THE RISE OF ROME

THE RISE OF ROME

Roman history is the story of the Romans’ conquest of Italy and the entire

Mediterranean world. The Romans were conquerors, but they also governed, using

republican forms that have been passed down to us.

The Land and Peoples of Italy

Italy is a peninsula extending about 750 miles (1,207 km) from north to south. It

is not very wide, averaging about 120 miles (193 km) across. The Apennine

(A•puh•nyn) mountain range forms a ridge from north to south, dividing west from east.

Italy has some fairly large fertile plains ideal for farming. Most important are the Po

miles (29 km) inland on the Tiber River was especially favorable. The river gave Rome

a route to the sea, but Rome was far enough inland to be safe from pirates. Because

it was built on seven hills, it was easily defended. In addition, it was situated where the

Tiber could be forded, making it a natural crossroads. All in all, Rome had a good

central location in Italy from which to expand. The Italian peninsula juts into the

Mediterranean Sea, making it an important crossroads between the western and

eastern Mediterranean. After the Romans had established their empire around the

Mediterranean, governing it was easier because of Italy’s location. Indo-European

peoples moved into Italy from about 1500 to 1000 b.c. We know little about them, but

we do know that one group called the Latins lived in the region of Latium. These people

They also occupied eastern Sicily, an island south of the Italian peninsula. The Greeks

had much influence on the people of Rome. They cultivated olives and grapes, passed

on their alphabet, and gave the Romans artistic and cultural models through their

sculpture, architecture, and literature. It was the Etruscans, however, who most

influenced the early development of Rome. Located north of Rome in Etruria, they

came to control Rome and most of Latium after 650 b.c. The Etruscans found Rome

a village and turned it into a city. The Romans adopted Etruscan dress—the toga and

short cloak. The Roman army also borrowed its organization from the Etruscans.

The Roman Republic

In 509 b.c., the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a

struggle against people from the central Apennines. Rome was again victorious, giving

the Romans control over a large part of Italy. It also brought them into direct contact

with the Greek communities of southern Italy. By 264 b.c., the Romans had overcome

the Greeks and completed their conquest of southern Italy. After defeating the

remaining Etruscan states to the north, Rome had conquered virtually all of Italy. To

rule Italy, the Romans devised the Roman Confederation. Under this system, Rome

allowed some peoples—especially Latins—to have full Roman citizenship. Most of the

remaining communities were made allies. They remained free to run their own local

affairs but were required to provide soldiers for Rome. The Romans made it clear that

loyal allies could improve their status and become Roman citizens. The Romans made

Rome great. His account of Cincinnatus (sihn•suh•NA•tuhs), a simple farmer who was

chosen as a temporary ruler to save Rome from attack, is one such example. What

other characteristics made Rome successful? First, the Romans were good diplomats.

They were shrewd in extending Roman citizenship and allowing states to run their own

internal affairs. Second, the Romans excelled in military matters. They were not only

accomplished soldiers but also persistent ones. The loss of an army or a fleet did not

cause them to quit but instead spurred them on to build new armies and new fleets. In

addition, they were brilliant strategists. As they conquered, the Romans built

the Romans could move troops quickly throughout their conquered territory. Finally, in

law and politics, as in conquest, the Romans were practical. They did not try to build

an ideal government but instead created political institutions in response to problems,

as the problems arose.

Roman Political Structure

Early Rome was divided into two groups or orders—the patricians and the

plebeians (plih•BEE•uhnz). The patricians were wealthy landowners, who became

Rome’s ruling class. Less wealthy landowners, small farmers, craftspeople, and

merchants were part of a larger group called plebeians. Men in both groups were

citizens and could vote, but only the patricians could be elected to office. The chief

position in the Roman Republic. It was a select group of aboutthree hundred patricians

who served for life. At first, the Senate’s only role was to advise government officials.

By the third century b.c., however, it had the force of law. The Roman Republic had

several assemblies in addition to the Senate. By far the most important of these was

the centuriate assembly, which elected the chief officials, such as consuls and

praetors, and passed laws. Because it was organized by classes based on wealth, the

wealthiest citizens always had a majority. Another assembly, the council of the plebs,

came into being as a result of the struggle between the two Roman social orders.

The Struggle of the Others

There was often conflict between the two orders in the early Roman Republic.

Children of patricians and plebeians were forbidden to marry each other. Plebeians

as tribunes of the plebs, had the power to protect the plebeians. In the fourth century

287 b.c., the council of the plebs received the right to pass laws for all Romans. All

male Roman citizens were now supposedly equal under the law. In reality, a few

wealthy patrician and plebeian families formed a new senatorial ruling class. The

Roman Republic had not become a democracy.

Roman Law

One of Rome’s chief gifts to the Mediterranean world of its day and to later

generations was its system of law. Rome’s first code of laws was the Twelve Tables,

adopted in 450 b.c. This code was a product of a simple farming society and proved

inadequate for later Roman needs.

From the Twelve Tables, the Romans developed a more sophisticated system of

civil law. This system applied only to Roman citizens, however, and, as Rome

expanded, legal questions arose that involved both Romans and non-Romans. In

these cases, special rules were needed. These rules gave rise to a body of law known

as the Law of Nations, which the Romans identified with natural law, or universal law

based on reason. This enabled them to establish standards of justice that applied to

all people. These standards of justice included principles still recognized today. A

allowed to defend themselves before a judge. A judge, in turn, was expected to weigh

evidence carefully before arriving at a decision. These principles lived on long after

the fall of the Roman Empire. From the Twelve Tables, the Romans developed a more

Romans. In these cases, special rules were needed. These rules gave rise to a body

of law known as the Law of Nations, which the Romans identified with natural law, or

universal law based on reason. This enabled them to establish standards of justice

that applied to all people. These standards of justice included principles still

recognized today. A person was innocent until proved otherwise. People accused of

wrongdoing were allowed to defend themselves before a judge. A judge, in turn, was

expected to weigh evidence carefully before arriving at a decision. These principles

lived on long after the fall of the Roman Empire.

Roman Expansion

The Phoenicians founded Carthage around 800 b.c. on the coast of North Africa.

an island close to the Italian coast, made the Romans fearful. The Romans sent an

army to Sicily, and the Carthaginians responded. Both sides were determined to

control Sicily.

Carthaginian navy, and the war came to an end. In 241 b.c., Carthage gave up all

rights to Sicily and paid a fine to the Romans. Sicily became the first Roman province.

Carthage vowed revenge, however, and added new lands in Spain to make up for the

loss of Sicily. The Romans encouraged one of Carthage’s Spanish allies to revolt

against Carthage. In response, Hannibal, the greatest Carthaginian general, struck

back, beginning the Second Punic War.

The Second Punic War

Hannibal decided to bring the war to Rome. Hannibal entered Spain, moved east,

and crossed the Alps with an army of about 46,000 men, a large number of horses,

and 37 battle elephants. The Alps took a toll on the Carthaginian army; most of the

elephants did not survive, but the remaining army posed a real threat. In 216 b.c., the

Romans made a serious mistake; they met Hannibal head-on. At Cannae (KA•nee),

the Romans lost an army of almost 40,000 men. On the brink of disaster, the Romans

refused to surrender and raised yet another army. Rome gradually recovered.

Although Hannibal remained free to roam Italy, he had neither the men nor the

equipment to attack the major cities. The Romans began to reconquer some of the

Italian cities that had been taken by Hannibal. They also sent troops to Spain and, by

206 b.c., they had pushed the Carthaginians out of Spain. Rome invaded Carthage

Italy. At the Battle of Zama (ZAY•muh) in 202 b.c., the Romans crushed Hannibal’s

forces, and the war was over. Spain became a Roman province. Rome had become

the dominant power in the western Mediterranean.

More Conquests

Third Punic War. For years, a number of prominent Romans had called for the

complete destruction of Carthage. In 146 b.c., it was destroyed. For ten days, Roman

soldiers burned and demolished the city. The inhabitants were sold into slavery. The

territory of Carthage became a Roman province called Africa. During its struggle with

Carthage, Rome also battled the Hellenistic states in the eastern Mediterranean. By