EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN INDIA

EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN INDIA

The Indus River valley was the largest of the early river valley civilizations. An

extensive river system supported agriculture, the development of cities, and

widespread trade. Climate also was important to India’s agriculture and development.

The Impact of Geography

India is a land of diversity. Today, about 110 languages and more than 1,000

dialects—varieties of language—are spoken in India. Diversity is also apparent in

India’s geography. The Indian subcontinent, shaped like a triangle hanging from the

southern ridge of Asia, is composed of a number of core regions, including mountain

Indus Valley enjoyed a more moderate climate and served as the cradle of Indian

civilization. South of India’s two major river valleys—the valleys of the Ganges and the

Indus—lies the Deccan Plateau, which extends from the Ganges Valley to the

southern tip of India. The interior of the plateau is relatively hilly and dry. India’s eastern

and western coasts are lush plains. These plains have historically been among the

most densely populated regions of India.

Monsoons

The primary feature of India’s climate is the monsoon, a seasonal wind pattern

in southern Asia. During the months of June through September, monsoon winds from

the south and southwest blow across the Arabian Sea, part of the Indian Ocean. These

over the plains below, rise up the mountainside, cool, and release rain. Throughout

history, Indian farmers have depended on the heavy rains brought by the southwest

monsoons. If the rain comes early or late, or too much or too little rain falls, crops are

destroyed, and thousands starve.

Indus Valley Civilization

As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, early civilizations in India and China emerged in

river valleys. Between 3000 b.c. and 1500 b.c., the valleys of the Indus River supported

a flourishing civilization that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalaya to the

coast of the Arabian Sea. Archaeologists have found the remains of more than a

thousand settlements in this region. Two of the ruins, about 400 miles (644 km) apart,

south direction and were crossed by smaller eastwest roads. Both cities were divided

into large walled neighborhoods, with narrow lanes separating the rows of houses.

Houses varied in size, some as high as three stories, but all followed the same plan of

a square courtyard surrounded by rooms.

Most buildings were constructed of oven-baked mud bricks and were square,

forming a grid pattern. Public wells provided a regular supply of water for all the

inhabitants. Bathrooms featured an advanced drainage system. Wastewater flowed

out to drains located under the streets and then was carried to sewage pits beyond

the city walls. A system of chutes took household trash from houses to streetlevel

garbage bins. Only a well-organized government could have maintained such carefully

this close connection. Priests probably prayed to a fertility deity to guarantee the

annual harvest.

year, providing rich soil to grow wheat, barley, and peas. The Indus Valley civilization

also carried on trade as far away as Mesopotamia. Sumerian textiles and food were

traded for Indus Valley copper, lumber, precious stones, cotton, and various luxury

goods. Although some trade goods were carried overland, most goods went on ships

via the Persian Gulf.

Migration and Interaction

How the Indus Valley civilization came to an end continues to be a mystery.

Archaeologists have discovered signs of gradual decay in Indus Valley cities beginning

around 1800 b.c. Floods, an earthquake, changes in climate, and even a change in

the course of the Indus River weakened the once-flourishing civilization in the Indus

other theories about the end of the Indus Valley civilization abound, all agree that about

1500 b.c. there was a major shift in India’s culture. Many historians explain this shift

Arrival of the Aryans

Some migrated wests to Europe. Others moved south to Iran and later to the Indus

Valley. One group, known as the Aryans, moved south across the Hindu Kush

Mountain range into the plains of northern India. Historians know little about the origins

and early culture of the Aryans. The Aryans lived in tribal groups and had a strong

warrior tradition. As they settled in northern India, the nomads came into contact with

the Indus Valley civilization.

Dravidians—descendants of the Indus Valley people—eventually resulted in a new

and unique culture.

In the process of settling in India, the Aryans gave up their nomadic lifestyle for

farming. The introduction of iron—probably from Southwest Asia, where it had first

been used by the Hittites (see Chapter 2)—played a role in this change. The creation

of the iron plow, along with the use of irrigation, made it possible for farmers to clear

the dense jungle growth along the Ganges River and turn it into a rich agricultural area.

The basic crops in the north were wheat, barley, and millet. Rice was most

common in the fertile river valleys. In the south, grain and vegetables supplemented

cotton and spices such as pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. While there is evidence of

writing in the Indus Valley, no one has yet been able to translate those symbols. Like

most nomadic peoples, the early Aryans had no written language. Around 1000 b.c.,

language enabled them to record the legends and religious chants and rituals that had

been passed down orally from earlier generations.

These early writings, known as the Vedas, reveal that between 1500 and 400

b.c., India was a world of many small kingdoms. Various leaders, known as rajas

(princes), had carved out small states. These kingdoms were often at war with one

another as alliances shifted between them. They attacked one another’s fortresses

and seized treasure. Not until the fourth century b.c. would a leader be able to establish

a large Indian state.

Daily Life in Ancient India

Life in ancient India centered on the family, the most basic unit in society. The

ideal was an extended family, with three generations—grandparents, parents, and

children—living under the same roof. The family was basically patriarchal, because in

class families, young men began their education with a guru, or teacher, and then went

on to study in one of the major cities. Upper-class young men were not supposed to

marry until they completed 12 years of study. Although divorce was usually not

allowed, husbands could take a second wife if the first was unable to bear children.

Children were an important product of marriage, primarily because they were

expected to take care of their parents as they grew older. Marriage, arranged by the

parents, was common for young girls, probably because women did not work outside

the home. Parents had to support each daughter until marriage and then pay a dowry

to the family of the man she married. Perhaps the most vivid symbol of women’s

dominance by men was the ritual of suttee (suh•TEE). In ancient India, the dead were

The social structure of ancient India reflected Aryan ideas of the ideal society.

ranked people from high to low. At the top were the Brahmins, the priestly class who

performed the religious ceremonies so important to Indian society. The Kshatriyas

(KSHA•tree•uhz), or warriors, were considered next in importance. The Vaisyas

(VYSH•yuhz) were commoners who were merchants and farmers. The lowest varna

were the Sudras (SOO•druhz), peasants or servants who made up the great bulk of

the Indian population. Sudras had only limited rights in society. Over the centuries, a

rigid social structure evolved that drew on Aryan ideas— the caste system. In this

system, every Indian was believed to be born into a caste, a social group defined by

occupation and family lineage. Caste determined what job people could have, whom

they could marry, and what groups they could socialize with. In India, no one uses the

At the lowest level of Indian society were the Untouchables, people who were

viewed as so impure that they were outside the caste system completely. The

Untouchables were given menial, degrading tasks, such as collecting trash and

handling dead bodies. Untouchables probably made up about five percent of the

Religions of India

Two of the world’s great religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, began in India. Both

were crucial in shaping civilization in India. Aryan beliefs blended with the religious

practices of the Dravidians to form Hinduism. In the sixth century b.c., a new religion,

known as Buddhism, emerged to rival Hinduism.

Hinduism

in India. Evidence about the religious beliefs of the Aryan peoples comes from the

Vedas, collections of hymns and religious ceremonies that were passed down orally

Brahman. It was the duty of the individual self—called the atman—to seek to know this

ultimate reality. By doing so, the self would merge with Brahman after death.

means “union,” is to leave behind earthly life and join Brahman in a kind of dreamless

sleep. One Hindu text states, “When all the senses are stilled, when the mind is at

rest, that, say the wise, is the highest state.” Most ordinary Indians, however, could not

easily relate to this ideal and needed a more concrete form of heavenly salvation. It

was probably for this reason that Hinduism came to have a number of human-like gods

and goddesses. The three chief gods are Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver,

expressions of the one ultimate reality, Brahman. However, the various gods and

goddesses give ordinary Indians a way to express their religious feelings. Through

devotion at a Hindu temple, they seek not only salvation but also a means of gaining

the ordinary things they need in life. Hinduism is still the religion of the majority of the

Indian people.

Principles of Hinduism

By the sixth century b.c., the idea of reincarnation had appeared in Hinduism.

death. As the Bhagavad Gita, India’s great religious poem, says, “Worn-out garments

are shed by the body/Worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller [the soul].” After a

number of existences in the earthly world, the soul reaches its final goal in a union with

Brahman. According to Hinduism, all living beings seek to achieve this goal. Important

to this process is the idea of karma, the force generated by a person’s actions that

determines how the person will be reborn in the next life. According to this idea, what

the Brahmins, than of the lower castes. One story from the Bhagavad Gita illustrates

the importance of duty. As he prepared for battle, Arjuna, a warrior, appealed to the

concept of reincarnation gave hope to those lower on the ladder of life. The poor, for

example, could hope that if they behaved properly in this life, they would improve their

condition in the next.

Buddhism

In the sixth century b.c., a new doctrine, called Buddhism, appeared in northern

artha Gautama (sih•DAHR•tuh GOW•tuh•muh), known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened

One.” Siddh–artha Gautama came from a small kingdom in the foothills of the

Himalaya (in what is today part of southern Nepal).

Born around 563 b.c., he was the son of a ruling family. The young and very

handsome Siddh–artha was raised in the lap of luxury and lived a sheltered life. At the

age of 16, he married a neighboring princess and began to raise a family. Siddh–artha

appeared to have everything: wealth, a good appearance, a model wife, a child, and

decided to spend his life seeking the cure for human suffering. He gave up his royal

clothes, shaved his head, abandoned his family, and set off to find the true meaning

to achieve an understanding of ultimate reality. The abuse of his physical body,

however, only led to a close brush with Siddhaˉrtha Gautama 563–483 B.C. “All that

we are is the result of what we have thought,” said Siddha¯rtha Gautama. Through

meditation, Gautama Buddha discovered the Middle Way—a path of moderation with

worldwide appeal. Emperor As´oka first spread the Buddha’s teachings throughout

India. As Buddhism spread, each region developed its own artistic vision of the

Buddha. For centuries, he was represented as an icon, not as a human, so all

representations of the Buddha are symbolic. Often he appears seated in meditation or

reclining and is shown with signs of his enlightenment. In images of the Buddha, a

bump on the top of his head symbolizes his intelligence, and long earlobes portray his

as to the meaning of life. He spent the rest of his life preaching what he had

discovered. His teachings became the basic principles of Buddhism.

or doctrine. In some ways, his ideas could be seen as an attempt to reform Hinduism.

In his day, Hinduism had become complex and dependent on the Brahmins as keepers

of religious secrets. Siddh–artha advised, “Do not go by what is handed down, nor by

the authority of your traditional teachings. When you know of yourselves, ‘These

teachings are good or not good,’ only then accept or reject them.”

In his lifetime, the Buddha gained thousands of devoted followers. People would

come to him seeking to know more about him, asking,

“Are you a god?”

“Are you an angel?”

“No.”

“Are you a saint?”

“No.”

“Then what are you?” The Buddha replied, “I am awake.”

The religion of Buddhism began with a man who claimed that he had awakened

and seen the world in a new way.

name—Gautama Buddha. Achieving wisdom is a key step to achieving nirvana, or

ultimate reality—the end of the self and a reunion with the Great World Soul.