THE CULTURE OF CLASSICAL GREECE
Classical Greece, especially Athens under Pericles’ rule, witnessed a period of
remarkable intellectual and cultural growth that became the main source of Western
culture. Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato established the foundations of Western
philosophy.
Greek Religion
Religion affected every aspect of Greek life. Greeks considered religion
necessary to the well-being of the state. Temples dedicated to gods and goddesses
were the major buildings in Greek cities. Homer described the gods worshiped in the
Greek religion. Twelve chief gods and goddesses were thought to live on Olympus,
the highest mountain in Greece. Among the twelve were Zeus, the chief god and father
of the gods; Athena, goddess of wisdom and crafts; Apollo, god of the sun and poetry;
Artemis, the sister of Apollo, who was goddess of the moon and of the hunt; Ares, god
of war; Aphrodite, goddess of love; and Poseidon, brother of Zeus and god of the seas
and earthquakes. Greek religion did not have a body of doctrine, nor did it focus on
morality. The spirits of most people, regardless of what they had done in life, went to
a gloomy underworld ruled by the god Hades. Because the Greeks wanted the gods
to look favorably upon their activities, rituals became important. Rituals are
ceremonies or rites. Greek religious rituals involved prayers often combined with gifts
to the gods based on the principle “I give so that you [the gods] will give [in return].”
Festivals also developed as a way to honor the gods and goddesses. Certain festivals
were held at special locations, such as those dedicated to the worship of Zeus at
Olympia or to Apollo at Delphi. Numerous events, including athletic games, took place
in honor of the gods at the Greek festivals. The first such games were held at the
Olympic festival in 776 b.c.
The Greeks also had a great desire to learn the will of the gods. To do so, they
made use of the oracle, a sacred shrine where a god or goddess revealed the future
through a priest or priestess. The most famous was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi,
located on the side of Mount Parnassus overlooking the Gulf of Corinth. At Delphi, a
priestess, thought to be inspired by Apollo, listened to questions. Her responses were
then interpreted by priests and given in verse form to the persons asking the questions.
Representatives of states and individuals traveled to Delphi to consult the oracle of
Apollo. The responses provided by the priests and priestesses were often puzzling
and could be interpreted in more than one way. For example, Croesus (KREE•suhs),
king of Lydia and known for his incredible wealth, sent messengers to the oracle at
Delphi asking “whether he shall go to war with the Persians.” The oracle replied that if
Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire. Overjoyed to hear
these words, Croesus made war on the Persians but was crushed by his enemy. A
mighty empire—that of Croesus—was destroyed! Although Greek religion is no longer
practiced, it was the source of most Greek drama and art. Not only did the Romans
adopt the Greek gods, but many stories and references about Greek gods appear in
European and American literature.
Classical Greek Arts and Literature
The arts of the Western world have been largely dominated by the standards set
by the Greeks of the classical period. Classical Greek art was concerned with
expressing eternal ideals. The subject matter of this art was the human being,
presented as an object of great beauty. The classic style, with its ideals of reason,
moderation, balance, and harmony in all things, was meant to civilize the emotions.
Architecture and Sculpture
In architecture, the most important form was the temple, dedicated to a god or
goddess. At the center of Greek temples were walled rooms that housed both the
statues of deities and treasuries in which gifts to the gods and goddesses were
safeguarded. These central rooms were surrounded by a screen of columns that made
Greek temples open structures rather than closed ones. The columns were originally
made of wood. In the fifth century b.c., marble began to be used. Some of the finest
examples of Greek classical architecture were built in Athens in the fifth century b.c.
The most famous building on the Acropolis, the Parthenon is regarded as the greatest
example of the classical Greek temple. It was built between 447 b.c. and 432 b.c.
Dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, the Parthenon was an expression
of Athenians’ pride in their city-state. Indeed, it was dedicated not only to Athena but
also to the glory of Athens and the Athenians. The Parthenon shows the principles of
classical architecture: the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom from unnecessary
detail. The Parthenon today is a revered ruin. It was damaged by an explosion in 1687
and has been partially restored.
Greek sculpture also developed a classical style. Lifelike statues of the male
nude, the favorite subject of Greek sculptors, showed relaxed attitudes. Their faces
were selfassured, their bodies smooth and muscled. Classical Greek sculptors did not
seek to achieve realism, however, but rather a standard of ideal beauty. Polyclitus
(pah•lih• KLY•tuhs), a fifth-century sculptor, wrote down systematic rules for
proportions that he illustrated in a work known as the Doryphoros. His theory
maintained that the use of ideal proportions, based on mathematical ratios found in
nature, could produce an ideal human form.
Drama
Drama as we know it in Western culture was created by the Greeks. Plays were
presented in outdoor theaters as part of religious festivals. The first Greek dramas
were tragedies, which were presented in a trilogy—a set of three plays—built around
a common theme. The only complete trilogy we possess today, called the Oresteia,
was composed by Aeschylus. This set of three plays relates the fate of Agamemnon,
a hero in the Trojan War, and his family after his return from the war. In the plays, evil
acts are shown to breed evil acts and suffering. In the end, however, reason triumphs
over the forces of evil. Sophocles was another great Athenian playwright. His most
famous play was Oedipus Rex. In this play, the oracle of Apollo accurately foretells
that Oedipus will kill his own father and marry his mother. Despite all attempts to
prevent this, Oedipus does commit these tragic acts.
A third outstanding Athenian dramatist, Euripides, tried to create more realistic
characters. His plots became more complex and showed a greater interest in reallife
situations. Euripides was controversial. He questioned traditional values. He portrayed
war as brutal and barbaric and expressed deep compassion for the women and
children who suffered as a result of it. Greek tragedies dealt with universal themes still
relevant today. They examined such problems as the nature of good and evil, the rights
of the individual, the nature of divine forces, and the nature of human beings. In the
world of the Greek tragedies, striving to do the best thing may not always lead to
success, but the attempt is a worthy endeavor. Greek pride in accomplishment and
independence was real. As the chorus chanted in Sophocles’ Antigone, “Is there
anything more wonderful on earth, our marvelous planet, than the miracle of man?”
Greek comedy developed later than tragedy. Comedies were used to criticize
politicians and intellectuals and were meant to both entertain and provoke a reaction.
The plays of Aristophanes are good examples, using puns and satire.
The Writing of History
In the Western world, the Greeks were the first people to present history as a
systematic analysis of past events. Herodotus (hih•RAH•duh•tuhs) wrote History of the
Persian Wars, often seen as the first real history in Western civilization. Its central
theme is the conflict between the Greeks and the Persians, which Herodotus viewed
as a struggle between Greek freedom and Persian despotism. Herodotus traveled
widely and questioned many people as a means of obtaining his information. He was
a master storyteller. Many historians today consider Thucydides (thoo•SIH•duh•deez)
the greatest historian of the ancient world. Thucydides was an Athenian general who
fought in the Great Peloponnesian War and later wrote its history. Unlike Herodotus,
Thucydides saw war and politics as the activities of human beings, not gods. He
examined the Peloponnesian War clearly and fairly, placing much emphasis on
accuracy.
Thucydides was not a modern historian, of course. For example, he wrote set
speeches for the leading actors in the war, but these words were based on a careful
judgment of facts he tried to verify. Like many later historians, Thucydides believed
that the study of history was of great value in understanding the present.
Greek Philosophy
Philosophy refers to an organized system of thought. The term comes from a
Greek word that means “love of wisdom.” Early Greek philosophers focused on the
development of critical or rational thought about the nature of the universe. Many early
Greek philosophers tried to explain the universe on the basis of unifying principles. In
the sixth century b.c., for example, Pythagoras, familiar to geometry students for his
Pythagorean theorem, taught that the essence of the universe could be found in music
and numbers. In the fifth and fourth centuries b.c., Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle raised
basic questions that have been debated for two thousand years.
Sophists
The Sophists were a group of traveling teachers in ancient Greece who rejected
speculation such as that of Pythagoras as foolish. They argued that it was simply
beyond the reach of the human mind to understand the universe. It was more important
for individuals to improve themselves. The Sophists sold their services as professional
teachers to the young men of Greece, especially those of Athens. The Sophists
stressed the importance of rhetoric (the art of persuasive speaking in winning debates
and swaying an audience). This skill was especially valuable in democratic Athens.
The Sophists’ goal was to argue effectively, not to promote particular beliefs or ideas.
They were known for their ability to argue for both sides of an issue. To the Sophists,
there was no absolute right or wrong. What was right for one individual might be wrong
for another. True wisdom consisted of being able to perceive and pursue one’s own
good. Because of these ideas, many people viewed the Sophists as harmful to society
and especially dangerous to the values of young people.
Socrates
One of the critics of the Sophists was Socrates, a sculptor whose true love was
philosophy. Because Socrates left no writings, we know about him only what we have
learned from the writings of his pupils, such as Plato. Socrates taught many pupils, but
he accepted no pay. He believed that the goal of education was only to improve the
individual. Greek philosophers before Socrates were most concerned with issues of
natural science. However, Socrates taught his students how to live their lives by a code
of ethics. He believed that people could be happy by living moral lives, and that they
could also be taught how to behave morally.
Socrates used a teaching method that is still known by his name. The Socratic
method of teaching uses a question-andanswer format to lead pupils to see things for
themselves by using their own reason. Socrates believed that all real knowledge is
already present within each person. Only critical examination is needed to call it forth.
This is the real task of philosophy, because, as Socrates said, “The unexamined life is
not worth living.” This belief in the individual’s ability to reason was an important
contribution of the Greeks. Socrates questioned authority, and this soon led him into
trouble. Athens had had a tradition of free thought and inquiry, but defeat in the
Peloponnesian War changed the Athenians. They no longer trusted open debate.
Socrates was accused and convicted of corrupting the youth of Athens by teaching
them to question and think for themselves. An Athenian jury sentenced him to die by
drinking hemlock, a poison.
Plato
One of Socrates’ students was Plato, considered by many the greatest
philosopher of Western civilization. Unlike his teacher Socrates, who did not write
down his thoughts, Plato wrote a great deal. He was fascinated with the question of
reality. How do we know what is real? According to Plato, a higher world of eternal,
unchanging Forms has always existed. These ideal Forms make up reality and only a
trained mind— the goal of philosophy—can become aware of or understand these
Forms. To Plato, the objects that we perceive with our senses (trees, for example) are
simply reflections of the ideal Forms (treeness). They (the trees) are but shadows.
Reality is found in the Form (treeness) itself. Plato explained his ideas about
government in a work entitled The Republic. Based on his experience in Athens, Plato
had come to distrust the workings of democracy. To him, individuals could not achieve
a good life unless they lived in a just and rational state. Plato described how he would
explore the nature and value of justice, as follows:
Plato’s search for the just state led him to construct an ideal state in which people
were divided into three basic groups. At the top was an upper class of philosopher-
kings.
The second group in Plato’s ideal state were warriors. The third group contained
all the rest, people driven not by wisdom or courage but by desire. They were society’s
producers—artisans, tradespeople, and farmers. When each of these groups
performed its appropriate role in society— and did not try to take on the roles of
others—the society would function smoothly and be just. Contrary to Greek custom,
Plato also believed that men and women should have the same education and equal
access to all positions. In The Republic, he concluded that justice could be achieved
in the same manner by both a state and an individual. He argued that just as the
different groups in a society need to work together, the different parts of a person’s
soul—reason, courage (or will), and desire—need to come together to create a just
and ethical individual.
Aristotle
Plato established a school at Athens that was known as the Academy. His most
famous pupil was Aristotle, who studied here for 20 years. Aristotle did not accept
Plato’s theory of ideal forms. He thought that by examining individual objects (trees),
we could perceive their form (treeness). However, he did not believe that these forms
existed in a separate, higher world of reality beyond material things. Rather, he thought
of forms as a part of things themselves. (In other words, we know what treeness is by
examining trees.) Like Plato, Aristotle believed that people’s happiness was tied to
their behavior. He taught that happiness resulted from living a life filled with virtue, and
that virtue was a midpoint between extreme behaviors. For example, courage would
be a midpoint between reckless behavior and cowardice. Aristotle’s many interests lay
in analyzing and classifying things based on observation and investigation. He defined
entire categories of study, such as logic, biology, and physics, and wrote about a range
of subjects, including ethics, politics, poetry, and the sciences. Aristotle studied natural
science by making and recording observations. Although these methods are now part
of the scientific method, they were groundbreaking in Aristotle’s day. Until the
seventeenth century, science in the Western world remained largely based on
Aristotle’s ideas.
Like Plato, Aristotle wanted an effective form of government that would rationally
direct human affairs. Unlike Plato, he did not seek an ideal state but tried to find the
best form of government by analyzing existing governments. For his Politics, Aristotle
looked at the constitutions of 158 states and found three good forms of government:
monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional government. He favored constitutional
government as the best form for most people. Aristotle is often viewed as the most
influential thinker in the Western world. He wrote brilliantly on many subjects and
worked tirelessly, producing a vast number of works. His ideas dominated the best
minds of Europe for centuries and are studied to this day.
