THE MONGOLS AND CHINA
At the time of the Mongol invasion, art and literature in China were in the middle
of a golden age, spurred, in part, by the invention of porcelain and the printing press.
Also, religious attitudes were changing in favor of a revived Confucianism, which would
remain the basis of Chinese government for centuries.
The Mongols
Due in large part to their military prowess, the Mongols rose to power in Asia with
stunning speed. The Mongols were a pastoral people from the region of modern-day
Mongolia who were organized loosely into clans. Temüjin (TEHM•yuh•juhn), born
during the 1160s, gradually unified the Mongols. In 1206 he was elected Genghis
Khan—strong ruler—at a massive meeting somewhere in the Gobi. From that time on,
he devoted himself to conquest. The military tactics of the Mongols were devastatingly
effective.
The Mongols brought much of the Eurasian landmass under a single rule,
creating the largest land empire in history. To rule the new Mongol Empire, Genghis
Khan set up a capital city at Karakorum. Mongol armies traveled both to the west and
to the east. Some went as far as central Europe. After the death of Genghis Khan in
1227, the empire began to change. Following Mongol custom, upon the death of the
ruling khan, his heirs divided the territory. The once-united empire of Genghis Khan
was split into several separate territories called khanates, each under the rule of one
of his sons. It may be that only the death of Genghis Khan kept the Mongols from
attacking western Europe. In 1231 the Mongols attacked Persia and then defeated the
Abbasids at Baghdad in 1258. Mongol forces attacked the Song dynasty in China in
the 1260s. In their attack on the Chinese, the Mongols encountered the use of
gunpowder and the fire-lance. By the end of the thirteenth century, the fire-lance had
evolved into the much more effective gun and cannon. By the early fourteenth century,
foreigners employed by the Mongol rulers of China had introduced the use of
gunpowder and firearms into Europe. In 1279 one of Genghis Khan’s grandsons,
named Kublai Khan (KOO•bluh KAHN), completed the conquest of the Song and
established a new Chinese dynasty, the Yuan (YWAHN). Kublai Khan, who ruled
China until his death in 1294, established his capital at Khanbalik—the city of the
Khan—later known by the Chinese name Beijing. Under the leadership of the talented
Kublai Khan, the Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty continued to expand the empire. Mongol
armies advanced into Vietnam, and Mongol fleets were launched against Java and
Sumatra and twice against the islands of Japan. Only Vietnam was conquered,
however, and then only for a while. The other campaigns failed. The Mongols used
tactics, such as cavalry charges and siege warfare.
These were not very effective in tropical and hilly regions. The Mongols had more
success in ruling China. Mongol rulers adapted to the Chinese political system and
made use of Chinese bureaucrats. Culturally the Mongols were quite different from the
Chinese and became a separate class with their own laws. The highest positions in
the bureaucracy were usually staffed by Mongols. Over time, the Mongol dynasty won
the support of many Chinese people. Some came to respect the stability and economic
prosperity that the Mongols at first brought to China. The capital at Khanbalik reflected
Mongol prosperity. It was a magnificent city, and foreign visitors were impressed by its
splendor. One such visitor was Marco Polo, who lived in Khanbalik during the reign of
Kublai Khan. Polo’s stories of the glories of China seemed unbelievable to the
Europeans.
The Mongol dynasty eventually fell victim to the same problems that had plagued
other dynasties: too much spending on foreign conquests, corruption at court, and
growing internal instability. In 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang (JOO YWAHN•JAHNG), the son
of a peasant, put together an army, ended the Mongol dynasty, and set up a new
dynasty, the Ming.
Buddhism and Daoism
Buddhism was brought to China in the first century a.d. by merchants and
missionaries from India. At first, only merchants and intellectuals were intrigued by the
new ideas. However, as a result of the insecurity that prevailed after the collapse of
the Han See page R39 to read excerpts from The Buddha’s Sermon in the Primary
Sources and Literature Library. dynasty, both Buddhism and Daoism became more
attractive to many people. Both philosophies gained support among the ruling classes.
The growing popularity of Buddhism continued into the early years of the Tang dynasty.
Early Tang rulers lent their support to Buddhist monasteries that were set up
throughout the country. Buddhists even became advisers at the imperial court but
ultimately lost favor. Buddhism was criticized for being a foreign religion. Like Christian
monasteries in Europe during the Middle Ages, Buddhist monasteries had acquired
thousands of acres of land and serfs. With land came corruption. The government
reacted strongly. During the later Tang period, it destroyed countless Buddhist temples
and monasteries and forced more than 260,000 monks and nuns to leave the
monasteries and return to secular life. Buddhists taught that the material world was
not real, but an illusion. By teaching this, Buddhism was denying the very essence of
Confucian teachings—the need for devotion to family and hard work. These were
virtues that the Chinese state had reason to support.
Neo-Confucianism
From the Song dynasty to the end of the dynastic system in the twentieth century,
official support went to a revived Confucianism, which became the heart of the state
government. This new doctrine, called neo-Confucianism, served as a Confucian
response to Buddhism and Daoism. It teaches that the world is real, not an illusion,
and that fulfillment comes from participation in the world. Neo-Confucianists divide the
world into a material world and a spiritual world. Humans live in the material world but
are also linked with the Supreme Ultimate. The goal is to move beyond the material
world to reach union with the Supreme Ultimate. Humans do this through a careful
examination of the moral principles that rule the universe.
A Golden Age in Literature and Art
The period between the Tang and Ming dynasties was in many ways the great
age of Chinese literature. The invention of printing during the Tang dynasty helped to
make literature more readily available and more popular. Art, especially landscape
painting and ceramics, flourished during this period.
Poetry
It was in poetry, above all, that the Chinese of this time best expressed their
literary talents. The Tang dynasty is viewed as the great age of poetry in China. At
least 48,000 poems were written by some 2,200 authors. Chinese poems celebrated
the beauty of nature, the changes of the seasons, and the joys of friendship. They
expressed sadness at the shortness of life and the necessity of parting. Li Bo (LEE
BWAW) and Du Fu (DOO FOO) were two of the most popular poets during the Tang
era. Li Bo was a free spirit who’s writing often centered on nature. Probably the best-
known poem in China, “Quiet Night Thoughts” has been memorized by schoolchildren
for centuries.
Painting and Ceramics
During the Song and Mongol dynasties, landscape painting reached its high
point. Influenced by Daoism, artists went into the mountains to find the Dao, or Way,
in nature. The word landscape in Chinese means “mountain-water” and reflects the
Daoist search for balance between the earth and water. Chinese artists tried to reveal
the hidden forms of the landscape. Rather than depicting the realistic shape of a
specific mountain, for example, they tried to portray the idea of “mountain.” Empty
spaces were left in the paintings because in the Daoist vision, one cannot know the
whole truth. Daoism also influenced the portrayal of humans as insignificant in the
midst of nature. Chinese artists painted people as tiny figures fishing in small boats or
wandering up a hillside trail, living in but not dominating nature. Tang artisans perfected
the making of porcelain—a ceramic made of fine clay baked at very high temperatures.
Porcelain-making techniques did not reach Europe until the eighteenth century.
