing the clips. Results show that students’ listening skills improved, their recall of

vocabulary improved, they learned more about the culture, and found the videos useful and

enjoyable. Comparing pre- and posttest results showed that students’ listening and speaking

skills improved.

Lys (2013) used iPads in an advanced German conversation class to enhance oral

proficiency. In this study, participants were required to conduct weekly recordings, and

participate in weekly video conversations using iPad’s Facetime application, a video

conferencing tool. Most students found use of the iPad to be helpful in learning the language.

The average time of the weekly recordings increased between the first and the last recording.

Although not much change in length of weekly Facetime conversations was evident, the

researcher noticed that it can be beneficial to improving oral proficiency (Lys, 2013).

Technologies used in Distance Learning

This review also included studies of foreign language distance learning (FLDL) programs

as they integrated interactive technologies that can also be used in F2F settings. Hannan (2009)

discussed how successes in an online learning environment depend on the need for interactivity,

and that e-learning environments are ideal in fostering interaction between students because of

the “myriad forms of communication available and the rich exchange of ideas that build over

time” (p. 4). Stickler and Hempel’s (2010) pilot course “CyberDeutsch” helped students develop

their social-constructivist skills by participating in the Moodle Virtual Learning Environment

(VLE). This environment offered online discussion forums, group tasks such as creating a wiki,

blog writing, unit quizzes, website access, and synchronous video conferencing. Results of this

case study from two individual students’ overall actual work revealed the most significant

language production. The researchers argue that such an environment is ideal for student

production in the target language; however, additional research is required to gauge whether this

is due strictly to being online versus F2F. In the case for this study it is evident that, if given a

proper environment such as Moodle, students are capable of producing and achieving higher

levels of learning in the target language.

Walker and Haddon (2011) analyzed distance learners of Chinese, French, German,

Japanese, and Spanish utilizing resources including written study guides, textbooks, the WebCT

course management system (CMS), and Wimba voice communication system. While most

student feedback was positive, some challenges were experienced including difficulty accessing

the technology, which caused some resistance from the students to the technology and online

learning environment. Student reflections indicated that their experiences were positive in that

they were highly motivated, claiming that in the past, F2F courses were difficult, but that this

mode made it easier to learn. Students preferred the online tools including instant-feedback

quizzes, online verb trainers, online dictionaries, and access to Wimba voice tools (Walker and

Haddon, 2001).

Lai, Zhao, and Wang (2011) examined an online Chinese course for high school students

that featured asynchronous tools including textbooks, online resources such as Chinese podcasts,

Chinese character learning software, online dictionaries, weekly language and culture

assignments, and discussion forums via message centers through Blackboard CMS. Students

were also required to record oral responses, complete dialogues, write short essays about their

families, and offer self-reflections. The synchronous portion of the course included one-hour

weekly video conferences via Adobe Connect which allows students and instructors to share

documents, provides live lecture and video presentation via a web camera, conducts online chat,

and shares presenter roles. The course also consisted of 12 one-hour task-based language

teaching sessions, completing units every two weeks in a F2F setting. Students reacted

positively to the course design, noticing progressive changes in their approach to learn. The

majority retained interest in learning Chinese, and more than half continued to learn Chinese at

the next level. Some students responded “I like the atmosphere of the experience”, and “I like

the tasks a lot because it is a little bit different from how I am used to learning” (Lai et al., 2011,

p. 87).

Cross-Cultural Exchanges

Multiple studies focusing on creating long distance exchanges between students from

international locations have also been conducted in foreign language learning environments.

These have focused on creating a number of online environments, for example, having ESL

students located in Canada, Mexico, and Russia communicate with one another via digital

bulletin boards (Basharina, 2007), creating email exchanges between students in the United

States and Germany (Belz, 2002; Belz, 2003; Biesenbach-Lucas, 2005), chat room dialogues for

native Cantonese speakers living in the United States (Lam, 2004), and social media network

exchanges (Klimanova and Dembovskaya, 2013).

In Basharina’s (2007) study, EFL students from Mexico, Japan, and Russia linked together

using the CMS WebCT to participate in bulletin board discussions. Three main themes

developed from this study: intra-cultural contradictions, inter-cultural contradictions, and tech-

related contradictions. The intra-cultural contradictions included issues for students concerned

with wanting to post a comment or not, or whether to sound formal versus informal. The inter-

cultural contradictions included unequal contribution among the students, clashes among

students when it came to topic choices for discussion, and even plagiarism. The tech-related

contradictions included message overload which sometimes hindered the formation of a

community, name and gender confusion, and a slow-functioning bulletin board, especially when

compared to instant chat. Despite these contradictions that were identified, learners became less

anxious communicating in the target language over time (Basharina, 2007).

Lam (2004) analyzed a Chinese/English chat room for two teenage, Chinese immigrants

living in the United States. This tool provided an additional venue for language socialization,

illustrating how people can navigate across contexts within virtual environments of the Internet

to “articulate new ways of using English” (Lam, 2004, p. 44). Lam (2004) found that students

created new online identities, such as being recognized as a speaker of English on the Internet.

Klimanova and Dembovskaya (2013) analyzed the behavior of non-native speakers (NNS) with

native speakers (NS) of Russian using a social media community networking tool called

VKontakte. Their goal was to gain a better perspective of student identity development by

speaking with NS, and to observe how this internet tool can enhance language learning when

NNS have a lack of contact with the L2. Analysis of the data shows that NS and NNS

interaction can result in unequal power relations, where the NS becomes empowered and the

NNS’s role as a L2 learner becomes diminished. Yet, despite this, the researchers found that

“power relations enabled our L2 participants to shift out of the intimidating frames of L2

speakers, and assume the role of L2 learners when a need to negotiate meaning arose”

(Klimanova & Dembovskaya, 2013, p 83).

Constructivism and Social Constructivism

The research reviewed in this study focused on trends in technology use in teaching and

learning foreign languages both F2F and in FLDL environments. In doing so, the researcher’s

goal was also to gain a better understanding of the theoretical underpinnings found in these

studies. For instance, Shekary and Tahririan (2006) observed student interaction in online chat

activities within the context of interaction theory which promotes online negotiation and

collaboration between students in L2 learning.

Other studies (Hutchinson, 2009; Leier, 2011; Oskoz, 2009) incorporated sociocultural

theory, introduced by Vygotsky (1978), which describes the learning process being enhanced by

those around us. Hutchinson (2009) and Leier (2011) claim that technologies promote

collaboration among one another by allowing continuous sharing and commenting on one

another’s work. This collaboration also creates a natural, informal learning environment.

Moreover, use of specific software tools, seen through a socio-cultural lens, allows students to

facilitate their learning and improve their performance in L2 learning in that it helps address

literacy and identity issues in language learning (Hutchinson, 2009). Additionally, several

studies (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009; Hutchinson, 2009; Shekary and Tahririan, 2006) also

addressed the use of specific technologies such as blogs that foster constructive learning.

Comas-Quinn et al. (2009) look at two forms of constructivist thought that emerged from

constructivist thinking, namely, Jean Piaget’s (1969) cognitive constructivism, which focuses on

the mental processes of an individual’s construction of knowledge, and Vygotsky’s (1978) social

constructivism, which focuses on the social contexts that shape knowledge construction.

Constructivism is derived from the notion that there is a real world that exists and is

experienced, and the meanings and understandings of this world are imposed by the person

(Thompson, Simonson, and Hargrave, 1996). It is an epistemology by which knowledge, or

reality, is created by individuals and social groups based on their previous life experiences.

These realities are embodied in human experiences, individual perceptions of events,

imaginations, and mental and social constructions (Jonassen, Cernusca, and Ionas, 2007). John

Dewey (as cited in Daly, 2007), mentions that “the meaning of prior experience is necessary and

instrumental for shaping the intellectual formulation of any social event” (p. 32). Furthermore,

“we don’t simply create idiosyncratic meanings of behavior, but we construct meanings on the

basis of socially available, shared understandings of reality” (p. 32).

According to Driscoll (2007), to create a constructivist scenario in an academic setting, it

should: “engage learners in activities authentic to the discipline in which they are learning;

provide for collaboration and the opportunity to engage multiple perspectives in what is being

learned; support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their learning; and encourage

learners to reflect on what and how they are learning” (p. 42). This learning environment

represents a shift away from the emphasis being on instructional communication to that of

practice-based learning. Rather than being told about the world, students are participating in

interactive practices that promote an engaging and immersing scenario (Jonnasen et al., 2007),

where cognitive experiences are situated in authentic activities (Thompson, Simonson, &

Hargrave, 1996). Wilson (1996) describes this setting “as a place where people can draw upon

resources to make sense out of things and construct meaningful solutions to problems” (p. 3).

Summary

The research reviewed in this chapter shows that effective use of asynchronous and

synchronous technologies

can lead to enhanced L2 learning by students such as increased

vocabulary (Perez, 2003), improved negotiation of meaning (Pellettieri, 2010), improvement in

listening skills (Schmidt, 2008), and collaborative and constructive learning environments

(Armstrong and Retterer, 2008; Ducate et al., 2011; Leier, 2011). Despite the evidence

supporting increased L2 learning, these studies also illustrate that improvements in some cases

were not always significant (Ducate and Lomicka, 2009; Perez, 2003). Reasons causing this

included, for example, students having difficulty working with and accessing the technology

(Walker and Haddon, 2011). Some even showed the difficulty of late planning which led to a

lack of student motivation, or misunderstanding of the goals of using the technology (Comas-

Quinn et al., 2009). Other instances showed how students became frustrated with extensive use

of the target language, and the difficulty working with strangers from different virtual locations

as was the case in a FLDL environment (Lai et al, 2011).

To minimize these challenges, educators must keep several things in mind. First, making

a clear plan of how you intend to use technology in the classroom is crucial. As was seen in

Comas-Quinn et al. (2009), planning and designing the use of mobile blogging was done late in

their course. Although this occurred, they still found positive implications of what the

technology can do to encourage student participation. There needs to be clear set goals of how to

design a course which includes technology integration. Second, the training of students is also a

crucial component of making technology use a success in the language classroom. Schmidt

(2008) required his students to access challenging audio podcasts for an entire semester.

These include but not limited to the aforementioned technologies in this study or the following: blogs, chat, games,

online television, social media, and wikis.

Although this was difficult for the students, Schmidt trained them for the first several weeks of

the semester on how to access them, and he also coached them throughout the semester to help

interpret the material. Lastly, be sure to model the use of the technology as this will help

students have a better grasp of what your goals are for including technology (Lai et al, 2011).

When this occurs the students find the use of the technology to be more convenient, and more

individualized which can lead to better results (Lai et al, 2011).

This review revealed a number of insights into the use of technology in teaching foreign

languages. It also revealed some possible future directions in which research can take advantage

of enhanced technologies such as the interactive television program LoMásTV (Pardo-Ballester,

2012), iPads (Lys, 2013), or similar tools that allow for simultaneous student interaction. Other

technologies of which to take advantage are social media sites such as Facebook (Leier, 2011)

which can enhance a sense of community among students. And, while these technologies should

be embraced, others, including blogs, chat, podcasts, and wikis, which have resulted in enhanced

learning, should also be considered as meaningful tools that can enhance student interaction and

constructive learning.

Chapter 3

Methodology

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to analyze the effects a Web 2.0 technology intervention,

including: (a) blogs; (b) chat; (c) podcasts; (d) wikis; and (e) live video conferencing with native

speakers had on the dependent variables, students’: (a) reading; (b) writing; (c) speaking; (d)

listening skills; and (e) cultural awareness of the German-speaking countries. In addition, this

study evaluated how students perceived the effectiveness of said technology as a supportive tool

to learn a foreign language and to improve their cultural awareness of the German-speaking

countries. The aforementioned Web 2.0 technologies, Technology to Support German Language

Enhancement, will hereinafter be referred to as TSGLE. This intervention is considered the

independent variable, and the various components comprising of it have an impact on the

dependent variables described above. In order to determine the effects of this intervention, a

mixed methods case study was employed to establish a concurrent triangulation process

(Appendix H), which Creswell (2009) describes as incorporating, collecting, and analyzing both

qualitative and quantitative research.

Theoretical Framework

The researcher used a social-constructivist theoretical lens to evaluate the use of TSGLE

to fulfill the participants’ learning goals. Due to the multiple uses these technologies offer, the

researcher integrated them to increase student interaction and collaboration with one another. As

such, students had the opportunity to gain different perspectives from other learners, which can

potentially lead to improvement of learning (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009). These technologies

increase student interaction as “they are ideally suited to support a social constructivist approach

to task and course designs” (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009, p. 100). This approach is adopted from

Vygotsky (1978), who developed his theory of social constructivism, in which he claims that

learning “presupposes a specific social nature and a process by which children grow into the

intellectual life of those around them” (p. 88). Learners develop cognition when they are

engaged in collaborative tasks, which influences engagement in other activities (Palinscar, 1998).

Because of the types of TSGLE intervention used in this study, students were provided the

opportunity to instantaneously connect and increase their interaction and collaboration with one

another and the language in authentic, communicative contexts. Thus creating a social

constructivist learning environment.

Research Questions

The researcher hypothesized the TSGLE intervention would improve the dependent

variables: students’ achievement in reading comprehension, writing ability, listening

comprehension, speaking skills, and cultural awareness. The researcher also believed the

students would perceive TSGLE as an effective means to support their language learning and

cultural awareness over the course of a semester. In order to provide insight into students’

achievement in a German language course enriched by technology, as well as to gain a deeper

understanding of students’ perceptions of learning a foreign language reinforced by technology,

this study was guided by the following questions:

1. What effect will the TSGLE intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video

conferencing) and cross-cultural exchange have on the dependent variables: students’

language skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking)?

2. What effect will the TSGLE intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video

conferencing) and cross-cultural exchange have on students’ cultural awareness?

3. How do students perceive the use of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange

in their process of learning German?

These questions provided a setting in which strengths from qualitative data add to the strengths

of the quantitative data. By answering these questions, this study offers a unique perspective that

focuses on the effects a TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange have on students’

language learning and cultural awareness. Furthermore, this study assesses students’ perceptions

of TSGLE as a medium to enhance language learning and cultural awareness within a

constructivist learning environment.

Context

This study took place in the foreign language laboratory (FLL) on the campus of a major,

public university in the southeastern part of the United States. The primary mission of the

university is to bring this institution to a new level of excellence by taking steps to increase

research, scholarly productivity, and the quality and competitiveness of its graduate and

undergraduate students. It has nearly 1,400 faculty members and 30,000 students from 50 states

and more than 100 countries. Its fifteen colleges offer 193 undergraduate and

graduate/professional degrees. The FLL facility was an optimal setting in the instructional

delivery for this study. Each student was provided the use of a computer, which included

Internet access, headphones for listening exercises, microphones to create electronic voice files,

and access to an interactive Smart Board touch screen. This setting therefore was optimal in

providing an environment in which students received traditional-style instruction that was

enhanced by technology allowing for asynchronous and synchronous communication.

Participants

Twenty-eight students (16 female, 12 male) participated in this study as a convenience

sample that consisted mostly of undergraduate students between the ages of 18 to 25 years old.

In order to be eligible to take this course, students must have passed the first two introductory

courses of German taught at this university, or an equivalent from another institution. Students

may also test into this level by taking the language placement examination administered by the

university. Before beginning this study, the researcher first obtained approval from the

university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) to conduct research (Appendix J). The students

agreed to participate in this study and signed consent forms (Appendix I) at the beginning of the

semester. To ensure student confidentiality, the researcher also signed and submitted a Security

of Data form (Appendix J), made available by the university’s IRB.

Research Design

This study employed a within-group case study design using a mixed methods approach.

In doing so, the researcher used a concurrent triangulation process (Creswell, Plano-Clark,

Gutmann, and Hanson, 2003) (Appendix H) during a one semester intermediate German

language course, which analyzed participants during the fall 2014. In addition to the textbook,

the researcher included the aforementioned TSGLE intervention at regular intervals during the

16-week semester, which covered six chapters. The TSGLE included the following: (a) eight

blog posts; (b) six recorded podcasts; (c) three chat sessions; and (d) weekly use of a wiki and

web search exercises, creating an environment of increased asynchronous and synchronous

interaction. Additionally, students embarked on a cross-cultural, virtual exchange with German

university students (hereinafter Jena Project) by participating in a blog website, a collaborative

video conference session, a German film screening, individual email correspondence, and

individual video conference sessions. A more detailed overview of the TSGLE intervention is

provided in the Procedure’s section. Mixed methods, quantitative, and qualitative data were

collected and analyzed at the conclusion of all of these activities.

Data Collection

Mixed Methods Data Collection

The mixed methods data originated from students’ blog entries and students’ podcast

recordings, which also include the final oral examination (Appendix E). This consisted of

content analyses of the following: (a) students’ first, third, fifth, and seventh blog entries, and (b)

students’ first, fourth, and sixth podcast recordings. Results of each the blog entries and podcast

recordings were all entered into separate Excel spreadsheets and subsequently exported into the

SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0) software program to prepare for an

analysis of the data. The assessment for students’ writing skills was adapted by the American

Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Reading, Writing, and Listening

Guidelines (2012) (Appendix D). The oral examination and podcast recordings were rated by

using the Oral Proficiency Rubric (Appendix E), which was adapted from the ACTFL Speaking

Guidelines (2012) (Appendix E). A complete description of these analyses is provided in the

Data Analysis section.

Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative data originated from the Technology Implementation Survey (TIS)

(Appendix F), which was designed by the researcher specifically for this study and generated

using Qualtrics software (Qualtrics, Version 2013, Provo, UT) which automatically produced

descriptive statistics results upon completion. This survey took place in the FLL and included 12

Likert-type and scaled questions which asked students about their preferred use of technology in

academic settings and to rate their perception on the effectiveness of the TSGLE intervention

over the course of a semester to learn German as a foreign language. Results from the TIS were

collected during the last week of the semester, prior to the post-test assessment. The researcher

subsequently exported these results into the SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version

22.0) software program to prepare for an analysis of the data. To establish validity for this

instrument, the researcher adopted questions from a survey on technology use created by

Educause (2013) and combined those with his own questions, which were reviewed and

approved by two members of his doctoral committee. As a secondary means of establishing

validity to the TIS, the researcher also conducted two factor analyses.

The first analyzed all questions from the TIS, however, this resulted in a high number of

components with eigenvalues above one. Therefore the researcher conducted a follow-up factor

analysis by discarding several questions from the survey. For instance, some questions asked

students to rate the effectiveness of the wiki tool on their speaking enhancement. Since this tool

was not used to practice speaking, the researcher discarded it, as well as any question where the

technology and the intended dependent variable to be enhanced did not relate.

This provided the researcher with a factor score covariance matrix, which allowed the

researcher to identify underlying factors found within the observed variables (IDRE, 2007). This

also provided the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (.630), and a

significance of (.000). The KMO indicates an acceptable in establishing content validity, and the

significance level indicates there are some relationships between variables to include in analysis

(Field, 2005).

Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data originated from the following: (a) two focus group interviews; (b)

students’ reflections from the TSGLE intervention; (c) students’ open-ended responses and email

correspondence with the researcher regarding the cross-cultural exchange; and (d) researcher

observations over the course of the semester. The researcher conducted two focus group

interviews (Appendix G), each taking place in the FLL on separate dates and lasting

approximately one hour, respectively. The first took place during the last week of the semester

following the completion of the TIS. Nine participants responded to 12 open-ended questions

which were designed by the researcher based on results from the TIS in order to gain a better

understanding of students’ perceptions on the use of the TSGLE intervention to learn a foreign

language. To establish homogeneity, the researcher purposely selected the nine participants

whose grades were closest to the course’s overall median average. This helped the researcher

identify them as subgroup from the entire sample who most closely possessed this characteristic

(Creswell, 2008). To establish content validity, these questions were reviewed and approved by

a member of his doctoral committee.

The second interview took place after the conclusion of the semester. Eight participants

responded to five open-ended questions which were designed by the researcher based on results

from the TIS in order for the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of students’ perceptions

of the cross-cultural exchange with the students from Jena, Germany. To establish homogeneity,

the researcher purposely selected the eight participants who successfully scheduled and

conducted individual video conference meetings with their German partners. This helped the

researcher identify them as subgroup from the entire sample who most closely possessed this

characteristic (Creswell, 2008). Only six of the eight participants were present for the face to

face focus group interview. Two additional students, who also completed at least one video

conference with their German partner, could not attend this focus group, but were provided the

same questions and submitted their responses via E-Mail. The two focus group interviews were

recorded using two Sony ICD-PX232 handheld voice recorders which produced a digitized file

of each interview. Two recorders were utilized to ensure all content from each interview was

properly recorded and captured. These files were then transferred to the researcher’s computer

in preparation for analyses. Qualitative data also included students’ reflections, which they

wrote and submitted at the completion of each chapter by hand or by email. The researcher

provided the students with prompts asking them to reflect on the TSGLE intervention which

provided insight into their perceptions on how the use of specific technologies affected their

language acquisition and cultural awareness throughout each unit, which progressively became

more challenging. Additional qualitative data consisted of email correspondences between the

researcher and participants during the Jena Project, which allowed the researcher to gauge a

deeper understanding of how participants interacted with their partners. Finally, the researcher

wrote field notes throughout the semester based on his classroom observations. The researcher

gathered all field notes, collected and printed all student reflections and email correspondences in

preparation for analysis. The researcher was able to obtain access to the research site, including

the students and location by gaining permission from the Chair of the Department of Foreign

Languages & Literatures at this university (Creswell, 2009).

Procedures

First, this section provides an overview of the study’s course structure, including a

description of the materials and technologies used. Table 3.1 on the following page provides a

visual summary of materials and technologies implemented throughout the course.

Table 3.1

Summary of Course Material and TSGLE Implementation

Chapter

Course Materials and TSGLE Implementation

Station 1 -

Berlin

Textbook

Workbook

Blog 1

Blog 2

Podcast 1

Podcast 2

Wiki

Station 2 -

Munich

Textbook

Workbook

Blog 3

Podcast 3

Chat 1

Wiki

Station 3 -

Heidelberg

Textbook

Workbook

Blog 4

Blog 5

Podcast 4

Chat 2

Wiki

Station 4 -

Hamburg

Textbook

Workbook

Blog 6

Podcast 5

Chat 3

Wiki

Station 5 –

Leipzig &

Jena Project

Textbook

Workbook

Blog 7

Blog 8

Group

Video

Chat

Individual

Video

Chat

Wiki

Station 6 -

Frankfurt

Textbook

Workbook

Wiki

Textbook and Workbook

The textbook and accompanying workbook used for this course and study is titled

Stationen (Augustyn and Euba, 2014). Students were required to complete weekly-assigned

textbook and workbook exercises which included reading and writing practice, grammatical

exercises, and vocabulary practice. Students had the option of purchasing a copy of the paper-

based textbook and a separate workbook, the Student Activities Manual (SAM), or the course e-

book. The e-book is an identical version of the textbook, but with additional, interactive

features, including pronunciation samples to vocabulary terms and direct links to Videoblogs.

All students, regardless if they purchased the textbook or e-book, were also provided with a code

to set up accounts in an online portal called iLRN (Heinle Learning Center, Cengage, Inc., 2014).

Here, students accessed the electronic SAM (eSAM) or e-book. The exercises in the eSAM were

identical to the SAM, however, responses to these exercises were automatically submitted into

iLRN (Heinle Learning Center, Cengage, Inc., 2014). Students had the option to submit

homework exercises either by hand or via the eSAM. It should be noted that only three students

submitted assignments by hand.

The textbook Stationen (Augustyn and Euba, 2014) is comprised of twelve chapters, in

which each is titled Station and is devoted to a specific German-speaking city, for example

Berlin. Each chapter provides historical and cultural information for the particular location as

well as grammatical and lexical insights to the German language. Authentic literary texts are

also included and reinforce reading comprehension and cultural knowledge (See Figures A1 and

A2), and grammatical explanations and detailed vocabulary lists test students’ linguistic

comprehension (See Figures A3 and A4). Each chapter also includes a Videoblog section,

which is a short video reflection by a native of the particular city (See Figure A5) which

reinforces listening and cultural comprehension. The student activities manual (SAM) provides

numerous listening, writing, grammar-based, and reading exercises, which provided students

with a variety of means to practice their language comprehension (See Figure A6). The

researcher also created a total of 13 video tutorials which provided students with additional,

grammatical explanations and examples. These reinforced structural aspects of the language

from the text and were created using Camtasia (TechSmith®), a capturing software that allows

one to record lectures from a computer. The researcher made these available to students through

Moodle, the university’s course management system (CMS) (See Figure A7), where they could

access them and other materials such as PowerPoint presentations and handouts on demand.

Technology

As a primary portion of this course design the instructor integrated a TSGLE intervention

within the first six chapters, each of which lasted approximately two weeks. The TSGLE was

designed to impact the dependent variables by enhancing the course delivery. In order to

illustrate the differences between technologies used in this study, Table 3.2 provides a summary

of the various affordances each offer.

Table 3.2

Affordances of TSGLE

Web 2.0

Affordances

Asynchronous

Communication

Synchronous

Communication

Read

Write

Listen

Speak

Culture

Blog

Chat

Podcast

Wiki

Video

Chat

In this context, the researcher refers to participants’ interactions with the various TSGLE

intervention, focusing specifically on cognitive affordances, which are certain attributes each

technology provides that assists participants in thinking or knowing how to complete the

particular tasks using each tool (Hartson, 2012). The plus symbol (+) indicates it offers

affordance, the minus symbol (-) indicates it does not. The following describes the technologies

designated for use in this study. Please visit the course syllabus (Appendix C) for a more

detailed outline of their weekly implementation per chapter, and the Samples of TSGLE

Intervention (Appendix A) for an example of how each technology was implemented.

Blog

Students were assigned to write a total of eight blog entries over the course of the

semester, each with a five to seven sentence minimum. The first six blog entries assigned over

the first four chapters were: (a) a description of what to do in Berlin; (b) a description of Berlin

street food and students’ “fast food” tendencies; (c) a description of what to do at Oktoberfest in

Munich; (d) a description of what to do in Heidelberg; (e) students’ reaction and thoughts about

tuition at German universities; and (f) a description of what to do in Hamburg. Blog entries

seven and eight (7-8) were designated for the fifth chapter, during which the students

participated in the Jena Project. A description of these particular entries is provided in the Jena

Project section.

The blog was implemented as a “Forum” writing activity available in Moodle.

Armstrong and Retterer (2008) found that extended use of a student blog can enhance student

writing ability by increasing vocabulary usage, use of subordinate and coordinate clauses, and

enhancing student collaboration. The textbook Stationen (Augustyn and Euba, 2014) provides a

number of writing activities that test student comprehension of reading passages. These

activities also allow for open-ended discussions and students were required to answer particular

questions to assigned readings, and conduct cultural research of the various cities within

Stationen (Augustyn and Euba, 2014) by accessing German websites provided by the researcher

and reporting on their findings. An example and description of the website is provided in Figure

A8. In addition, students provided commentary to their classmates’ responses, which created an

environment promoting collaboration and autonomy via asynchronous communication (See

Figure 3.1 on the following page).

Figure 3.1. Screen Shot of Moodle Forum/blog room.

Chat

Online chat was utilized for in-class language practice and review, and for two assigned

partner tasks. The chat tool was implemented using Adobe Connect (Adobe Systems, Inc.)

conferencing software program. This program includes a shared-screen option that allows the

instructor to open chat rooms while delivering a lecture allowing all participants to have access

to and work collaboratively within the same screen, providing all students with an increased

opportunity to participate in class (See Figure 3.2 on the following page). In addition to in-class

language review, one group chat session was held outside-of-class, during a regularly scheduled

class meeting that the researcher could not attend. Students were invited to participate for bonus

points and were allowed to access the chat room from any location with an Internet connection.

During this session the researcher posted grammar sentences as well as utilized the polling tool

to ask multiple-choice questions for the students to complete.

The two partner chat sessions were assigned and included the following tasks: a

discussion about beverages and recycling, and a discussion about childhood activities and future

aspirations, both pertaining to cultural aspects introduced in Stationen (Augustyn and Euba,

2014). For each exercise, students were required to ask one another six questions originating

from the textbook that focused on the tasks mentioned above. Because Adobe Connect chat

sessions could only be scheduled by the instructor, and since these particular chat sessions were

conducted only between students, participants were permitted to utilize other chat tools for out-

of-class chat assignments, including Google Docs or even text messaging.

Figure 3.2. Screen Shot of Adobe Connect chat room page.

Podcasts

Podcasts for this course were implemented for students to practice speaking outside of

class lectures. Students were required to create five audio files using the Audacity (Audacity ®)

recording software which allowed participants to create digital recordings that can be saved,

uploaded, and archived to Moodle. The five recording assignments were: (a) answering

introductory interview questions; (b) describing current events and activities they would do in

Berlin; (c) reading a textbook passage aloud; (d) dictating a variety of individual sentences; and

(e) answering intensive interview questions. A sixth recording was also conducted as the second

part of the oral final examination. For the first recording podcast assignment, students were

assigned to speak for a minimum of one minute by introducing themselves, talking about where

they are from, what they study, what their hobbies are, and why they are studying German.

Students were not permitted to write out responses ahead of time, but to simply speak as freely as

possible. The second podcast required students to talk about what they would do if they were to

visit Berlin. This task was in collaboration with their first blog post, which required students to

research the city of Berlin and find activities they would recommend doing. They needed to

speak for a minimum of one minute and were permitted to read their blog posts out loud. The

third recording assignment required students to read a six sentence, eight line passage from the

second chapter out loud (See Figure A9). This text included a number of new vocabulary, the

majority of which represented a higher level of difficulty to pronounce for a third semester

student. For the fourth recording assignment students were assigned to read aloud 15 short

sentences using the past tense. Ten of these were provided by the researcher as a model, and

students were required to write the last five sentences on their own, reading all 15 in sequence.

The final recorded podcast assignment, required students to answer 24 interview questions

provided by the researcher. These included questions about where the students are from, what

they study, what their university is like, what their home town is like, and whether they had been

to Germany. These questions were designed to help students prepare for the Jena Project. The

sixth podcast (Appendix E), as part of the students’ final, oral exam, required participants to

leave a recorded voice mail. For this task, students were given up to two minutes to leave a

detailed message describing their accommodations and plans to meet with a friend in Munich for

Oktoberfest. They were first given a description of the task and were allowed one minute to

consider a response.

Wiki

The wiki tool in this study was used as a class-study guide, for in-class note taking, and

for tasks requiring students to work simultaneously practicing sentence writing. It was

accessible to students anytime through a shared Google Docs (See Figure A10) created by the

researcher, who then sent individual email invitations for each student to accept access. The

class accessed the wiki on a weekly basis and the researcher used it to provide examples of

language structure and for exercising grammar practice. The Google Docs wiki allows for

synchronous use where multiple users could access and contribute simultaneously on one page,

acting as a virtual blackboard, such as collaborating in teams of five to complete sentences using

specific vocabulary listed within the wiki.

Cross-Cultural Exchange: The Jena Project

During the last three weeks of the semester, students participated in a virtual, cross-cultural

exchange with native, German speakers

from the city of Jena, Germany, located in former East

Germany. This group included 12 undergraduate university students (nine female and three

male) between the ages 18-25 studying Deutsch als Fremdsprache (German as a Foreign

Language) with a goal of becoming German teachers following graduation. This project was

coordinated by the researcher, who successfully contacted and collaborated with a colleague,

who is a professor of German as a Foreign Language at this university. The project consisted of

four main phases, which included: (a) Phase 1, the creation of a shareable blog and blog post

entries by all students and both instructors; (b) Phase 2, a group video conference; (c) Phase 3,

conducting of individual video conference sessions between paired student dyads; and (d) Phase

It should be noted that two of the students in Germany were originally from China and Guatemala, respectively.

However, due to the amount of time they have been in Germany, their language skills were fluent and near native.

4, the screening of the German film Friendship! (Berg and Beckmann, 2010). The following

presents a description of each of these phases.

Phase 1: Blog

The blog selected and used for this project was created via WordPress (WordPress, 2003) a

website that allows individuals to create their own blog site at no charge or for a fee, depending

on the amount of content desired to be included. Students were required to upload two blog

assignments to the site LSU und Jena Austausch: Eine Zusammenarbeit (LSU and Jena

Exchange: A Collaboration). Figure 3.3 shows an image of a participant’s first blog post, which

was a brief introduction with a picture attached.

Figure 3.3. Screen Shot of a Student’s First Blog Post and Image Upload.

The introduction needed to include a description of each student and describe where they are

from, their major, their interests, and any additional information they cared to share. The picture

either could have been of themselves or of an image depicting something about them that the

German students needed to inquire about. The second blog assignment (See Figure 3.4) required

students to write a statement indicating their interest in learning the German language and about

Germany and posting a question to the German students specifically asking something about

Germany they wanted to know.

Figure 3.4. Screen Shot of Student’s Second Blog Post and Image Upload.

The German students were also required to write introductions and upload these texts along with

images to the blog. They were also assigned to respond to the American students’ inquiries

about Germany. All students who participated in this project were required to provide

commentary to at least two partner students.

Phase 2: Group Video Conference

For Phase 2 of this project, students from both groups participated in a group video

conference via Adobe Connect (Adobe Systems, Inc.) which took place in the Foreign Language

Laboratory (FLL). Because of the time difference of seven hours between the two schools, the

meeting lasted approximately 30 minutes. The American students met at 12:30 p.m. which was

7:30 p.m. in Germany. For this portion, the German instructor and researcher made brief

introductions and described how the meeting would proceed. Several of the German students

came up and introduced themselves and selected several blog posts by the American students,

which led to a brief question and answer session among the students. The German students

answered the American students’ blog questions and expanded candidly about their experiences

as students in Germany. Since there was only 30 minutes allowed for this conference, only three

to four students from each group were able to communicate with one another. However, all

participants were able to listen and watch (See Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5. Screen Shot of Group Video Conference via Adobe Connect.

Phases 3 and 4: Individual Video Conferences and Film Screening

Phase 3 of the project consisted of individual video conference sessions via Skype

(Skype™). Students were designated into pairs and were assigned to conduct two video

conference sessions. Due to the skewed numbers of participants from each group (American, n =

28, and German, n = 12), only nine of the American students were able to participate in this

phase. However, all students were at least able to email with one another in an attempt to

schedule an individual video conference session. In these video conference sessions, which were

designed to last approximately 20 minutes in length, students were assigned to first conduct brief

introductions with one another in which they discussed each other’s blog posts, and to then

discuss the German film Friendship! (Berg and Beckmann, 2010), Phase 4. This film was

screened in the FLL one week into the project and was intended to take place in between the two

assigned video conferences. The American students also had online access to the film to view

from home. Friendship! (Berg and Beckmann, 2010) depicts two best friends from former East

Germany who took a trip to the United States in order for one of them to find his father in San

Francisco. The film represented stereotypes of former East Germany and Germans, as well as of

the United States and Americans. It was a fitting medium to screen for this project as the year

2014 marked the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. It was also a suitable talking

point as the German university is located in former East Germany, allowing the American

students to gain a perspective into a unique geographic and historic location in Germany. At the

conclusion of the cross-cultural exchange, the American students were scheduled to take their

end of the year assessments, including oral and written final examinations.

Data Analysis

Mixed Methods Data Analysis of Blog Entries and Podcasts

The results from students’ blog entries and podcast recordings were analyzed in two

ways: by conducting a content analysis and by conducting a repeated measures one-way

ANOVA. The researcher conducted a content analysis of the participants’ first, third, fifth, and

seventh blog entries. Seventeen participants’ blog entries were included in this analysis, which

does not represent the entire sample (n = 28). The remaining participants only completed one of

these blog assignments and their results were not included. The researcher then conducted a

content analysis of participants’ first, fourth, and sixth podcast recording. Fifteen participants’

podcast recordings were included in this analysis, which does not represent the entire sample (n

= 28). The remaining participants only completed one of these podcast assignments and their

results were not included. The researcher utilized ACTFL’s 2012 Language Guidelines

(Appendix D) to conduct an analysis of blogs for the following: (a) total number of sentences;

(b) use of secondary clauses; (c) total word count (blogs); and (e) grammar accuracy. The

grammar accuracy included a check of aspects including: (a) correct word order; (b) correct verb

conjugation; (c) correct use of case; and (d) correct spelling. The researcher utilized a rubric for

assessing oral accuracy established by ACTFL (2012) (Appendix E), which assesses the

following: (a) fluency and coherence; (b) appropriateness of vocabulary; (c) grammatical

accuracy; and (d) pronunciation. Any incorrect use of these aspects, depending on its severity,

resulted in a point reduction and allowed the researcher to quantify an overall score for each.

These scores then led to the second portion of data analysis for blog entries and podcast

recordings.

For the second portion of analysis of blogs and podcasts, the researcher first conducted

two one-way ANOVAs with repeated measures of participants’ first, third, fifth, and seventh

(Jena Project) blog entry results; the first to analyze overall score, and the second to analyze

grammar output from the students. This included use of modal verbs, for example sollen (to be

supposed to), which, when used, often times require students to integrate a second verb or more

at the end of the sentence. This also included students’ use of subordinate clauses, which

automatically places a single verb or multiple verbs at the end of a clause or sentence. Lastly,

this included students’ total word and sentence count for each blog entry. The researcher then

conducted a separate one-way ANOVA with repeated measures for the participants’ first, fourth,

and sixth podcast results of their overall scores. These statistical tests provided descriptive

statistics, including means and standard deviations, and allowed the researcher to also measure

within-group independent samples for significance (Wilks’ Lambda) and effect size (Robinson-

Szapkiw, 2013). The researcher did not conduct an ANOVA of the grammar output for podcast

recordings. While speaking is an important element in this course and study, based on end of the

semester assessment (post-test), this university’s German program, expects students at this level

to perform at the Advanced Low for listening and writing, Advanced for reading, and

Intermediate Mid for speaking, based on ACTFLs (2012) language guidelines. For additional

information regarding these guidelines, please visit Appendices D and E.

Quantitative Data Analysis of the TIS

Quantitative data included a descriptive statistical analysis of the TIS. Upon submission

of the TIS, Qualtrics software (Qualtrics, Version 2013, Provo, UT), immediately produced

descriptive statistics based on students’ responses. This provided the researcher with overall

percentages of students’ perceptions of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange

(Jena Project).

Qualitative Data Analysis

The researcher transcribed and analyzed the recorded, focus group interviews to

determine codes. This coding process organized these data into segments of text, which was

turned into categories and labeled with a specific term. This allowed the generation of a

description of the participants, as well as specific themes which were analyzed in students’

responses (Creswell, 2009). The same process was conducted in analyzing students’ reflections

after the completion of each chapter. Additionally, the researcher analyzed students’ emails and

open-ended responses to the Jena Project, as well as field notes taken throughout the course of

the semester. From these data, he also organized and sorted out specific codes that depicted

apparent themes in his observations and linked commonalities and overlapping themes from

these data with those from the focus group interviews. The researcher then merged the mixed

methods, quantitative, and qualitative data in order to see if there were differences, similarities,

or converge between the three data sets (Creswell, 2009).

Chapter 4

Results

This chapter provides results of mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative data, which

the researcher collected separately to maintain independence of the analyses. Mixed methods

data included results of repeated measures of students’ blog entries and podcast recordings,

which were conducted over the course of the semester. Quantitative data originated from results

of the TIS, which assessed students’ perceptions on the use of the TSGLE and cross-cultural

exchange (Jena Project). Qualitative data originated from two focus group interviews, students’

reflections, and the researcher’s observations. The researcher conducted an interpretive analysis

and coding process by organizing these data into categories and labeled each with a specific

term. This generated the following four themes that emerged from students’ responses:

convenience, social constructivism, cultural awareness, and language acquisition. These themes

describe the various affordances provided by the course materials, the TSGLE intervention, and

cross-cultural exchange.

The researcher then merged findings from each set of data in an attempt to explore the

research questions that guided this within-group case study design using mixed methods. The

mixed methods, quantitative, and qualitative data indicate the TSGLE intervention and Jena

Project had a tremendous impact on students’ language acquisition and cultural awareness.

These data also indicate that students’ perceived the intervention and cross-cultural exchange as

beneficial to helping them learn a foreign language. Mixed methods data revealed significant

gains in the dependent variables, namely, students’ writing (blogs) and speaking (podcasts).

Quantitative data obtained from the TIS indicated that an overwhelmingly high percentage of

students perceived use of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange to be effective means of

improving language skills and cultural awareness. Qualitative data also provided additional

insight into the improvements in students’ learning, even when faced with challenges throughout

the course. By merging these findings, the researcher was able to gain a deeper understanding of

the effects the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange (Jena Project) had on students’

language acquisition and cultural awareness. Furthermore, these data also allowed the researcher

to gain insight into students’ perceptions after experiencing the TSGLE intervention and cross-

cultural exchange. The following provides an overview of these results and the researcher’s

interpretations.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange

In order to investigate Research Questions 1 (hereinafter RQ1): What effect will the

TSGLE intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video conferencing) and cross-cultural

exchange have on the dependent variables: students’ language skills (reading, writing, listening,

and speaking)?, the researcher originally intended on analyzing results from pre-test (chapter 1)

and post-test (final examination) instruments. However, after careful consideration, the

researcher opted not to include these data. The pre-test and post-test instruments included

individual language skill sections, however, they were primarily used to assess students’

knowledge of the textbook content. Also, because the pre-test was a chapter test and the post-

test was a cumulative final examination, these instruments did not have equal forms reliability.

As a result, the researcher believes that the pre-test and post-test were potentially inadequate

instruments for assessing the impact of technology use on students’ language skills and will

discuss this in the following chapter. The following sections include the researcher’s analysis of

results of each of the dependent variables: writing, speaking, reading, and listening.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Writing

In order to investigate RQ1, and to assess the effects of the TSGLE on students’ writing,

the researcher analyzed student performance from their authentic writing produced during blog

activities. To accomplish this, students were required to write a total of eight blog entries over

the course of the semester. They were required to write a minimum of five to seven sentences

for each, then to provide a minimum five sentence commentary to at least two of their

classmates’ entries. For example, for Blog 1: Berlin, students were assigned to conduct

individual research on the city of Berlin using a website provided by the researcher. Students

were required to search the site and find events going on in the city that they would recommend

for their classmates, then write about them. For a more detailed description of this task and all

remaining blog assignments, please visit Appendix A.

The blogs from 17 students were assessed as they were the only participants who

successfully completed each task. The remaining participants were unable to complete each task

and were not included in these analyses. To obtain a final score, the researcher first conducted a

content analysis of grammar production, such as spelling, word order, use of tense and case, as

well as the following for each blog entry: (a) use of modal verbs; (b) use of subordinating

clauses; (c) total word count; and (d) total sentence count of. The researcher then performed a

one-way ANOVA with repeated measures to analyze grammar accuracy. Table 4.1 on the

following page illustrates results of the content analysis for grammar production in students’

blog entries.

Observing these results, there was a significant effect for use of modal verbs, Wilks’

Lambda = 0.29, [F(3, 14) = 11.390, p < .001]. There was not a significant effect for use of

subordinating clauses, Wilks’ Lambda = 0.71, [F(3, 14) = 1.953, p = .168], total word count,

Wilks’ Lambda = 0.73 [F(3, 14) = 1.742, p = .204], or total sentence count, Wilks’ Lambda =

0.67, [F(3, 14) = 2.330, p = .119].

Table 4.1

Content Analysis of Blog Entries: Grammar Production

Repeated Measures of Grammar Production

Blog

Modal Verbs:



Subordinate

Clauses: x



Word Count: x



Sentence

Count: x



Blog 1: Berlin

5.76

2.65

88.24

10.47

Blog 3: Munich

5.06

2.82

77.18

8.41

Blog 5:

Heidelberg

4.06

3.65

106.76

10.76

Blog 7: Jena

1.76

2.18

88.29

9.88

Multivariate Tests of Each Repeated Measure

Grammar

Element

Effect

Value

Hypothesis

Error df

Sig.

Modal Verbs

Wilks’

Lambda

0.29

11.39

3.00

14.00

.000

Subordinating

Clauses

Wilks’

Lambda

0.71

1.95

3.00

14.00

.168

Word Count

Wilks’

Lambda

0.73

1.74

3.00

14.00

.204

Sentence

Count

Wilks’

Lambda

0.67

2.33

3.00

14.00

.119

By observing the mean scores of grammar output, students produced the most

subordinating clauses (x

 = 3.65), most words used (x

 = 106.76), and most sentences written (x

 =

10.76) on Blog 5: Heidelberg, when compared to the other blog entries. For this blog entry,

students discussed the differences in tuition prices between the United States and Germany. Due

to the minimal rates of tuition for German students, this may have sparked students’ interests in

writing more about this topic. The content analysis for grammar accuracy and production for

these blog entries allowed the researcher to obtain a final score of each entry, which he used to

more closely assess students’ authentic writing performance over the course of the semester. To

accomplish this the researcher performed a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures of

participants’ final scores on their first, third, fifth, and seventh blog entries, which are illustrated

in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Repeated Measures of Blog Entries: Total Score

Repeated Measures of Blog Entries

Blog Entry

Berlin: x



Munich: x



Heidelberg: x



Jena: x



Blog Score

77.76

83.71

85.41

93.59

Standard

Deviation

6.63

7.73

4.65

3.78

Multivariate Test

Effect

Value

Hypothesis

Error df

Sig.

Wilks’

Lambda

0.09

44.82

3.00

14.00

.000

Observing these results, there was a significant effect of students’ total scores of blog

entries, Wilks’ Lambda = 0.09, [F(3, 14) = 44.84, p < .001]. The mean scores of each blog entry

show that participants gradually increased their performance over the course of the semester. By

analyzing students’ repeated measures of blog writing, the researcher was able to more

accurately assess the effect of TSGLE on writing acquisition. The blog tool allowed students to

write in a less-stressful environment, allowing them to produce more authentic writing.

To gain a deeper understanding of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on

students’ writing acquisition, the researcher merged findings from these mixed methods and

quantitative data with qualitative data. These included students’ responses during focus group

interviews, students’ post-chapter reflections, as well as the researcher’s own observations.

When referring to students’, researcher identified each as P, for example, Participant 1 is referred

to as P1, Participant 2 is referred to P2, Participant 3 is referred to as P3, etc., to ensure

anonymity for their direct responses provided throughout this narrative, as well as all subsequent

sections.

Only a slight increase in writing competency was observed on the post-test instrument.

However, analyzing the repeated measures results, along with the aforementioned qualitative

findings, indicates that students’ writing skills improved. The researcher observed how the

blogs, as well as various, additional aspects of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural

exchange (Jena Project) also contributed to enhancing writing. These included: the textbook,

SAM and course lectures, in-class tasks, Internet searches, video tutorials, chat, and wiki. For a

more detailed description of these tasks, please visit Appendix A. The researcher found from

students’ responses that these tools also contributed to a social constructivist environment. For

example, “Reading blog posts and gathering information from what others were writing assisted

with my writing and putting in my own thoughts” (P9). “In-class writing tasks […] put pressure

on us to think on the spot. This helped us figure things out as we go, where we were willing to

venture off and take a risk with the language” (P11). “The in-class writing really helped me. It

was stressful, but I felt more prepared for the writing on the exam” (P18). Other students

reported on the independence that writing blog posts afforded them. “The Moodle blog posts,

because like research on our own and forming our own sentences and paragraphs, and then to

respond (to others) by reading was really positive” (P11). Another added,

As far as the websites go, I like what you provided. It was more interesting to me

to go find my own websites in Germany; I learned to Google in German! And

things like that where you actually had to do a real life type of situation (P9).

The researcher observed how the online chat and wiki tools promoted collaboration

among the students which contributed to their writing skills. For instance, “I find the Adobe

Connect very useful in getting everyone involved and on the same page” (P7). “It was a great

way to get everyone involved and working together” (P2). Regarding the wiki, “When we did

the Google Doc and you had like five sentences to do; it’s like each person on the row would just

take one sentence and then we’d help each other out, so that was really nice” (P20). Other

participants reported the various themes of blog entries enhanced their writing. “I enjoyed

writing the blog post about my own college finances and comparing them to how they would be

in Germany” (P7). In one case, a student referred to the blog and chat as effective tools for

writing. “I feel as though the variety of my written German has improved. I think the blogs and

chat have helped this” (P23).

Some students, however, required additional adaptation to the blog. For instance, one

student found early on that “The blog was difficult for me” (P4). However, as the semester

progressed, so did her comfort level: “they (the blogs) have been getting easier to do and that

helps with my writing skills especially when I can take my time to grasp what is being said and

figure out what to say in return” (P4). Students’ reports also indicated that the blog task during

the cross-cultural exchange (Jena Project) assisted with their writing, even if it required an

adjustment,

After we got into it and actually started posting and I was able to see everyone

else’s posts, plus the posts from the other class in Jena, it made me feel a little

more comfortable about where I was and about what I was saying and about

getting ideas about what to post in my next thing from other people’s stuff. So

after we got started, it felt easier (P9).

Other students reported that the blog tasks from the semester prepared them for this

interaction. For example, “I didn’t really feel weird about posting in German (laughter from

group) and then like German students commenting – I kind of just treat it like a Forum” (P5).

Another student remarked, “It was low pressure and because since I was used to doing that

because most of the stuff we do in class was written” (P2). The combination of results of the

aforementioned mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative data provided the researcher with a

better understanding of the effects of TSGLE on students’ writing acquisition. In order to

explore RQ1 and assess the effect of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ speaking

acquisition, the researcher also collected and analyzed quantitative and qualitative data. These

steps and procedures are addressed in the following section.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Speaking

To assess the impact of TSGLE on students’ acquisition of speaking skills, the researcher

first observed student performance by conducting a content analysis of their speech produced

during recorded podcast activities. The researcher then analyzed qualitative data from students’

focus group interview responses and post-chapter reflections. To obtain a final score for

speaking acquisition, the researcher graded students’ responses from their first, fourth and sixth

podcast recordings. The podcasts from 15 students were assessed as they were the only

participants who successfully completed each podcast. The remaining participants were unable

to complete each task and were not included in these analyses. For the first and fourth

recordings, students used the Audacity software recording program to provide responses in

German to prompts provided by the researcher. For example, Podcast 1 prompts included:

What’s your name? Where are you from? What are you studying? What are your hobbies?

Describe your family? Why do you study German? Students were required to speak for a

minimum of one minute and were not allowed to write down any notes. The researcher made

this requirement in order to provide a context in which the students had the opportunity to speak

more authentically. In the fourth podcast task students were required to produce a recording of

15 sentences read aloud. Ten of these were provided by the researcher, and the students were

required to write and record the remaining five. For a more detailed description of the fourth

podcast recording, please visit Appendix A. The sixth podcast task served as the students’ oral

final examination and took place in the researcher’s office and was recorded using his iPhone.

Students were provided a scenario in which they were required to speak for up to two minutes by

leaving an answering machine message describing their plans to a friend they hoped to meet in

Munich. For a more detailed description of the sixth podcast recordings, please visit Appendix

To assess speaking language acquisition, the oral examination and podcast recordings

were rated by using the Oral Proficiency Rubric (Appendix E) adapted from the ACTFL

Speaking Guidelines (2012). This allowed the researcher to obtain a quantified final score based

on students’ performance of the following: fluency and coherence, appropriateness of

vocabulary, grammatical accuracy, and pronunciation. A one-way ANOVA was computed with

repeated measures of the 15 participants’ final scores on their first, fourth, and sixth blog podcast

recordings, the results of which are displayed in Table 4.3 on the following page.

Observing these results, there was a significant effect of students’ total scores of podcast

recordings, Wilks’ Lambda = 0.51, [F(2, 13) = 6.32, p = .012]. The mean scores indicate

students improved from their first podcast recording to their fourth, but experienced a slight

decrease on their sixth. By analyzing students’ repeated measures of podcast recordings, the

researcher was able to more accurately assess the effect of TSGLE on speaking acquisition.

Table 4.3

Language Acquisition Assessment: Speaking

Repeated Measures Mean Scores of Podcast Recordings

Podcast

Recording

Podcast 1

Podcast 4

Podcast 6



91.47

93.60

91.20

2.36

3.74

4.04

Multivariate Test

Effect

Value

Hypothesis

Error df

Sig.

Wilks’

Lambda

.51

6.32

2.00

13.00

.012

Aside from the sixth recording, which was the final oral examination, the podcast

recordings allowed students to speak in a less-stressful environment, which allowed them to

produce more authentic speaking. To gain a deeper understanding of the effects of TSGLE and

cultural exchange on students’ speaking acquisition, the researcher merged findings from these

quantitative data with qualitative data. These included students’ responses during focus group

interviews, students’ post-chapter reflections, the researcher’s own observations, as well as

comments provided by the researcher’s German colleague.

The researcher observed that two primary elements of the course contributed to the

students’ speaking enhancement, the podcasts and the cross-cultural exchange (Jena Project).

Students’ responses from the interviews revealed that the podcasts helped with individual

practice for speaking. For example, “The podcast helped by forcing me to actually use the

language” (P16). “I think my speaking skills increased due to the podcast” (P6). “I enjoyed the

chance to practice my speaking with the podcast. The feedback you provided helped my

pronunciation” (P9). One student remarked on the process involved with creating podcasts that

assisted in speaking, “I think the podcasts helped because it made us speak and we were able to

listen to ourselves and hear any mistakes in pronunciation or grammar that we would not have

noticed if we didn’t listen to ourselves” (P1).

During the Jena Project, in addition to the two assigned blog posts, students were

assigned to conduct two individual video conferences using the Skype software program, which

allows for simultaneous video conferencing with an Internet connection. Students were required

to talk with their German partners for a minimum of 20 minutes. Reports from the Jena Project

indicate that interacting with the German students during synchronous video conferencing

contributed to students’ speaking, even if it required some adjustment. In several instances,

students reported on the challenges faced during this aspect of the exchange:

It went well, but I was nervous. I’ve got to practice listening, but in the end, it

wasn’t so bad. The second time I felt more prepared. For me, forcing myself to

sit down and talk to someone face-to-face and think of the words and use the

vocabulary, it was huge (P9).

It took lots of brain energy. I was striving to speak German (grasping hands as if

could not figure something out). You know after the first time I felt better the

second time, it’s not that bad, you know. I just keep thinking, oh that’s the words

we learned in class and then we would start using it (P4).

You’ll say something grammatically correct but you’re saying it in such a

roundabout way to a native speaker, and that’s what I was worried about. And he

was using words that I’ve never seen before … like so many words, I mean that

you can’t find in the back of the book’s dictionary just because there are a million

terms (P3).

At the end of it (first meeting), I got off the Skype call and was like, ok that

wasn’t so bad. Then we talked again later that week and I was already prepared

and felt more comfortable because I had time to look up some more vocabulary,

and I had prepped a little better than I had for the first time (P9).

So I just completed my first call with my partner (we did it through Skype so I

wasn't able to record it) but I'm feeling a little bad because I feel like I didn't

understand as much as I should have and I felt that when I tried to make

sentences, they were probably out of order and not entirely understandable (that

could be because I was nervous of course). Luckily my partner was very helpful

and would translate some things for me when I needed, but I was just wondering

if you had any tips to help me be able to speak it a little better. I've been trying to

practice but I didn't do as well as I thought I would so I'm feeling a little let down!

(P28).

Based on the other accounts from the students, the researcher observed that the individual

video conferencing created a social constructivist environment. During these instances, students

collaborated and the German students acted as language coaches. For example, “It was really

stressful. I forgot all of my German and felt that I wasn’t advanced enough to do this. It was

super important she (German partner) knew English” (P2). One student remarked on how both

encounters helped with her comfort level speaking German: “I will say something and they will

help us out in a way so that it will be even less pressure because I know that my partner is going

to help me out” (P4). She continued, “So definitely this helped and let me feel more comfortable

and if I go to Germany you know it’s going to be ok” (P4). On two additional occasions,

students reinforced the assistance offered by their German partners and how this helped them

adapt:

The first meeting was a little more difficult just because I was nervous, but she

was very kind and helpful. She worked with me as far as if I didn’t understand

something, then she would either type it in the instant message to me so that I

could then look it up or she would change her vocabulary to explain the word or

change it to something I understood (P9).

I tried as much German as possible, although there were some

miscommunications at first. I was excited to do this and after the first session, it’s

ok. I love my Skype girl, she was great. I learned a lot from her and that helped

me with speaking and listening. I’m still really nervous about speaking but I do

have a better grasp on it (P3).

Two students even reported feeling comfortable while interacting with their German partners and

how this experience improved their speaking ability:

I wasn’t afraid to speak. Our Skype sessions went really well, um also being anal

we never spoke English. So that was fine and was actually really good for to me

practice because I haven’t talked to a German speaker in a while. It ended up

becoming a conversation about university life and just about his struggles with

roommates in the past. It was definitely, really good application (P6).

It wasn’t as high pressure because we emailed back and forth like quite a bit

before the first Skype meeting. It was really mentally draining. I could tell that

she (German partner) was nervous and I was nervous too but in some ways

speaking is easier than typing, because you don’t have to use full sentences, ever.

This (Skype meeting) was the thing that helped me learn the most, like hands

down (P5).

The researcher’s colleague from Germany even remarked on the exchanges, and how the

American students exhibited noticeable changes in their ability to communicate (speak) in this

environment, “Von unserer Seite eine große Bestätigung, dass ein großer Unterschied zwischen

der ersten und zweiten Sitzung festzustellen war, also bitte ermutigt die Studierenden immer, an

solchen Austauschprogrammen teilzunehmen”, which translates as: “From our perspective, there

was a noticeable difference between the first and second meeting (video conference), so please

encourage the students to always try and participate in these types of exchanges” (D. Spaniel-

Weise, personal communication, January 30, 2015). The combination of results of the

aforementioned quantitative and qualitative data provided the researcher with a better

understanding of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ speaking

acquisition. In order to explore RQ1 and assess the effect of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange

on students’ reading acquisition, the researcher collected and analyzed qualitative data. These

steps and procedures are addressed in the following section.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Reading

The researcher analyzed qualitative data from students’ focus group interview responses

and reflections to assess the effects of the TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’

reading acquisition. In doing so, the researcher observed that several elements of the TSGLE

intervention contributed to their reading comprehension. The researcher observed from students’

interview responses that in-class meetings contributed to a social constructivist environment as it

promoted collaboration. In this context, students indicated that working through texts together

helped their reading comprehension. “Reading as a class, line by line and phrase by phrase

together helped understand” (P4). The class meetings and eSAM assignments are responsible for

increasing this skill” (P27). “I only liked it (literary texts) when we would go over it in class. I

feel like it helped me understand better and seeing what words or phrases everyone can identify

because it’s really intimidating to just go by yourself” (P3). “I feel like I know about sentence

structure when we go over readings in the beginning of the chapter and I enjoy that” (P18).

Based on other students’ reports, reading comprehension was also enhanced through

multiple sources including the eSAM, blog, video tutorials, and podcasts. For example, “I felt

my German skills in reading increased. My language skills were enhanced by reading in the

blog posts” (P15). “The video tutorials helped with improving my reading skills” (P2). “My

reading skills were enhanced because of videos” (P9). “The podcasts helped with improving my

reading skills” (P2). The researcher intended that reviewing assigned readings from the textbook

and SAM as a class would promote reading comprehension. Moreover, the researcher also

anticipated that reading through classmates’ blog entries would expose students to more

authentic language production and have an impact on their ability to comprehend in order to

produce a written response. However, students’ responses regarding their improved reading

from tools such as video tutorials and podcasts were unexpected. These were intended for

review and to practice speaking. While some podcast assignments did require students to read a

text aloud, it was expected that this would affect their pronunciation. This is an indication of the

effects the TSGLE and Web 2.0 technologies can have on promoting language acquisition and

will be discussed in more detail in the following chapter.

The aforementioned qualitative data provided the researcher with a better understanding

of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ reading comprehension. In

order to explore RQ1 and assess the effect of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’

listening comprehension, the researcher also collected and analyzed qualitative data. These steps

and procedures are addressed in the following section.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Listening

The researcher observed the impact on students’ listening comprehension by analyzing

qualitative data, which revealed that participants found a variety of tools from the TSGLE

intervention and Jena Project that contributed to their listening comprehension. Several

indicated the German used in class attributed to this, even if it required time to adapt. For

example, “When we first came into class […] I got about 65% of what you said […] but by the

end of the semester I found that I was understanding what you were saying” (P4). Others added

that the consistency of German used in class helped with their listening skills. “My listening

skills increased due to class attendance and homework assignments” (P6). “I feel my listening

skills in particular have been improved through homework and in-class listening assignments”

(P7). “I feel like I am hearing more German and that is helping from several different sources

such as just being in class” (P8). “I think your decision to speak only in German in class is

SUPER helpful. It’s the only time we hear consistent German each week” (P18). The researcher

intended on speaking in German as much as possible during class meetings. Only when students

were having difficulty understanding complex themes, such as difficult grammar aspects, would

the researcher use English. This, however, usually only last several minutes out of a 50-minute

lecture.

Some students reported that the online homework exercises from the textbook helped

improve their listening. For example, “The eSAM exercises serve to keep my vocab, listening,

and comprehension sharpened” (P23). Other participants reported that the video tutorials

improved their listening acquisition. “The video tutorials and podcasts helped with improving

my listening skills” (P2). “My listening skills were enhanced because of videos” (P9). Some

even referred to the podcast as an effective resource for listening. “I feel like I am hearing more

German and that is helping from several different sources such as the podcast” (P8).

Several students indicated the group video conference during the Jena Project proved to

be challenging. During this video conference, both classes met in an online video conference

room via Adobe Connect video presentation and conferencing software. The meeting lasted

approximately 30 minutes and included students from Germany approaching the camera and

microphone to provide short introductions, answer several of the American students’ questions

provided from the blog, and even ask questions to several of the American students. One student

noted, “I wished they spoke more slowly, because I need time to process what to say” (P3). As

several students also shared the same sentiment about this phase of the project, others found the

German film to be helping with their listening. Students were required to view the German film

Friendship! (Goller, 2010) during the exchange. One explained his realization of listening

enhancement,

I was watching it and I wasn’t actively thinking about translating everything that

they were saying, but I was finding myself laughing at parts, and I was like, that

wasn’t English (laughter from group). I think that it helped show me that I knew

more than I thought I knew (P11).

Students’ responses during focus group interviews and reflections provided the researcher

with a better understanding of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’

listening comprehension. In order to now assess the effect of TSGLE and cross-cultural

exchange on students’ cultural awareness, the researcher collected and analyzed qualitative data.

These steps and procedures are addressed in the following section.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Cultural Awareness

In order to explore Research Question 2 (hereinafter RQ2): What effect will the TSGLE

intervention (blog, chat, podcast, wiki, and video conferencing) and cross-cultural exchange have

on the students’ cultural awareness?, the researcher observed qualitative data from students’

responses from focus group interviews and post-chapter reflections. These data revealed that

participants found a variety of tools from the TSGLE intervention and Jena Project that helped

contribute to their cultural awareness. Participants attributed the blog posts and individual

research of websites to assisting in their cultural enhancement. For instance, “The blog and

exploring websites helped me expand my knowledge of the culture. It was cool to explore these

websites and, in a way, virtually go to these cities” (P11). “I think researching what Heidelberg

is known for (through website searches) was how I learned about it” (P26). Moreover,

participants reported about the hands-on, cultural characteristics these websites provided, which

allowed for convenient access to authentic language materials. “They gave us a look into the

actual culture itself” (P11), was one student’s perspective. Another remarked, “I really liked

how we explored what was actually out there instead of what is inside these four walls” (P9).

This provided students with access to cultural insights known to Germany, for example, “I

remember the Oktoberfest link. That was really cool because you were able to walk around

almost and look at everything that was going on, and that was something I hadn’t done in a

German class before” (P11).

Participants also reported on their interactions with their German partners, and how this

contributed to their cultural development. For example, “I mean it was cool because I met

someone from Germany” (P2). Another expressed her interest in film with her partner, “I tried

telling her that I was really into German movies and she was very surprised at like how many

German movies I had seen” (P3). When asked from her German partner about the main

character from the film that the groups screened, however, she responded, “And I’m like, wow,

that y’all have someone that’s like your big German star and you just don’t know” (P3). Others

offered a variety of additional insights gained from this experience. For example, “I learned a lot

about how similar we are, just as far as like interests and day to day stuff. I didn’t expect us to

be that different, honestly” (P5). One even commented, “I mean, we’re just college kids, we’re

kind of universal” (P3). “It was a really, really awesome” (P11), was one student’s response to

the Skype video conferencing. He continued, “I enjoyed the Skype talk because I kind of got to

hear their side and they were asking me questions about Louisiana, and I think it was a positive

experience that I got a lot out of” (P11).

The researcher anticipated that the literary texts from the textbook and individual website

searches would contribute to students becoming more acclimated with German culture. The

researcher hoped that by participating in the Jena Project, that students’ cultural awareness would

become enriched. Moreover, the researcher intended for this exchange to provide students with a

truly authentic opportunity that would also enhance their language competence. Students’

responses from their interviews and reflections were able to provide the researcher with a better

understanding of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ cultural

awareness over the course of a semester. To gain a deeper understanding of students’

perceptions of the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on their language acquisition

and cultural awareness, the researcher collected and analyzed both quantitative and qualitative

data. These steps and procedures are addressed in the following section.

Impact of the TSGLE and Cross-Cultural Exchange: Students’ Perceptions

In order to explore Research Question 3 (hereinafter RQ3), How do students perceive the

use of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange in their process of learning German?,

the researcher first analyzed students’ responses to the Technology Implementation Survey (TIS)

instrument. The TIS consisted of 11 Likert-type and scaled questions. For example, Questions 1

and 2 asked students whether they preferred or learned more in a German course that utilizes

technology. Questions 3 through 7 asked students to rate their perceptions on the effectiveness

of the technologies (blog, podcast, chat, wiki, Skype, and video tutorials) used throughout the

course and their impact on students’ reading, writing, listening, speaking, and cultural awareness.

For a more detailed description of the TIS, please visit Appendix F. To obtain results of the TIS,

the survey was administered during the last week of the semester using Qualtrics software

(Qualtrics, Version 2013, Provo, UT), which automatically produced results to students’

responses. Responses to the first two questions indicated that 85.71% of students learn most in a

German course that uses technology, and 82.14% prefer learning German in a course that utilized

technology. Table 4.4 on the following page provides the results of the next five questions that

illustrate students’ perceptions to the specific technologies used to learn German. The top

portion reflects the percentages of students’ responses of “agree” or “strongly agree”. The

bottom portion reflects percentages of students’ responses of “disagree” or “strongly disagree”.

Table 4.4

Language Acquisition Assessment: Students’ Perceptions

Language Acquisition Enhanced by Technology

Language Skill

Blog

Chat

Wiki

Podcast

Video

Tutorial

Skype

Writing Skills

92.86%

89.29%

46.43%

82.14%

50%

Speaking Skills

55.56%

48.15%

44.44%

88.89%

70.37%

81.48%

Reading

Comprehension

82.14%

85.71%

82.14%

46.43%

71.43%

53.57%

Listening

Comprehension

35.71%

39.29%

35.71%

85.71%

92.86%

89.29%

Cultural

Awareness

92.86%

50%

42.86%

50%

64.29%

96.43%

Language Acquisition Not Enhanced by Technology

Language Skill

Blog

Chat

Wiki

Podcast

Video

Tutorial

Skype

Writing Skills

7.14%

10.71%

53.57%

17.86%

50%

Speaking Skills

44.44%

51.85%

55.56%

11.11%

29.63%

18.51%

Reading

Comprehension

17.86%

14.29%

17.86%

53.57%

28.57%

46.43%

Listening

Comprehension

64.29%

60.71%

64.29%

14.29%

7.14%

10.71%

Cultural

Awareness

7.14%

50%

57.14%

50%

37.71%

3.57%

These results show that the majority of students perceived the blog, online chat, and wiki

tools to be helpful with their reading and writing skills as was anticipated by the researcher.

However, the researcher did not expect the high percentages of students’ responses indicating the

podcast, video tutorials and Skype helped their writing. Likewise, the high response rate of

students perceiving that podcasts, video tutorials, and Skype helped their reading also was

unexpected.

The majority perceived the podcasts and Skype sessions to help with their speaking skills.

However, the researcher did not anticipate such a high response rate from students indicating

they perceived the blog, chat, wiki, or video tutorials to help with their speaking. The majority

perceived the podcasts, video tutorials, and Skype sessions to be helpful with their listening

comprehension, and the majority perceived the blogs and Skype sessions to be helpful with their

cultural awareness. While the researcher anticipated that students would perceive these as

effective tools to enhance listening comprehension and cultural awareness, as was his intention,

he anticipated a lower percentage of students to find the blog, chat, wiki, podcasts, and video

tutorials as tools to enhance their listening skills and cultural awareness.

The goal of implementing this survey was to provide insight into the students’

perceptions of the technologies used and whether they felt the TSGLE intervention helped

enhance their language acquisition and cultural awareness. To seek additional answers into how

students’ perceived the intervention, the researcher conducted focus group interviews and

collected students’ reflections. These qualitative data were able to provide additional insight into

students’ perceptions regarding the course and TSGLE intervention that were not gathered from

this survey. For example, several participants reported on the convenience and accessibility

multiple features from the course offered, such as the ease of accessing the ebook as opposed to a

traditional textbook. For example, several provided their reaction to the option of using the

ebook versus the traditional book. “I’m more of an electronic user, so the ebook was awesome.

I wouldn’t have to lug around a three-ring binder” (P20). “I used the online (ebook) more often

just because it’s easier to have a laptop with me and I don’t have to carry things around all the

time” (P24). Participants also referred to the course wiki (Google Doc) as a “good review that

was easily accessible” (P3). Referring to the wiki’s use in class, one student commented

“someone could go change it and you’d see it instantly” (P3). The researcher intended for the

wiki to be an easily accessible tool that provided instant, simultaneous use.

In addition to the wiki, multiple participants reported the on-demand access of the video

tutorials as being very convenient. “I liked the video tutorials because it gave us a chance to

review the material with your explanation of how without actually having to go to your office”

(P9). “The video tutorials were very helpful. I can review them over and over again” (P4). “I

love the tutorials you post on YouTube before the class test. It is a great review” (P18). “The

video tutorials were life savers” (P21). While the students’ responses were helpful in providing

the researcher with a better understanding to their perceptions, there still existed some

unanswered questions to students’ responses to the TIS. As was the case for the unexpected low

result of students’ listening comprehension, perhaps the timing of the TIS affected some of the

responses provided by students. The TIS was administered during the last week of classes prior

to the final examination post-test. It is possible students were at their limit in terms of workload

and coursework expectations. As this may be the case, this will be discussed in more detail in

the following chapter. Despite the results of the TIS, most of which were anticipated, one

student did provide his overall impressions of the course and TSGLE intervention, as he stated,

Both my language skills and cultural awareness were enhanced through the blogs,

chats, podcasts, Adobe Connect, reading out of the textbook, participating in class

discussions and looking at the tutorials. I find that by using all of my available

resources, I expand my understanding of the language. The thorough method

leaves no chance for any misunderstandings. I find class lectures to be the best

option for my learning style, but I also like the use of technology (P19).

This may shed more light on students’ perceptions of the use of technology to learn

German. In addition to seeking more understanding of students’ perceptions of the use of

TSGLE to learn German, the TIS also was intended to learn more about students’ reactions to the

cross-cultural exchange. Questions 8 through 11 of this survey asked students to rate their

perceptions of the cross-cultural exchange (Jena Project) and its effect on their cultural

awareness and language acquisition, their overall impressions on the exchange, and issues

encountered during the exchange. Each question was followed by a four-point Likert scale

ranging from “strongly agree” through “agree”, or “disagree” to “strongly disagree”. Table 4.5

provides these results, and reflects the percentage of students’ responses of “agree” or “strongly

agree”.

Table 4.5

Cross-Cultural Exchange: Students’ Perceptions

Enhancement of Cultural Awareness and Language Acquisition

Awareness

of East

German

Culture

Improved

Awareness

of Current

German

Culture

Improved

Vocabulary

Enhanced

Communication

Skills

Enhanced

Pronunciation

Enhanced

Increased

Motivation

71.43%

92.86%

85.71%

89.29%

85.71%

82.14%

Overall Impressions of Exchange

Image of Germany

Changed

Interest in Continuing

Project

Recommendation of Project

for Future Classes

71.43%

82.14%

89.29%

Issues Experienced

Technical Issues

Language Barriers

Personal Issues

75%

78.57%

82.14%

These results indicate that the majority of students perceived the Jena Project to be a

good means to enhance their cultural awareness and language acquisition. Students’ responses to

the survey show that students’ knowledge of East German culture and culture of present-day

Germany improved. These results also indicate how students’ language acquisition, such as their

communication skills, pronunciation, and increased vocabulary was improved. The majority

expressed interest in continuing cross-cultural exchange and even recommended it for future

classes. Despite these responses, students did provide insight into the technical issues faced as

well as the language barriers that existed. In order to find additional insight into students’

perceptions, the researcher also analyzed students’ interview responses and reflections.

For example, several participants reported how the Jena Project blog was an effective means of

bringing them closer to the German culture and introducing both groups to one another. For

instance, one student remarked,

It was a nice starting point and it was a nice way to get to know everybody and

their interests and perhaps we could find something in common with somebody

and you could talk about it. It sort of formed a relationship before we even started

Skype (P6).

Other comments also aligned with this sentiment, as well as provided insight into how the

exchange helped their language acquisition. For example, “I thought it was a good introduction

and effective in how it introduces everybody. The language was just, um, getting used to it and

getting used to the idea of someone who is actually German reading my German” (P9).

Participants also reported how the blog aided their writing development. “I like the pressure of

knowing if I was going to read something […] I didn’t understand or I know what they’re talking

about. And […] when they commented back, I was excited, because they were talking to me”

(P10).

Some commented on the technical issues faced during the group video conference, such

as the time delay and small camera angle. Others reported about their initial anxiety of

interacting during the group video conference, particularly with the language barrier. “We were

nervous and anxious to see what would happen. I realized they seemed just as nervous or

anxious as us” (P5). “At first I wasn’t that interested, but then seeing the German students made

me very curious. I realized we are very different” (P2). “I was pretty confident and thought I

wouldn’t get embarrassed, but at same time I was hoping they wouldn’t call on me” (P5). “I had

the feeling I want to do this but I’m not quite over the threshold” (P4). One student, however,

did not seem overwhelmed to interact with the German students, “I thought it was a breeze. But

it was different maybe for me, because I’ve been exposed to German since the fifth grade” (P6).

As this was not the case for most, she did provide additional commentary indicating the

exchange was a very applicable means of utilizing German in a very natural way. Lastly, one

student commented on the German film that was screened by both groups, which provided an

interesting take on German film. She commented, “It was funny for me seeing a light-hearted

German romp. I’m a film major and I love German movies, but all German movies I watch are

super serious and scary” (P3). The TIS and students’ responses indicated that the majority of

students perceived the TSGLE intervention and Jena Project to assist in language acquisition and

cultural awareness.

The researcher anticipated the TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange would enhance

students’ language acquisition and cultural awareness. As was observed by the mixed methods,

quantitative and qualitative data collected during this study, this intervention did indicate

improvement in students’ writing, speaking, reading, listening, and cultural knowledge. For

example, the researcher conducted repeated measures to gauge the impact of technology on

students’ writing and speaking skills. The results indicate students did show improvement in

these language skills as they were able to communicate in authentic language scenarios.

Quantitative results from the TIS, as well as qualitative data from students’ focus group

interviews and reflections, also provided the researcher with a deeper understanding of the

impacts of the TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange. These revealed that in addition to writing

and speaking, students’ reading and listening comprehension, as well as cultural awareness were

enhanced through use of the synchronous and asynchronous communication afforded through the

various technologies and exchange with the Jena students. The researcher intended for these

technologies and exchange to increase and improve communication and use of German and

ultimately immerse students more deeply with the language and culture. Of course, challenges

were experienced by the students during this process. However, these experiences provide

lessons to be learned, and can help create more effective uses of technology intervention and

cross-cultural exchange for future studies. The findings indicate that the majority of students

improved their language acquisition and cultural awareness. What follows is a discussion that

addresses the aforementioned results of the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange, as

well as implications of what the findings revealed. Additionally, the discussion outlines the

strengths and weaknesses experienced during the intervention in this German language course, as

well as recommendations for future studies based on the outcomes over the course of this study.

Chapter 5

Discussion

This chapter provides a brief introduction of the research problem and description of the

study which included a TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange to enhance language

acquisition and cultural awareness in a German language course. The researcher then provides a

discussion of the conclusions and summaries of the findings by providing an interpretation of the

quantitative and qualitative data. Furthermore, the researcher provides implications of the

findings and concludes with suggestions for future research.

As previous research has shown, technology offers the potential to enhance classroom-

based language instruction (ACTFL, 2014). More specifically, Web 2.0 technologies, such as

those utilized in this current study, have the ability to enhance collaboration, communication and

sharing of content among students (Wang and Vásquez, 2012). Yet, according to Jahner (2012),

“In order to provide effective and individualized language instruction, students need to encounter

the language on a daily basis, which is certainly possible based on today’s applications and

interconnectivity” (p. 4). While there is evidence indicating increases in the applications of

technology in SLA, “research on the application of Web 2.0 technologies to L2 learning is still

quite limited” (Wang & Vásquez, 2012, p. 416). Therefore, previous literature (Li, 2012) has

recommended future research to center more on quantitative data to analyze the impacts

technologies have on students’ language skills, as well as qualitative data to “offer rich

descriptions of observed phenomena, and to address issues related to participants’ individual

perspectives as well as to their personal, lived experiences” (Wang & Vásquez, 2012, p. 422).

Furthermore, other researchers (Elola and Oskoz, 2012; Perez, 2003) have urged for more studies

to be designed through specific theoretical lenses.

In response to these findings and recommendations, this study employed a within-group

case study design using a mixed methods approach. To accomplish this, the researcher

employed a TSGLE intervention to increase and improve students’ communication on an

individual basis, with classmates, and by linking students with native German speakers in a

cross-cultural exchange. This allowed the researcher to analyze the intervention’s effects on

students’ language acquisition and cultural awareness, as well as analyze students’ perceptions of

this pedagogical method to enhance their language acquisition and cultural awareness. The

researcher used a concurrent triangulation process during a one semester intermediate German

language course and merged findings of mixed methods, quantitative, and qualitative data to

answer the research questions that guided this study in an attempt to provide deeper insight into

the aforementioned gaps reported. The researcher hypothesized that students’ language

acquisition would improve after a semester-long TSGLE intervention. The results of this study

did show that TSGLE enhanced students’ language acquisition and cultural awareness. Results

also indicated that an overwhelming majority of students perceived this intervention to be a

beneficial means to enhance these skill sets. The researcher collected and analyzed mixed

methods, quantitative, and qualitative data to come to this conclusion and presents an

interpretation of these findings in the discussion that follows.

Although the researcher originally intended on using pre-test and post-test instruments to

assess the effects of a technology intervention on students’ language acquisition, it was found

that these were potentially inadequate instruments to accomplish this. One reason supporting

this claim was that these instruments did not have equal forms reliability. The post-test was a

cumulative test that included a larger quantity of content for the students to prepare, mainly

grammar. Moreover, the post-test was the final examination and administered during a time

when students have multiple final examinations and projects in their other coursework. In

addition to this, the timing of the Jena Project, which was near the end of the semester, may have

also contributed to students having difficulty managing their time to accomplish all of their tasks

effectively. This was reported by multiple students, who commented on the difficulty to simply

find time to schedule individual video conferences with their partners. As (Lin et al., 2008)

found, personal limitations for students was a major problem encountered when conducting a

study utilizing technology implementation in addition to regular coursework. These limitations

included busy schedules in school or personal situations which hindered their ability and/or

effort to practice. These findings (Lin et al., 2008) align with some of the experiences that

resulted in this current study. Many students reported that they work outside of school, some

even as much as 40 hours per week, and some with families to support. In addition to the pre-

test and post-test instruments not having equal forms reliability, the researcher also found that

these examinations were more suitable to assess textbook content.

The pre-test and post-test instruments, which included individual language skill sections,

were primarily used to assess students’ knowledge of the textbook content, not the impact of

technology per se. Research (Grimes and Warschauer, 2008) has shown that assessment for

effects of technology should address 21st century skills, including, global awareness, critical

thinking and problem solving skills, and information and communications technology literacy.

Furthermore, ACTFL’s 21st Century Skills Map (2014) declares that students should be “using

digital technology, communication tools, and/or networks appropriately to access, manage,

integrate, evaluate, and create information in order to function in a knowledge economy” (p. 14).

However, assessment instruments, including standardized tests, are inadequate in measuring

these skills as they focus more on students’ knowledge of discrete facts (Grimes and

Warschauer, 2008). While Grimes and Warschauer (2008) refer to standardized tests on a

national level, the researcher believes that the pre- and post-test instruments used in this current

study, which were pre-designed by the authors of Stationen (Augustyn and Euba, 2013), apply to

this claim.

Therefore, in order to more accurately measure the impact of TSGLE, for example, on

students’ writing and speaking skills, the researcher performed repeated measures statistical

testing of students’ performance on blog posts and podcast recordings completed over the course

of the semester. Results from these tests, the TIS, and qualitative data support the positive gains

the TSGLE afforded students in their language skills and cultural awareness. The following will

expand on this in more detail.

Writing

Descriptive statistics of repeated measures indicated significant effects of blog post

entries on students’ writing. Overall mean scores also indicated an improved score on each

measure. Students’ responses to the TIS and qualitative data indicated that in addition to the

blog tasks, other Web 2.0 technologies used throughout the semester, also improved their writing

skills, including online chat and wiki. The researcher’s intent on using each of these tools was to

increase students’ opportunities in written practice in more informal settings. The asynchronous

affordance of the blog allowed students to process their thoughts before providing a written

response. The synchronous affordance of the chat allowed students to apply their written

German in a more improvisational manner. Previous research supports these findings and also

shows that these tools are especially beneficial to enhancing individual’s writing ability.

Armstrong and Retterer (2008) utilized a semester-long blog and found that students’ writing

abilities and attitudes were enhanced. The researchers found that student writing improved in

areas including, use of verb tense, and writing more complex sentences by using primary and

secondary clauses. Sun (2010) reported that blog use improved students’ autonomy, attitude, and

motivation, and Ducate and Lomicka (2008) found that blog use gave students a sense of

ownership and more opportunity for creativity.

The blog and podcast tasks from the TSGLE intervention and cross-cultural exchange,

which were conducted in less-pressured situations compared to that of an exam, suggest that

students were able to take their time and enjoy using the technology to complete each

assignment. For example, when referring to the blog, one student remarked, “that helps with my

writing skills especially when I can take my time to grasp what is being said and figure out what

to say in return”. Regarding the blog assignments, there were multiple students who wrote the

minimum sentence requirement of each task, five sentences. The researcher intended for blog

assignments to be a minimum of five to seven sentences. It is difficult to ascertain if the

minimum production was an indication of a lack of motivation, or perhaps even a result of

personal limitations, such as busy schedules in school or personal situations, which hinder one’s

ability to practice (Lin, Winaitham, and Saitakham, 2008). However, other students took

advantage of the blog task to exhibit their potential by writing initial posts and by adding

multiple commentaries to their classmates’ entries. In these instances, such as Blog 5:

Heidelberg, students’ writing tended to flourish, which was evident in the amount of words used,

sentences written, and even use of secondary clauses, an indication of a higher proficiency with

the language (Armstrong and Retterer, 2008). For some students this was expected, as several

exhibited stronger language skills from day one, either from previous experience with German in

school or even opportunities spent in Germany. Yet for several other participants who had less

experience with German, this was as an unexpected outcome. Some of these students expressed

they had done poorly in previous German courses or simply struggle with the language. It was

rewarding to see them participate in multiple asynchronous blog exchanges with their

classmates, which suggests the potential of blogs to promote learner autonomy and

constructivism (Ducate and Lomicka, 2008; Sun, 2010).

In regards to the current study, this was evident during the blog phase of the Jena Project.

As a warm-up phase to the project, students found that this helped improve their writing skills as

it allowed them to adapt to the language whereby they had to perform in front of an audience of

native speakers. Several students commented that writing for a native speaker did add some

pressure, but that it was rewarding when the German students would provide commentary and

begin an interaction. The students felt that writing repeated blog entries over the course of the

semester helped them prepare for this, and that they viewed the Jena blog as simply another blog

task to write. These data indicate that writing blog tasks, as well as using other Web 2.0

technologies, such as chat and wiki, can allow students’ writing to flourish. By having additional

exposure and practice in authentic writing situations, for instance, in informal environments,

students demonstrated positive gains in their writing skills. The multiple blog assignments

throughout the semester even prepared students to interact with native speakers, which reveals

that even with some adjustments that students can adapt to authentic writing and language

production. The results of repeated measures of students’ blog posts, as well as focus group

interview responses and students’ reflections, indicate that the TSGLE had a positive effect on

their writing skills. In addition to students’ writing performance, the researcher also wanted to

assess the effects of TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ speaking skills.

Speaking

Students’ responses to the TIS and from focus group interviews indicated that podcast

recordings improved their speaking skills. Descriptive statistics from repeated measures also

indicated significant effects of podcast recordings on students’ speaking. While these data

indicated improvement between the first and fourth podcast, students’ sixth podcast resulted in a

lower mean score. A possible explanation of the lower mean score of the sixth and last podcast

recording was due to it being the students’ final oral examination. Students were only given two

minutes to come up with a response on a topic they had not prepared for prior to the exam,

creating a high-pressure situation. Despite this students still performed at a high level during the

podcast recordings.

The researcher intended on using podcasts for students to practice speaking outside of

class meetings, especially since these lasted only 50 minutes, three times a week. With 28

students participating in this environment, it is challenging to have ample amounts of in-class

time devoted to practice speaking on an individual basis. While some students displayed high

levels of confidence communicating in German, some expressed they felt intimidated by this

factor, which led them to be less inclined to speak in class. These students noted that having the

time to create recordings allowed them to apply their speaking abilities, take the time to listen to

their mistakes, and correct them through instructor feedback. For instance, one student remarked

that podcasting helped “because it made us speak and […] we were able to listen to ourselves

and hear any mistakes in pronunciation or grammar we […] would not have noticed if we didn’t

listen to ourselves”. This aligns with previous research, which has shown that podcasts can

improve students’ speaking capabilities, for instance, (Ducate and Lomicka, 2009), who found

that podcasts helped improve students’ accents between pre- and post-test assessments.

Similarly, Lord (2008) found that students gained significant improvement in pronunciation from

creating a variety of podcast tasks, such as tongue twisters, conducting phonetic pronunciation

exercises, and reading texts aloud. An indication that more practice using technology such as

podcast should be considered for individual practice and then applied in F2F or even SCMC

environments.

The significant results of the repeated measures of students’ blog entries and podcast

recordings align with the researcher’s belief that the TSGLE would improve students’ language

acquisition. While the language skills assessed in these instances were only designated for

writing and speaking, the researcher believes the interactive affordances provided by the blog

and podcast tools contributed to student learning. Moreover, these tools gave students the

opportunity to interact using their 21st century skills outlined by Grimes and Warschauer (2008)

and ACTFL’s 21st Century Skills Map (2014). Additional research (Bull, Thompson, Searson,

Garofalo, Park, Young, and Lee, 2008) describes the “phenomenon” of informal learning,

stressing it “is associated not only with students’ abilities to access and enjoy media and online

content, but also to create, produce, publish, and maintain it in real time” (p. 101). Rossett and

Hoffmann (2007) describe informal learning as something that takes on multiple forms and

occurs outside of the learner’s control. Additionally “new technologies increase our access to

information, empowering learners to pursue knowledge in informal as well as formal educational

contexts using web and mobile tools” (Comas-Quinn et al., 2009, p. 102).

As was indicated by students, the blogs and podcasts did help them practice their

individual language skills in writing and speaking. The repeated tasks throughout the semester

were then applied by interacting with native speakers. Students seemed to be more comfortable

while writing the blog entries during this project, which was anticipated by the researcher.

Students at the intermediate level of German are expected to write at the Advanced Low level

based on ACTFLs (2012) language guidelines. These indicate students at this level should be

able to compose simple summaries, but that they may not be substantive. For a more detailed

description of these guidelines, please visit Appendix D.

While podcasts did afford improvements in speaking on an individual basis, qualitative

results indicated that when faced in a speaking situation with native speakers, the ability to speak

comfortably proved to be a challenge. Some students reported feeling overwhelmed and

expressed they lacked the ability to communicate effectively in German. Despite these

experiences, however, they indicated enjoying the opportunity to communicate with someone

from Germany. Other students, who had less difficulty communicating in German, primarily due

to having been taught the language previously, felt that interacting with native speakers was a

very applicable way to practice German in school. One indicated that one normally does not

have this sort of opportunity in an American school system, and that the language courses in the

United States mostly consist of book exercises. This indicates a possible recommendation for

future studies and will be addressed later. The positive results of students’ speaking and writing

indicate that the TSGLE did have an effect on these language skills. Students’ responses also

show that these Web 2.0 technologies can help with individual learning and better prepare them

for interactive communication with non-native speakers, as well as with native speakers. These

results also align with the informal learning that is promoted while using these tools, as well as

enhancing students’ 21st Century Skills communicative and critical thinking skills, as outlined by

the aforementioned research (Bull et al., 2008; Grimes and Warschauer, 2008). In addition to

assessing students’ writing and speaking skills, the researcher also wanted to assess the impacts

of the TSGLE and cross-cultural exchange on students’ reading comprehension.

Reading

Students’ responses to the TIS and qualitative data indicated that a number of aspects of

the course, including the textbook, in-class meetings, the SAM, blog posts, online chat, video

tutorials, podcasts, and wiki as tools that contributed to their reading acquisition. During in-class

meetings, the researcher reviewed textbook reading selections that were assigned for homework,

which included a discussion of the content and review of new vocabulary. As the researcher

anticipated, students reported that the in-class review of these texts gave them a better

understanding of language structure and use of particular vocabulary. Data also indicated that

the blog was a tool that enhanced their reading. In addition to writing eight blog posts, students

were also required to read and comment on their classmates’ entries. Participants reported that

the blogs had a duel effect; reading through the textbook and websites for additional research

allowed them to write follow-up responses, and reading their classmates’ responses aided their

comprehension by providing alternative means of expressing themselves in German. This is

supported by Shang (2005), who found that email exchanges between students for feedback and

corrections resulted in a positive experience that enhanced reading skills. Although blogs and

email represent different mediums, they both promote asynchronous communication, which can

enhance language skills (Volle, 2005).

While students’ responses indicating that the blog tasks assisted in reading

comprehension were anticipated by the researcher, he did not expect students’ responses from

the TIS to indicate that other tools, such as podcasts and video tutorials, would aid reading skills.

Although the podcasts were intended to promote speaking enhancement, three of the six assigned

podcasts gave students the opportunity to practice reading pre-written responses aloud. The

video tutorials were merely intended to be a review of language structure and grammar; the

researcher did not anticipate that this tool would assist students’ reading comprehension as

reported. Previous research also shows that a variety of Web 2.0 technologies can enhance

reading comprehension, which (Ducate et al., 2011) found evident in pre-reading tasks using a

wiki to enhance reading comprehension of assigned texts. While certain outcomes, such as blogs

and podcasts helping with writing and speaking were expected, the unanticipated responses from

students in this current study that certain tools aided in other language skills, indicate the need

to continue analyzing the effects Web 2.0 technologies have on students’ overall language

acquisition. In addition to assessing the effects of the TSGLE on students’ writing, speaking,

and reading, the researcher also hoped to find aspects of this intervention that contributed to

listening comprehension.

Listening

Students’ responses to the TIS and qualitative data indicated that a variety of aspects and

tools used in the course, such as in-class discussion, video tutorials, and podcasts led to an

improvement in their listening comprehension. The researcher’s goal was to use German as

often as possible, and to only use English when additional explanation was required to clarify

complex language structures, especially when students were having difficulty understanding the

initial explanation in German. Students reported they preferred the use of German in class, even

if it was challenging at first. One remarked, however, “by the end of the semester I found that I

was understanding what you were saying”. Although podcasts were intended to be used for

speaking practice, students could listen to their recordings to make revisions, and even listen to

instructor-created podcasts to be used as guides. Previous research also supports the claim that

Web 2.0 tools can enhance listening acquisition. Schmidt (2008), for example, incorporated

podcast tasks for an entire semester, where students were required to access multiple, pre-

recorded podcasts on a weekly basis and complete follow-up reports on their findings. He

observed improved listening comprehension over the course of the semester, even when content

was challenging. The consistent exposure to native speakers allowed students to adapt to the

language, even at advanced levels. Abdous et al., (2009) implemented podcasts as review tools

and found that students improved their study habits, increased their vocabulary, and improved

their listening skills.

In addition to assessing the effects of TSGLE on students’ language acquisition, the

researcher also wanted to evaluate the effects of a cross-cultural exchange on students’ language

learning. While certain aspects of this exchange have already been touched upon in this

discussion, the following will address additional findings that resulted from a virtual tele-

collaboration with native German speakers.

Language Acquisition: Jena Project

During the Jena Project it was found that simply having the opportunity to interact with

native speakers is what attributed to students’ language acquisition. Although students

experienced challenges during some of their correspondence, they reported the project increased

their vocabulary, improved their communication skills and pronunciation. Students were also

more motivated when communicating in German at the completion of the cross-cultural

exchange. Enhancement to students’ language acquisition was due to their interaction and

application of the German language in the blog, group video conference, film, individual video

conference, and chat option within the individual video conference. The results of repeated

measures of blog tasks indicated students performed at their highest level on this particular task.

This suggests that repeated interaction with technology over longer periods of time, has the

potential to improve communication skills, such as higher proficiency in writing. Moreover,

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results revealed that continuous use of this medium helped students prepare for their

asynchronous communication. Based of students’ responses, it was suggested the blog phase of

this project was low-pressure and proved to be a good introduction in linking two cultures

together.

Wang, Zou, Wang, and Xing (2013) describe how students can benefit from cross-

cultural exchange by shifting from an intra-cultural communication environment, for example, a

single foreign language classroom at a single location, to that of an intercultural communication

environment. This includes communication with international learners via tele-collaborative

partnerships, which provide intercultural interaction between groups of students “who might

otherwise not have the opportunity to interact” (Wang et al., 2013, p. 248). Previous research

(Pellettieri, 2010) also indicates that technologies promoting synchronous computer mediated

communication (SCMC) have the added benefit that allow students to interact outside of class

time or even with others around the globe where learners are likely to engage in effective and

meaningful L2 practice. Moreover, interacting in online environments also gives students the

opportunity to communicate on their own in that they cannot hide online (Volle, 2005).

Viewing a German language film and participating in group and individual video

conference meetings resulted in enhanced listening and speaking skills. Students indicated after

some initial struggles they were able to adapt to each medium, and that participating in video

conferences afforded them with the ability to collaborate with their partners, who acted as

coaches guiding them through the language process. For instance, when referring to the

individual video conference, one student remarked, “I learned a lot from her and that helped me

with speaking and listening”. Another commented about the help she received from her partner:

“She worked with me […] and if I didn’t understand something, then she would either type it in

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the instant message to me […] or she would change her vocabulary to explain the word or

change it to something I understood”. One student remarked that the individual video

conferences “helped speaking skills, especially improvisational conversation skills”. He even

reported that email and Facebook correspondence “helped with writing and comprehension

skills”. In addition to these comments, he indicated that this interaction improved his “efficiency

of online language navigation”.

While the researcher’s goal of embarking on a cross-cultural exchange would contribute

to students’ language acquisition and cultural awareness, the last comment provided by the

student indicating this project also helped improve his technical skills was not anticipated.

Although this was the case, this result does align with previous research (Grimes and

Warschauer, 2008), who reported that in addition to enhancing communication skills, that the use

of technology in an academic setting can also promote technical literacy. This is an additional

finding that should be considered for future studies.

These results suggest that linking students in cross-cultural exchange has the potential to

improve students’ language comprehension. The researcher and his colleague from Jena

encouraged the German students to function as language coaches and work with the American

students on improving their language skills. Because the German students will potentially

become German teachers, this was an applicable task. Oskoz (2009) observed how learners

using Web 2.0 technology such as chat, assisted one another and how feedback provided by

learners developed students’ learning. It was found that this communication tool allowed

students to request for help when necessary, in that expert learners “used a variety of implicit and

explicit mechanisms of assistance to help their partners” (Oskoz, 2009, p. 55), and how “novice

learners tend to integrate both implicit and explicit feedback provided by expert learners”

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(Oskoz, 2009, p. 56). Tudini (2003) suggested that linking non-native speakers with native

speakers can promote negotiation of meaning of language. These results (Oskoz, 2009; Tudini,

2003) align with the findings from this current study which also found that, in addition to

improving students’ language skills, cross-cultural exchange has the potential to improve

students’ cultural awareness.

Cultural Awareness

Reports from students indicated that multiple aspects of this German course, including

the textbook, blog assignments, and Jena Project, enhanced their cultural awareness. It was

suggested that these tools and aspects of the study provided students with authentic access to

cultural content. The textbook offers a chapter by chapter overview of various German cities

including historical, geographical, and cultural insights into each location. The Moodle blog

tasks required students to conduct individual research of specific websites pertaining to each city

introduced in the textbook, including websites about Berlin, Munich, Heidelberg, Hamburg, and

Leipzig. For more details regarding these websites, please visit Appendix A. These websites

allowed individuals to become immersed in the German language and culture. For example,

when accessing a website about Oktoberfest, one of Munich’s annual fall festivals, one student

claimed, “it was cool to explore these websites and, in a way, virtually go to these cities”.

While exploring websites in a target language can bring students closer to a language’s

culture, as was reported by students, the Jena Project perhaps gave students the closest access to

authentic cultural content, and even provided both groups access into one another’s culture. The

majority of students reported that this project changed their image of Germany in that it

enhanced their cultural knowledge of East Germany as well as contemporary German life,

particularly as a university student. Students commented that the interaction helped them get to

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know one another. As a result, the common interests they shared revealed how similar they were

as college students from two different countries. For example, one commonality that many

shared, was going out in town either to watch movies, go to museums, or even to clubs to listen

to live music. Many students from both groups even commented on the food available at their

respective universities, and although it might lack imagination, it met their needs to curb their

hunger. An unexpected point of conversation during the group video conference, was when both

groups discussed having McDonald’s as a food option. The researcher observed that this helped

the American students realize that although their partners resided on a different continent, that

there were similarities the two cultures shared, even if it was fast food options that brought them

closer.

Previous research (Wang et al., 2013) has shown that intercultural competence can be

enhanced through e-learning, particularly by connecting language learners with native speakers.

The ability to easily connect in a virtual world “emphasizes the inherently intercultural nature of

language learning, with learners in these collaborative partnerships developing both linguistic

and intercultural competence while engaged in electronically mediated dialogue with their

foreign partners” (Wang et al., 2013). In addition to the Jena Project's assignment requirements,

this exchange demonstrated how students established continued communication with one

another. Some even reporting to have emailed multiple times and even connecting on social

media sites such as Facebook. These findings were unexpected and suggest the potential cross-

cultural exchange can provide in regards to not only improving language acquisition and cultural

awareness, but also by establishing relationships.

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Implications of Findings

The findings suggest that technologies such as blogs, chat, podcasts, wiki, and cross-

cultural exchange can have a positive impact on students’ reading, writing, listening and

speaking skills, cultural awareness, as well as students’ motivation and perceptions of

participating in this type of pedagogy. Moreover, these tools, as well as in-class meetings can

help support collaboration, constructivism, and learner autonomy, creating an environment

promoting social constructivism. As such, individual’s learning experiences have the potential

of being enhanced by those surrounding them (Vygotsky, 1978). Learner’s cognition also has

the potential to develop when engaged in collaborative tasks, which can influence engagement in

other activities (Palinscar, 1998).

The researcher observed that in-class activities, homework, group activities, the TSGLE

intervention and Jena Project were all aspects of the study that contributed to social

constructivism. The researcher found that by using various Web 2.0 technologies, students had

increased opportunities for communicating, which allowed for more student-to-student, student-

to-computer, and student-to-instructor interaction. This interaction resulted in increased in use of

German. Furthermore, much of the course correspondence, including blog activities and course

email was accessible via the Course Management System (CMS) Moodle. This system (See

Appendix B, Figure 8) is designed to be used for multiple purposes to assist in the organization

and dissemination of course content. Rosenberg (2007) defines this process as Knowledge

Management (KM), which “is the creation, archiving, and sharing of valued information,

expertise, and insight within and across communities of people and organizations with similar

interests and needs, the goal of which is to build competitive advantage” (pp. 157-158). For this

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study, it was used as a repository for storing large amounts of materials such as uploaded files

Internet links, and access to the blog. It was also used to organize, distribute, and assign tasks, as

well as allow participants to access a gradebook and email. It played a vital role in this course,

as it “is based on socio-constructivist pedagogy with the goal of providing a set of tools to

support an inquiry- and discovery-based approach to online learning” (Brandl, 2005, p. 16).

Previous research supports the researcher’s observations of Web 2.0 technologies

promoting social constructivism. For example, Oskoz (2009) found that use of online chat

promoted collaboration for students as they engaged in dialogues and provided feedback to one

another. Pellettieri (2010) found that online chat promoted negotiation of meaning between

students by resolving difficult language problems. Sun and Chang (2012) found that dialogue

exchanges while using a course blog led to students being more engaged with knowledge sharing

and creation, which enhanced their sense of autonomy and ownership. Lastly, Tudini (2003)

found that students negotiated meaning based on feedback provided by the native speakers,

indicating a collaborative-like environment created by online chat.

Perhaps an indication of positive impact of TSGLE intervention was due to the

convenience these tools afforded, as was reported by multiple students. Aspects contributing to

this, included the course textbook, wiki, the instructor-created video tutorials, and blog. The

researcher intended on using said materials to provide students with tools that were easily

accessible and could be used with limited training. The textbook provided students with

numerous glimpses of language structure and language, and the wiki was provided as a tool for

synchronous and simultaneous language practice and review. The video tutorials were meant to

be accessible for on-demand review of language structures, and the blog was available through

These include but are not limited to the course syllabus, handouts and language guidelines, and PowerPoint

presentations.

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the course CMS for language application and reflection for writing practice. Reasons for these

tools being convenient included being accessible, enjoyable to use, offering hands-on usability,

and providing easy access to authentic content. Previous research also illustrates the

convenience afforded by various Web 2.0 technologies. For example, Castaneda et al., (2011)

reported that the incorporation of a blog is easy for students to utilize and that students were

satisfied using them. Comas-Quinn et al., (2009) also expressed that accessibility of a blog made

for student participation easy. Additionally, Schmidt (2008) found that incorporating podcasts

over the course of a semester gave students access to authentic material in the target language.

These findings align with the results from this previous study, and indicate that the TSGLE

intervention and cross-cultural exchange has the potential to improve students’ language

acquisition and cultural awareness.

Strengths and Limitations

Since this study employed a triangulating process, the researcher was able to use both

quantitative and qualitative data to determine if there was convergence, differences, or some

combination between the two (Creswell, 2009). The use of repeated measures allowed the

researcher to interpret that the TSGLE was an effective intervention on students’ performance

over the course of a semester. This was particularly evident from the use of multiple blog entries

and podcast recordings, which provided insight into students’ improvement of language skills,

namely, their writing and speaking skills. The TIS allowed the researcher to determine that

students perceived the TSGLE intervention to be an effective tool assisting in language learning

over the course of a semester. Students’ interview responses and reflections also provided the

researcher with a deeper understanding of students’ perceptions to learning and teaching a

foreign language enhanced by technology. The number of participants (n = 28) was a relatively

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small sample size, which may have affected the overall statistical power. However, the use of

the aforementioned repeated measures, as well as obtaining students’ reports, provided the

researcher with a deeper understanding of the effects of a technology intervention and cross-

cultural exchange on students’ learning. Despite these positive findings, several limitations of

the study were also present.

The use of a convenience sample made it challenging to generalize results to a larger

population. Although results indicated the TSGLE had a positive impact on students’ language

acquisition and cultural awareness, as well as students’ perceptions of using such an

implementation to enhance their experience in a language course, it does not necessarily indicate

these results would be replicated if employed under the same conditions at another institute.

Having no presence of a control group could be an additional factor contributing of this. The

researcher’s presence, particularly in focus group interviews, may also have resulted in a

limitation to this study as this may have caused biased responses by participants.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should carefully consider the use of Web 2.0 technologies and, more

specifically, the amount and type of technology tools to implement in a study. Moreover,

researchers should consider why implementing said technology will be used and what type of

training should be incorporated. Wiebe and Kabata (2010) found that students were unclear as to

what the specific goals and outcomes of using technology would afford them. Schmidt (2008)

reported that proper training in the use of technology is a critical aspect to consider when

utilizing it in a language course.

Some participants from this current study were challenged by the technology, reporting it

sometimes “gets in the way of me trying to understand the language”. In addition, other

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participants suggested more speaking be incorporated into in-class meetings, “I would like more

opportunities to practice speaking and listening because they are a weak point of mine”. Others

felt some of the less-used technologies, such as online video, should be implemented more,

because it “was really beneficial for listening comprehension skills. I think it’s good for us to

hear more German being spoken like that”. Based on the TIS results, the majority of students

reported that online chat was an effective tool to practice German. However, qualitative results

offered an alternative glimpse to students’ reactions, as several indicated they were very

dissatisfied with this medium. One student even indicated that “there are far too many individual

assignments for me to handle, even try to keep track of”. Wang et al., (2013) insist on the need

to determine the amount of time demanded of students when utilizing technological aspects in a

course. Conducting training and setting target goals of how to implement technology, in addition

to regular coursework, should be considered ahead of time. Researchers should also consider

utilizing a control group to make comparisons after a technology intervention.

Future research implementation of cross-cultural exchange should consider the logistics

involved. In this study, logistics proved to be a difficult obstacle to avoid. Although the intent

was for every participant to have a partner to interact with during the individual video

conferences, the 12 German participants made it challenging for the 28 American students to

find ideal times to connect. Aside from communicating via email, only nine of the American

students were successful in scheduling and connecting with their partners for synchronous video

conferencing. Should similar logistic obstacles result after attempting to schedule time to

conduct video conferencing, future studies should take more advantage of asynchronous

communication tools that allow for continued interaction between partners. One suggestion

could be to include the instructor in email exchanges between partners so that he or she may

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establish at an earlier point in the interaction if finding time for them to participate in

synchronous interaction will be a challenge. Based on this, an adjustment in the scope of the

interaction could be changed to strictly asynchronous.

Zhang (2013) also found similar challenges when trying to connect students with native

speakers, as the native speakers were rarely available to connect and interact in the target

language. Moreover, Zhang (2013) found that although technologies – such as the blog and

video conferencing tool used in this study – allow for communication with anyone from

anywhere, learning opportunities were affected by time lags. Also, careful use of the technology,

such as Adobe Connect (Adobe Systems, Inc.), must be taken into consideration, as the group

video conference was affected by a time delay. With multiple microphones being used

simultaneously, the responses by the American students resulted in sometimes up to a five

second delay before the German students could hear and interpret what was said. The researcher

suggests a trial run to test for bugs in the technology. Because the German students’ semester

began during the middle of the American students’ course, planning an ideal starting point to

initiate the Jena Project was challenging. Although all participants were able to interact in the

blog and group video conference, several students reported wanting to begin such a project

earlier in the semester in order to take full advantage of what this feature can offer in terms of

language acquisition and cultural enhancement. That said, establishing early communication

with possible cross-cultural partners is necessary to designing an effective learning environment.

Despite this, the data results of this mixed methods cases study revealed that an overwhelming

majority of students benefitted from the TSGLE intervention and participating in cross-cultural

exchange and recommend this in future courses. These findings suggest future studies attempt to

implement technology intervention and cross-cultural exchange.

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