Revolutionary War: The Home Front
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
Defining a "home front" in the Revolutionary War is difficult because so much of the
thirteen states became, at one time or another, an actual theater of war. Even so, the war
profoudly affected the domestic scene, and the domestic scene, in turn, greatly influenced the
conduct and course of the war.
Most Native American tribes east of the Mississippi were uncertain about which side, if
either, to take during the Revolutionary War, and many remained neutral. A number of tribes,
however, feared the Revolution would replace the British--who had worked hard to protect their
lands from colonial encroachments--with the land-hungry colonials. As a result, these tribes
fought with the British or took advantage of the situation and acted against the colonists on their
own. Patriots viewed the Indians as a threat throughout the war. The patriots' use of the term
savages for the Native Americans gives a good indication of their overall attitude toward most
tribes.
For some African Americans, the Revolution meant freedom. Because so much of the
fighting in the last years of the war took place in the South, many slaves escaped to British lines.
The British, hoping to weaken the American war effort, emancipated and evacuated thousands of
ex-slaves. A few African Americans also won their freedom by fighting in the Continental Army
despite the prejudices of patriot leaders. (This attitude changed somewhat during the course of
the war.) For the vast majority of African Americans, however, the liberties touted by the
American Revolution remained more promise than reality.
Women's lives were also profoundly affected by the Revolutionary War. Women whose
husbands and other male relatives went to war had to assume many of their responsibilities,
whether it be the farm or small business. Since Continental Army soldiers were typically drawn
from the lower ranks of society, many women did not have farms and businesses to fall back on.
Cities throughout the United States witnessed growing populations of impoverished women.
Many women did not stay at home when their husbands went off to war. These women flocked
to the army camps to join male relatives. There they helped maintain army morale while doing
traditional women's chores--cooking, laundry, nursing, and so forth.
In many respects, the Revolutionary War was a civil war. First, most of the land war was
fought on United States' soil. Second, somewhere between 20 and 30 percent of the population
retained their loyalty to the crown. In some places, the loyalists actively opposed the patriots--
through propaganda, spying, military service with the British, and sometimes insurrectionary
activities. Loyalist propaganda continually planted seeds of dissention within the wider
population. Patriots continuously perceived loyalist threats on the home front and actively
worked to quiet the loyalists, arrest them, and confiscate their property.
Because the Continental Congress was unable to levy taxes to pay for the war, it relied on
the printing press to issue nearly $250 million in paper money (the so-called Continental). The
paper money was backed only by the good faith of the Congress; because of dislocations in trade
and manufacturing, there was too much money competing for too few goods. The result was
uncontrolled inflation. In early 1780, the Congress confessed that its money was worthless
(something the people had known long before as evidenced in their popular saying "not worth a
Continental").
Revolutionary War: Groping Toward Peace, 1781-1783
The year 1781 was momentous for the American Revolution. The beginning of the year,
arguably, witnessed perhaps the low point of American morale during the Revolution. "The
people are discontented," George Washington wrote to John Laurens in early 1781, "but it is with
the feeble and oppressive mode of conducting the war, not with the war itself." Indeed,
Washington now believed that it was critical for the United States and its French allies to achieve
a significant military victory in 1781 or all might be lost because of the state of American public
opinion.
Even so, Washington could not have foreseen the events that eventually unfolded during
the year, nor could he appreciate their significance as they occurred. Indeed, most of the year
continued to be characterized by inactivity of the French and most of the Continental Armies.
Only when the brilliant strategic activities of General Nathaneal Greene in North Carolina forced
British General Cornwallis to march into Virginia did an opportunity open for Washington to
achieve the military victory he had hoped for at the start of the year. In Virginia, on the
Yorktown peninsula, Cornwallis found himself cornered by the combined forces of Washington's
Continental Army and the French army and French fleet. These forces began seige operations
against the British troops isolated at Yorktown. On October 17, 1781, Cornwallis sought terms of
surrender.
It is important to understand that the significance of the British surrender at Yorktown
could not be fully appreciated by contemporaries. Washington called Yorktown "an important
victory" and "a glorious event," but he, like his compatriots, could not know what the British
response would be to Cornwallis' surrender. Washington, the Continental Congress, and leaders
in the states could only muddle along, waiting for events to unfold. In fact, Washington worried
that the victory at Yorktown might diminish Americans' continued commitment to the war. For
nearly the next two years, Washington would continue his efforts to keep the Continental Army
intact, ready to fight if that became necessary.
Meanwhile, peace talks between British and American diplomats got underway in Paris in
May 1782 and continued into the fall. In September, the American negotiators (John Jay, John
Adams, and Benjamin Franklin) discovered that the French foreign minister had sent his
secretary on a secret trip to London. Now convinced of French duplicity, Jay, Adams, and
Franklin let the British know that they were willing to negotiate unilaterally--that is, without
French interference. After two months of difficult negotiations, the British and American
diplomats signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace on November 30, 1782.
Until a definitive peace treaty was signed, the United States was still technically at war.
British and French fleets continued to fight on the high seas and in the Caribbean, but no land
actions took place on the North American continent. The focus of the patriots was on keeping the
Continental Army intact, in case the peace talks broke down. At this point, the greatest danger to
the Revolution was the officers of the Continental Army. Nearly fed up with Congress' inaction
regarding their pay (among many other issues), officers encamped at Newburgh, New York, sent
a declaration to Congress concerning the pay issue. This was a serious threat; Washington
diffused the threat by his personal prestige and by continuing to lobby Congress on behalf of his
officers.
