Exercisers’ Experience of Belongingness, Personal Growth, and Mental Health Benefits in a Virtual Exercise Program

Exercisers’ Experience of Belongingness, Personal Growth, and Mental Health

Benefits in a Virtual Exercise Program

Human beings have a deep-seated need to belong. As social organisms, human experience

is defined and contrasted through relationships with others. From birth, the mind generates a

cognitive framework regarding the structure of the world based on meaning defined through

language, culture, and social experience (Gergen, 2010). As cultural beings, individuals rely on a

more advanced method of being social that depends on communication, information exchange,

and a division of labor, all of which hinge on interactive social groups (Baumeister et al., 2007).

Forming group cooperation has increased survival and cultural advancement dating back to

prehistoric human ancestors (Allen, 2021). As a result, the motivation to connect and secure

group membership drives human behavior and interests, an impulse believed to reside in the

genetic code itself (Allen, 2021; Walton et al., 2012). Empirical evidence supports the influence

social connection has on various domains of human behavior, including cognitive processes,

stress levels, intelligence quotient (IQ) performance, mental health outcomes, emotional patterns,

and adjustment (Allen, 2021; Bailey & McLaren, 2005; Baumeister & Leary,

1995; Baumeister et al., 2002). When connection feels secure, individual performance improves

(Baumeister et al., 2002). Yet when social bonds feel threatened, even stable performance

measures, such as IQ, diminish noticeably (Baumeister et al., 2002).

Belongingness is so essential to psychological well-being that loneliness, the perception

of lacking interpersonal relationships, correlates with adverse mental health outcomes and

chronic health conditions (Cacioppo et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2017; Donovan et al., 2017;

Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017). Prolonged experiences of loneliness predict health and well-being with

the same intensity as risky behaviors such as smoking and can reliably predict premature death

(Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008). In a 2018 national survey, half of the American respondents

indicated they felt no one knew them well (54%), they sometimes or always felt alone (46%),

and they regularly felt left out (47%; Bruce et al., 2019). When age was assessed (age groups

1825, 26-34, 35-64, 65+), younger generations scored higher on loneliness and perceptions of

solitude despite having the most consistent access to technology and natural peer groups. Many

have raised concerns that the benefits of genuine human contact are overlooked in a world that is

increasingly more reliant and immersed in digital technology (Hunt et al., 2018). Research

indicates loneliness is more prevalent in communities and within age groups with the highest

social media usage (Pittman & Reich, 2016). Calls to assess the connection between technology

and the growing social isolation epidemic within modern society have intensified (Shulze, 2019).

Too much Internet, screen-time, and social media usage are commonly blamed (Yayan et al.,

2019).

Yet not all technology usage brings about adverse mental health outcomes. Recently,

athome virtual exercise companies, exemplified by Peloton, the largest interactive fitness

platform in the world, have gained the attention of health experts and psychologists because of

the potential to enhance positive experiences of community and togetherness (Peloton

Interactive, 2023; Rutledge, 2021). Featuring virtual live and on-demand exercise classes

integrated into athome fitness equipment with performance-tracking technology, companies like

Peloton advertise a personalized exercise experience with a community feel (Peloton Interactive,

2022).

Enthusiastic posts on message boards and social media threads (i.e., Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, Reddit) about Peloton’s classes and instructors signal the possibility of a more

profound psychological appeal beyond working out.

The word “belonging” conjures up thoughts and feelings of being accepted, understood,

and embraced by others. Exercising alone on a stationary bike would not be among the top-ofthe-

mind images for this concept. Yet, that is precisely where so many Peloton members find

community. While the platform’s technology, progress monitoring, and personal feedback boosts

sensations of autonomy and competence, fitness instructors play a vital role in facilitating the

necessary feelings of social connection (Hamari et al., 2014; Peloton Interactive, 2023).

Instructors build rapport with virtual attendees through challenging workouts, enabling guidance,

positive appraisal, and “sharing” in the exercise struggle (Bond, 2016; Cohen et al., 2019;

FazliSalehi et al., 2022). This shared struggle often fosters parasocial interactions, which can

lead to parasocial relationships. Parasocial interaction is a one-sided, imaginary exchange

between the viewer and a media personality (Brown, 2015). By speaking straight to the camera,

making virtual eye contact, addressing the viewer directly, sharing stories and opinions as if with

a friend, and connecting through social media, the instructor breaks down barriers to provide an

intimate peer-based experience (Sokolova & Perez, 2021). Over time, a false sense of intimacy

develops into a parasocial relationship, leaving the viewer perceiving a unilateral “friendship”

with the media personae (Bond, 2016). Li et al. (2023) highlighted the importance of social

interaction and exercise, finding that parasocial relationships between a fitness media personality

and the exerciser increase motivation and return behavior while enhancing enjoyment and a

sense of fellowship.

Feeling a sense of belonging is a complex, multifaceted construct representing a unique

mental health state (Hagerty et al., 1996). Anant (1967) defined belongingness as “personal

involvement (in a social system) to the extent that the person feels himself to be an indispensable

and integral part of the system” (p.1137). Such a description emphasizes the affective and

evaluative perspective rather than an objective emotional state. Hence, belonging and loneliness

subjectively rely on an individual’s assessment of their feelings rather than the actual number of

people or groups surrounding them (Allen, 2021).

One method used to assess the positive socio-relational emotion of human connection is

with kama muta, occurring when emotions behind a communal relationship are triggered.

Coupling the emotional experience of social contact with a physical response leaves the

individual with physiological sensations of a positive, warm feeling (Fiske, 2019). Translated

from Sanskrit as “moved by love,” kama muta captures the moment when an intense social

connection sparks a feeling of being touched, moved, or warmed (Zickfeld et al., 2020). This

sudden uprising of physiological sensations blends with powerful emotions expressing

goosebumps, shivers, or tears (Fiske, 2019). Moving into this emotional-physiological state

enhances a sense of community connection that evokes relationship-building and communal

sharing, often associated with trust, unity, and kindness (Steinnes et al., 2019; Zickfeld et al.,

2020). The defining features of kama muta include physiological expressions such as a warm

feeling in the chest, positive valence, vernacular categorization related to physical movement

(i.e., heart-warming), evaluating the sudden manifestation of a communal sharing relationship,

and motivation to strengthen and enhance the social bond associated with the emotion (Blomster

Lyshol et al., 2020). Experiencing kama muta reflects sensations of social belonging and feelings

of group bonding.

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted social convention by creating an environment driven

by fear of the pathogen, exacerbating feelings of loneliness (Ausín et al., 2022; Chtourou et al.,

2020). With everyday activities suddenly shrouded in potential danger and risk, individuals were

forced to rethink how they met their daily needs. Physical activity and social interactions were

substantially limited by public policy to curb the spread of the contagious virus. Mitigating

efforts came in the form of quarantine, lockdown, self-isolation, and social distancing measures,

leaving individuals with heightened stress, anxiety, depression, and poor mental health (Chtourou

et al., 2020; Gupta et al., 2021). Research has established a positive relationship between

physical exercise and psychological functioning, but COVID-19 restrictions closed or limited

access to gyms and fitness facilities, making physical activity harder to obtain (Ai et al., 2021;

Bird et al., 2021; Faulkner & Biddle, 2001; Faulkner et al., 2021). Inspired by social distancing

policies, more people sought interactive media workout programs to satisfy their exercise needs

traditionally fulfilled through gym and fitness center membership. At-home fitness companies

such as Peloton experienced a 172% increase in equipment sales during the pandemic and over

one million new subscription sales. Their class attendance numbers doubled as people found

alternative ways to work out (Valinsky, 2020).

Despite heightened stress and trauma during the COVID-19 health crisis, social media

expressions regarding the mental health benefits of the Peloton experience demonstrated the

possible presence of psychological growth. Challenging ordeals provide opportunities for

transformation, especially if established cognitive structures shift or are torn down in the wake of

the problematic event (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Regardless of how uncomfortable or painful

the experience may be, facing adversity can be a meaningful moment in a person's life, making

way for positive change (Naor & Mayseless, 2020). Transformational occurrences often lead to

long-lasting changes to structural and functional aspects of the mind, shifting views, emotions,

identity, and self-images (Metzner, 1994; Naor & Mayseless, 2020). weiss and Calhoun (2004)

focused on posttraumatic growth, noting that many people emerge from a psychologically

challenging event with greater personal strength, well-being, and purpose. In the aftermath of a

traumatic experience, research supports the importance of social support to help aid personal

growth, possibly explaining why expressions of such an evolution were shared within the

Peloton community during COVID-19 (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2009; Schroevers et al., 2010).

Understanding the psychological drivers that motivate exercise-related behaviors has

substantial societal value, considering the benefits of combating disease and improving mental

health outcomes. While the shift from in-person physical fitness to at-home exercise regimes

followed logically with the reality of the pandemic, the explosion of enthusiasm and testaments

of improved mental health by Peloton consumers during a time of heightened stress signaled

something deeper psychologically was at work. Something powerfully motivated many users to

exercise and share their experiences enthusiastically. Message boards and social media posts

declaring, “Peloton has been so good for my mental health” and “the pandemic has triggered our

anxiety…thank you for being my companion” became commonplace (Gold, 2021). Among the

online chatter, the intense emotional response, commitment, and feelings of community users

expressed caused some to describe their fervor as cult-like (Scott, 2019).

Self-determination theory provides a practical framework to assess motivation and

behavior, mainly when applied to physical activity (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007b). Framed

through the influence of three basic needs — autonomy, competence, and relatedness — the

human tendency toward inherent growth and well-being is the basis for self-motivation and goal

integration (Ryan & Deci, 2000). An individual’s movement toward an intrinsic goal both

energizes and satisfies deep psychological needs necessary for wellbeing (Ryan et al., 2009). As a

macro-theory, self-determination theory comprises six theoretical approaches, divided into three

categories contributing to human motivation and behavior. The cognitive evaluation subtheory

shows how self-determined motivation can be supported or hampered through environmental or

contextual events (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007a). When applied to physical activity, people

are motivated both intrinsically for the pleasure of the action and extrinsically due to external

forces such as pressure, reward, or control. Research indicates that while intrinsically motivated

activities are experienced as fun, they are interpreted as challenging, engaging, and pleasurable

(Frederick et al., 1996). The social environment impacts intrinsic motivation by influencing the

experience of autonomy and competence (Ryan et al., 2009). If a coach, teammate, or parent

praises and validates the individual, the authentication of the self sustains motivation by

bolstering the intrinsic inclination. However, if the individual experiences criticism or control,

undermined feelings of competence and autonomy extinguish further engagement in the activity

(Ryan et al., 2009).

The organismic integration subtheory outlines how external, non-self-determined

behaviors can become incorporated and performed for self-determined reasons. While there is an

element of extrinsic motivation in both exercise and sports, exercise tends to rely more on

extrinsic motivation based on the nature of the activity (Frederick et al., 1996). While sports

entice engagement because of their game-like qualities, exercise is pursued to improve features

like health, strength, or attractiveness. Organismic integration theory posits that motivation exists

on an intrinsic-extrinsic continuum with differing increments determined by the level of

internalization and integration the individual has undergone (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As an

evolutionary feature of socialization, people tend to internalize and integrate values and

behaviors essential to their social groups and culture, even if they don’t find them authentic

(Ryan et al., 2009.) The organismic integration continuum allows a clearer understanding of an

individual's process to incorporate external familial, societal, and cultural values into their own.

Germane to the health and wellness sphere of influence, the basic psychological needs

subtheory provides a framework for understanding innate human motivations (Ryan & Deci,

2000). It suggests individuals pursue goals that meet their competence, autonomy, and social

connection requirements to foster optimal functioning. Strong growth-oriented internal drivers

push individuals to engage in activities that satisfy these three essential needs. Fulfilling these

requirements provides the nutrients for psychological well-being and positive growth (Deci &

Ryan, 2000).

While all three fundamental needs are necessary for well-being, autonomy and

competence have received the most empirical attention when applied to the fitness domain

(Teixeira et al., 2012). Little research has addressed how social connection impacts

exerciserelated behaviors and motivations, especially when using immersive media technologies.

This study examines the motivational relationship group belongingness has on perceptions of

personal growth and well-being when applied to a digital technology format. Aspects of kama

muta and parasocial interactions are used to assess perceptions of belongingness, posttraumatic

growth, and evaluations of mental health (Fiske, 2019; Gabriel et al., 2020; Kama Muta Lab,

2021; Schramm & Hartmann, 2008; Tedeschi et al., 2017).

General Research Questions

Using the key assumptions outlined above, the questions guiding this research are

1. How do experiences of kama muta predict participants' parasocial experiences?

2. Do parasocial experiences enhance psychological growth?

3. What is the relationship between psychological growth and perceived mental health

benefits?

4. How do perceptions of belongingness to Peloton's immersive media exercise

community relate to perceptions of psychological growth?

5. How do sensations of belongingness and parasocial relationships relate to the

perception of psychological growth?

There are several significant aspects of this study. First, it advances research in an area

significantly overlooked. Most research on fitness motivation looks at autonomy and

competence from Ryan and Deci’s (2000) three basic needs. Very little exists in looking at how

the social aspect of exercise can play an essential role in motivating healthy behaviors. Of that

small collection, no research explores the ability of perceptions of community and belongingness

to motivate within an immersive, digital format. Second, the modern world has increasingly

become reliant on digital media. In this context, looking into the psychological fundamentals of

social connection while using immersive technology is essential. Based on positive psychology

principles, assessing what diminishes and optimizes human flourishing is equally vital (Gable &

Haidt, 2005). A significant level of attention goes toward dissecting the harm technology causes,

while a limited focus is given to that which enhances wellness and mental health. This study

aims to establish a benchmark for immersive technology that maximizes positive outputs. Third,

with a loneliness epidemic emerging among technologically advanced populations,

understanding the psychological benefits driving perceptions of psychological growth and

improved mental health using available formats, such as Peloton, can assist professionals in the

clinical space and individuals seeking solutions.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

In 1938, the Harvard Study of Adult Development commenced a longitudinal scientific

endeavor to understand human health by following 724 original participants for 80+ years and

1,300 of their decedents (Waldinger & Schulz, 2023). The researchers wanted to know not what

contributed to illness but what made individuals thrive. Eighty-four years (and counting) of

questions and measurements have tracked individuals from childhood till the end of life, all to

discover what factors play a role in health and happiness. While exercise, careers, and a healthy

diet play a part in longevity, good relationships significantly influence overall happiness and

well-being. At the same time, it fosters a sense of belonging (Waldinger & Schulz, 2023).

Belongingness

Belongingness is the pervasive human drive to form and maintain lasting, positive

interpersonal relationships that are accepting, supportive, and congruent with the self (Walton et

al., 2012; Moynihan et al., 2017; Levett‐Jones & Lathlean, 2009). It is a compelling motivator

that seeps into almost every aspect of human behavior (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Maslow's

hierarchy of needs and Bowlby's attachment theory emphasize developing and sustaining

relationships (Lester, 2013; Bretherton, 1992). According to Maslow, of the five most basic needs

in order of importance, the need for belongingness emerged third once the physiological and

safety conditions were satisfied (Lester, 2013). Bowlby uncovered the need for a steady, intimate

relationship with a loving care provider to foster optimal psychological and physiological

development (Bretherton, 1992). Perhaps the starkest example of the need for a warm connection

with others comes from Harlow's experiments with rhesus monkeys and cloth and wire-

constructed "mothers" (Harlow, 1958). In his landmark study, newborn rhesus monkeys were

isolated from all social contact, left only with a harsh wire surrogate "mother" that held a bottle

of milk and a terry cloth-covered mother with no food. Given a choice, the baby monkeys

overwhelmingly clutched to the cloth mother, indicating the greater need for affection and

connection over nutritional sustenance (Harlow, 1958).

Like Harlow's monkeys, most human energy and effort is spent on activities related to

pursuing and strengthening social bonding in some shape or form (Harlow, 1958). In their

seminal work on belongingness, Baumeister and Leary (1995) argued that people are motivated

by a fundamental need for social connection through positive interpersonal relationships and

group membership. This psychological propensity for social connection is a universal motivation

in all cultures (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Thompson & McRae, 2001). The bond one shares

with a significant friend, spouse, or family member is crucial (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). An

individual can have contact with thousands of people and still not feel a sense of belonging. It is

the meaningful interactions with valued others that satisfy the belongingness need. There are two

parts necessary for optimal sensations of belonging. Individuals need frequent contact with

warm, friendly, supportive others, and those bonds must take place within a long-term, stable,

caring framework (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). When satisfied, humans develop a pattern of

positive affect, behavior that promotes interpersonal relationships, and goal-directed mannerisms

that support future belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Thompson & McRae, 2001).

Impact of Belonging

Human connection is fundamental to physical and mental health (Cruwys et al., 2013;

Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Hagerty et al., 1992; Hamre & Pianta, 2005). Empirical evidence

supports the impact of social connection on diverse domains of human functioning, including

cognitive processes, stress levels, intelligence quotient (IQ) performance, mental health

outcomes, emotional patterns, and adjustment (Baumeister et al., 2002; Baumeister & Leary,

1995). By framing belongingness as a need, the concept indicates that the absence of that

requirement would lead to harmful, undesirable, and dysfunctional outcomes (Leary, 2005).

"Need" denotes something essential for functioning, while “wants” are desired preferences

(Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). When wants go unsatisfied, negative

affect and temporary distress emerge, yet when psychological needs are thwarted, pathological

consequences can arise, including anxiety, depression, and poor health (Hagerty et al., 1996).

Lower perceptions of social connection consistently are associated with pathology, including

loneliness, anxiety, depression, psychiatric events, and suicide ideation (Baumeister & Leary,

1995; Chang et al., 2017; Hagerty et al., 1996; Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017). Belongingness is such a

powerful force within the human spirit that the sensation of being lonely has been shown to

predict early death as accurately as significant health-risk behaviors such as smoking, high blood

pressure, and lack of exercise (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; House et al., 1988).

Loneliness is a subjective experience that emerges when an individual's desired and

actual social connections are incongruent, triggering an internal warning system of pain

(Cacioppo et al., 2015). In a study with 42 children between the ages of 8 and 10, researchers

found that 80% felt lonely sometimes at school despite being surrounded by peers (Berguno et

al., 2004). Sixty-eight percent of those students reported being bullied, with lonely children more

likely to be victims. Teacher interventions were reported to be ineffective in ending the

victimization of the child by peers. The combination of loneliness, having experienced bullying,

and ineffective teacher interventions contributed to a child’s prolonged sense of isolation

(Berguno et al., 2004). When perceived isolation becomes chronic, sensations of loneliness set

off a cascade of catastrophic physiological events that can have dangerous consequences that

accelerate the aging process, alter behavior, cognitive processing, and sleep, as well as elevate

stress hormones, causing cardiovascular mishaps and amping up immune responses (Cacioppo et

al., 2015; Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008). Given time, the physiological changes and elevated stress

response prematurely wears the body down. In a meta-analytic review of 70 independent studies

with 3,407,134 participants, sensations of social isolation correlated with an increased likelihood

of mortality, regardless of objective or subjective measurement (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015). When

multivariates were controlled for, the risk of death increased by 26% with loneliness, 29% with

social isolation, and 32% with living alone (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015).

Physical pain is an internal alarm that tells an individual that physical danger is present

and that further bodily injury or even death is possible (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Eisenberger et

al., 2003). Similarly, social pain, known as loneliness, alerts the individual of injury to a valued

social connection, signaling restorative action may be required to avoid social isolation

(Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008). Hawkley and Cacioppo (2010) posit that loneliness is "the social

equivalent to physical pain, hunger, and thirst" since they all motivate an organism to seek the

missing need (p. 218). Several fMRI studies found that the brain uses the same neural network

for physical and social pain (Eisenberger et al., 2003). The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

functions as a neural conflict alarm system, firing when an automatic response returns with

disturbing feedback (i.e., pain). In an fMRI study of seven mothers, the ACC consistently

activated when the sounds of infant cries were played, dramatically differing from the white

noise control sound (Lorberbaum et al., 1999). Eisenburger et al. (2003) scanned participants

playing "Cyberball," an online game designed to study social rejection, and found that increased

distress from social exclusion correlated with activation of the ACC (Eisenberger et al., 2003;

Williams et al., 2000). Examples of this experiential link through phrases like "hurt feelings,"

“heart-broken," or "crushed" can be found in multiple common language expressions

highlighting its universality (Eisenberger et al., 2003).

Evolution of Belonging

The need for human connection with others can be traced back to prehistoric ancestors

that relied on group membership for survival. These early humans were members of social

groups for millions, potentially tens of millions of years, with generations of natural selection

developing and encoding social needs into the human genetic makeup (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992;

Pierce & White, 1999). As natural selection favored those individuals that gravitated toward

group belonging and cooperative behavior, psychological mechanisms developed that monitored

and responded to cues of possible rejection. The psychological structures that pass from

generation to generation through genetic code are not behavioral determinants but information-

processing programs initiated through environmental cues (Pierce & White, 1999). Human

behavior results from the relation between the psychologically encoded mechanisms and which

environmental triggers cause them to activate.

Emotions act as a biological guide to promote actions that support survival and dissuade

behavior that threatens it. One example of this dynamic is the sociometer theory, a concept that

self-esteem is an "internal, subjective gauge of interpersonal acceptance, rejection," and

relational value to others (Leary, 2005, p.82). High self-esteem brings a positive affect leading

the person to replicate behaviors that enhance the feeling. Modern technology and lifestyle allow

individuals to generate positive feelings artificially through television, Internet usage, drugs, and

alcohol. Throughout human history, however, pleasure-producing activities included eating,

safety, sex, and other fundamental experiences. Leary (2005) posits that positive emotion evolved

to act as a navigation system to enhance actions that increased chances of survival.

Examining the connection between self-esteem, acceptance, and rejection, Leary's team found

that the approval of others increased self-esteem while rejection negatively impacted it (Leary,

2005). With group membership playing a fundamental role in well-being, evolution designed an

internal system affected by how others view an individual (Leary, 2005).

Group Belonging

Deep satisfaction comes from being bound to another through marriage and friendship,

belonging to a moral community of shared norms and values, as well as being part of "an

emergent social organism" that one can lose themselves momentarily within (Baumeister &

Leary, 1995; Eckersley & Dear, 2002; Haidt et al., 2008; Waldinger & Schulz, 2023). As

previously discussed, people need warm relationships that ground and connect them to others

(Myers, 2000). Beyond the intimate circle of family and friends, connection to a broader

community of like-minded individuals that share fundamental values and provide guidance for

behavior support and life satisfaction plays a vital role in human flourishing (Haidt et al., 2008).

Durkheim pioneered a study on suicide and posited that rates of suicide in European countries

had an inverse relationship with the level of social group integration (Eckersley & Dear, 2002).

Large families, being active in religious communities, and even living in a country at war all

diminished suicide rates. Durkheim suggested that while freedom is a good state of existence, too

much freedom removes the norms and social rules that give individuals direction and attachment

(Eckersley & Dear, 2002). Religion reorients focus from inward on the self to externally on God

and each other, helping anchor an individual to a social cohort (Haidt et al., 2008).

One way humans bond with each other is through the enjoyment of synchronous

collective activities such as dancing, rhythm, cheerleading, yoga, or cycling classes (Haidt et al.,

2008). It is postulated that such unified behavior was cultivated among early human ancestors,

which increased human connection and increased chances of survival (McNeill, 1997).

Synchronous action is linked to increased prosocial behavior, liking, and trust (Tarr et al., 2018).

The hive hypothesis suggests humans can impede their happiness when consumed with the self,

requiring them to merge with a synchronous "social organism" of others to accomplish true

human flourishing (Haidt et al., 2008). This experience allows individuals to let go of their

selfconsciousness and isolation while joining something bigger than themselves (Haidt et al.,

2008). Chartrand and Bargh (1999) found that behavior matching, or mimicry, was associated

with increased participant liking and rapport. Research suggests that not only does this aid in

learning, but also enhances the perception of group cohesion and belonging (Chartrand &

Bargh,1999; Lakin & Chartrand, 2003).

The need for social connection and group formation sits at the cellular level of the human

brain. When one person moves in a given way, an observer’s brain reacts as if performing the

same behavior, facilitating the synchronization of behaviors (Haidt et al., 2008). Mirror neurons

are specialty neurons that fire when perceiving the action of another, just as if the brain was

rehearsing or performing the activity itself (Iacoboni, 2009). These neurons form a neurological

network that enhances social and emotional intelligence among group individuals (Schermer,

2010). The human brain contains more mirror neurons than other primates, possibly

demonstrated by the extent of group cooperation and developed culture (Haidt et al., 2008;

Schermer, 2010). While singing in a choir, playing a group sport, marching with others, or riding

in a spin class, experiencing group cohesion can energize, blur the boundaries of self-awareness,

increase the flow among participants, and enhance social connection (McNeill, 1997). In a study

of 55 cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy who participated in a group exercise program,

group cohesion improved quality of life indicators, including increased social and emotional

functioning and mental health (Midtgaard et al., 2006). Patients endorsed group belonging as a

decisive effect on their social identity (Midtgaard et al., 2006). Furthermore, the neurological

pathway of mirror neurons transcends fundamental theories of belonging (Bowlby, 1982;

Maslow & Lewis, 1987) with a more interactive, holistic approach utilizing similarity

recognition and mirroring that allows for response comparison, imitation, and mutual learning

(Schermer, 2010).

Benefits of Exercise

Like feelings of belonging, exercise can orient an individual toward positive growth and

improved mental well-being. It is a purposeful physical activity that involves an elevated level of

exertion and organized movement that differentiates from competitive organized sports

(Rutledge, 2001). It provides both a physiological and psychological barrier to adverse mental

health effects. Physical activity has been shown to increase endorphins and hormones that make

individuals happier, more optimistic, relaxed, and healthier (Ai et al., 2021). From a

psychological perspective, exercise can improve mental health outcomes by building up

selfefficacy, reorienting one's locus of control, and enhancing feelings of connection among

fitness communities (Bailey & McLaren, 2005; Hystad & Carpiano, 2012).

Several physiological mechanisms support positive physical and psychological outcomes

with exposure to regular aerobic exercise. In addition to the well-established decrease in chronic

illness and mortality, physical fitness has been linked to improvements in mental disorders such

as depression and anxiety, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, as well

as in memory and cognition (Anderson & Shivakumar, 2013; Ai et al., 2021; Stubbs et al., 2017;

Deslandes et al., 2009). The endorphin hypothesis suggests that aerobic exercise activates the

endogenous opioid system and is essential in improving endurance and reducing pain (Dishman

& O'Connor, 2009). Often experienced as the "runner's high" and the "post-exercise calm,"

opioid-mediated effects enhance immunity, memory, learning, and hormone secretion. The

interplay between endogenous opioids and other neurotransmitter systems has been identified as

a source of mood regulation. Empirical evidence suggests that dopamine signaling influences

euphoric states, and brain opioids modulate the brain mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system

(Dishman & O'Connor, 2009). The DA system actively regulates hedonics and motivation

suggesting a role in mood, emotional response, and behavior regulation when activated through

exercise.

In concert with the physiological benefits of aerobic physical activity on mental health,

cognitive mechanisms play a role in bolstering and enhancing the positive effects. Research has

found that self-image or self-schemata representing a generalized perception of oneself

influences how individuals process information (Thomas et al., 2016; Horowitz, 1991). Schemata

shape behavior through the filtration and categorization of self-belief and learning mechanisms,

influencing how one conceives of themself (Thomas et al., 2016). In a study of undergraduate

students, participants with exercise schemas were leaner and more physically fit than those

without (Thomas et al., 2016). Self-esteem draws from the self-image to develop a personal

assessment of the value of one's abilities and competencies (Yigiter, 2014). Sports researchers

suggest exercise increases positive self-evaluation (Yigiter, 2014; Waldron, 2009). Research on

120 women enrolled in a regular exercise program for 12 weeks found the exercise group

increased self-esteem and decreased hopelessness compared to the matched control group

(Yigiter, 2014). Exercise offers frequent exposure to challenging and moderated stress,

enhancing sensations of mastery and efficacy beliefs (Martin Ginis et al., 2003).

Like self-esteem, Bandura (2001) emphasized the importance of self-efficacy, the belief

in one's ability to enact behaviors necessary to attain specific performance results. According to

social cognitive theory, the greater the self-efficacy, the more an individual believes obstacles,

impediments, and challenges can be overcome. Self-efficacy falls on a spectrum of levels of

locus of control, reflecting how much ownership one's behavior has on one's life (Cobb-Clark et

al., 2014). Individuals that believe events that happen to them result from their actions are said to

have an internal locus of control. In contrast, those who think those events result from external

forces (i.e., luck or other people's actions) hold an external locus of control. Cobb-Clark et al.

(2014) examined how locus of control impacted exercise decision-making in a sample of 13,969

participants. They found that individuals with an internal control orientation made better

nutritional decisions, ate healthier, and exercised regularly than those with external control

tendencies (Cobb-Clark et al., 2014).

Impact of COVID-19 on Exercise and Well-Being

The COVID-19 pandemic obstructed conventional human interaction because of the

uncertainty and threat of an invisible, deadly contagion. Infectious diseases have occurred

periodically throughout history, but due to globalization, an interconnected world facilitated the

expedient transmission of pathological agents (Ornell et al., 2020). As countries began feeling the

effects of the rapidly spreading epidemic, government agents responded with mandatory

lockdowns and social isolation measures. Yet, even if for the greater good, prior research links

mandatory quarantines with heightened post-traumatic stress symptom levels (Wu et al., 2009).

In a study of 549 hospital employees during the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

outbreak in China, experiencing disease containment measures not only enhanced immediate

post-traumatic stress symptomatology, but effects were found 3 years later (Wu et al., 2009).

Social isolation creates a deleterious impact on human beings as people are not built to separate

from others for extended periods (Bhatti & Haq, 2017; Cacioppo et al., 2015; Pietrabissa &

Simpson, 2020). While often taken for granted, human connection is essential to everyday life.

When removed, prolonged experiences of isolation can impact health and well-being as

powerfully as smoking, high blood pressure, and obesity (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008).

Exercise was one of the many regular activities impeded by the pandemic social isolation

measures. In one study of 150 adults, over 40% engaged in less overall physical activity, while

over 70% diminished their exercise level or did not exercise at all during the pandemic (Bailey et

al., 2021). Robinson et al. (2021) assessed obesity, eating behavior, and physical activity during

the lockdowns and found that of their 2002 participants (N=2002), as the individual body mass

index (BMI) increased, physical activity levels and diet quality decreased compared to

prepandemic behavior. In a survey of 221 participants conducted simultaneously, the top three

reported activities during COVID-19 were watching television or streaming services, using social

media, and walking (Gupta et al., 2021).

The pandemic negatively impacted mental health, with rises in the prevalence of anxiety

(16.3%), depression (19.4%), and general distress (37.7%; Gupta et al., 2021). While quarantines

and social isolation restrict physical activity to limit the contagion's spread, regular exercise

boosts immunity while reducing chronic disease and physical disability (Ranasinghe et al., 2020;

Warburton, 2006). Individuals that participated in physical activity during the pandemic scored

significantly lower on depression, anxiety, and psychological distress compared to those who did

not engage in physical activity (Gupta et al., 2021).

Ai et al. (2021) conducted a meta-analysis on exercise and mental health research

published between 2019-2021. They made three observations: exercise increases happiness and

improves mental health; it reduces anxiety, sadness, and depression; and physical fitness

maintenance and growth correlate with the intensity and frequency of the exercise (Ai et al.,

2021). Physical activity offers a valuable method to overcome mental health disruption in a

pandemic environment where psychological distress is elevated (i.e., anxiety, stress, depression,

and sleep disruption (Chtourou et al., 2020). In a nationwide study designed to identify

COVID19 impacts on the mental health of U.K. medical students, researchers found that the

students that exercised had a significantly higher well-being score than those that did not exercise

(Coyle et al., 2021).

Self-Determination Theory

Physical activity has increasingly been recognized as an effective method to minimize the

risk of disease and improve mental health (Bray & Kwan, 2006; Fox, 1999; Peluso & De

Andrade, 2005). Many aspire to increase their exercise to manage health issues, lose weight, lift

their mood, feel more energetic, and sleep better (Mayo Clinic, 2019). Yet long-term habit

change can be challenging, especially because modern life is busy, full of commitments,

demanding jobs, active families, little time to go to the gym, and overall, is more sedentary.

Motivation is crucial in forming lasting changes in exercise behavior (Teixeira et al., 2012). In a

meta-analysis of 66 empirical studies on the dynamics of exercise and self-determined action,

Teixeira et al. (2012) concluded that self-determination theory provided an appropriate

framework for understanding the psychological drivers behind exercise motivation.

Self-determination theory (SDT) offers a unique theoretical perspective regarding the

distinct types of motivation that generate human behavior and personality development (Ryan &

Deci, 2017). For life to flourish, an organism requires appropriate nutrients and support to grow

(Botros et al., 2016). SDT utilizes the same viewpoint to examine how biological, cultural, and

social conditions facilitate or hinder psychological growth and wellness (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Meeting three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness provides the

foundation for individuals to thrive (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Much like the physiological needs for

nutrients, shelter, and freedom from harm, the presence or lack of these three psychological

needs dictates whether life declines or prospers (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Motivation defines the force behind action, giving individuals energy, persistence, and

direction, even in virtual exercise settings (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Despite innate drives to move

and grow, many individuals struggle to find the motivation to initiate and maintain

exerciserelated behaviors. Based on the principles of SDT, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

explain the difference in activity engagement and energy. Human nature is intrinsically inclined

to engage in play, competition, and self-challenge. People can apply enormous resources to

leisure activities yet often drag themselves through externally rewarded tasks, such as those

associated with a job or school (Ryan & Deci, 2017). An individual might struggle to find the

vigor to get through the workday yet spend hours eagerly practicing tennis or golf after work.

Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something based on the enjoyment and satisfaction of the

behavior, allowing for the experience of challenge and the opportunity to exercise one's skills

(Ryan & Deci, 2000). An innate desire for optimal development and functional integrity drives

human behavior, growth, and pathology. From the moment of birth onward, people develop

intrinsic patterns of behavior that engage and immerse them in learning and mastery of their

inner and outer world experiences (Ryan & Deci, 2017). In contrast, extrinsic motivation

describes acting for external reasons, such as a tangible reward or an intangible outcome, like

praise or fame (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

As individuals age, new responsibilities and social pressures often require an engagement

that is not intrinsically exciting or enjoyable. SDT focuses on assessing the conditions that evoke

and sustain or diminish and eliminate behaviors by differentiating types of motivation along a

continuum from autonomous to controlled (Ryan & Deci, 2017). When independent inspiration

emerges from within an individual, the activity is experienced as an expression of the self.

External forces that motivate actions are often accompanied by feelings of incongruency with the

self (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Controlled motivation can help regulate short-term behavior but

frequently fails to sustain a long-term effort. Research suggests that when individuals enjoy their

exercise activity, they are more likely to persist at it (Jekauc, 2015; Richard et al., 1997). The

more intrinsically motivated individuals are, the more they autonomously move toward

challenges and experiences (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

At times, individuals engage in beneficial but not intrinsically exciting behaviors. The

organismic integration theory, one of the SDT subtheories, suggests individuals undergo

internalization, adapting external values, beliefs, and behavior regulation to their own (Hagger &

Chatzisarantis, 2008). The degree to which an individual values an activity determines whether

the behavior becomes internalized and incorporated into the person's sense of self (Deci & Ryan,

2000). Internalization allows an individual to turn extrinsic behaviors into an ensconced facet of

the mind (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2008).

There are several reasons the link between social connection and motivation is essential.

First, self-determination theory posits that the social context facilitating accomplishing the three

basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness enhances autonomous functioning (Ryan

& Deci, 2017). This dynamic leads to identifying and internalizing external activities as valuable,

motivating an individual to act more intrinsically. Second, developmental research proposes that

individuals as young as 18 months demonstrate awareness of other people's goals and the desire

to join them in their activities (Meltzoff, 1995). Young children actively seek cooperative games

and try to reengage an adult who drops out of the interaction (Warneken et al., 2006). These

responses suggest an inborn drive to find common ground and establish a connection with others

(Tomasello et al., 2005).

The third link between motivation and belonging can be seen in empirical studies on

motivation in the educational environment. Students who experience a social connection to peers

and instructors demonstrate increased motivation in academic tasks (Tice et al., 2021; Furrer &

Skinner, 2003; Van Ryzin et al., 2009; Hamre & Pianta, 2005). In an Australian study of higher

education (n = 280,301), when social isolation peaked during the COVID pandemic, students'

learning engagement declined by 27%. Assessment of first-year students’ sense of belonging

within their school environment dropped in unison with learning engagement (Tice et al., 2021).

Researchers suggested belongingness and learning engagement are tightly linked (Tice et al.,

2021). Levett-Jones and Lathlean (2009) found that, besides safety and security, belongingness is

vital to nursing students' success and ascent to practical competence. Ensuring students meet

essential needs through safety, security, and social connection frees their cognitive load to engage

in the learning environment.

The fourth link between belongingness and motivation comes from research on threats to

social connection. Baumeister et al. (2002) demonstrated that when people were told they would

be socially isolated in life, they experienced a decline in cognitive performance. In a study of 40

participants, when individuals felt a threat to their group inclusion, the assessment of life's

meaning decreased, and feelings of futility increased (Zhang et al., 2019; Stillman & Baumeister,

2009). Hamre and Pianta (2005) studied how teacher instructional and emotional support

impacted children at risk for school failure (n = 910). Participants were grouped based on their

various levels of risk, both functional (attention skills, externalized behaviors, social skills, and

academic competence) and demographic (parental education). The high-risk students in

classrooms with high emotional support from the teacher could raise their achievement scores

and match or exceed their low-risk peers (Hamre & Pianta, 2005). Walton and Cohen (2011)

found that interventions designed to strengthen first-year college students' sense of belonging

increased grade point averages, especially among Black students. The researchers suggested that

when students feel a sensation of belonging, their motivational response and achievement

positively increase (Walton & Cohen, 2011).

Similarly, Walton et al. (2012) found the effects of social connection on beliefs and

behaviors, even among unfamiliar others, to be powerful. Findings suggested motivation and

achievement were increased by enhancing an individual's perception of belongingness to a

group. In a four-experiment study of Canadian and American undergraduate students,

participants were led to believe they had a small link or connection to another person in the

group, such as a shared birthday or shared preferences. The trivial cue of social connectedness

caused significant shifts in the participants' motivation in the shared task (Walton et al., 2012).

Literature supports the idea that physical activities with other individuals increase the perception

of belongingness (Bailey & McLaren, 2005). When individuals gathered for a group activity,

even if they were unfamiliar with anyone in the gathering, small perceptions of social connection

appeared to enhance their motivation and feeling of group belonging while working together

toward a shared goal (Walton et al., 2012).

Parasocial Relationships and Interactions

Neuroscience research indicates that the human brain cannot discriminate between real

experiences and those moderated through media, explaining why the feeling of connection and

engagement with a celebrity feels authentic (Restak, 1991). The interpersonal sensation

experienced by an individual when viewing a media performer is what Horton and Wohl (1956)

introduced as a parasocial interaction. These intimate reactions to a media personality feel "real"

even though the two-sided experience is an illusion. While the individual understands the

onesided dynamic, the brain still processes the interaction as if it were happening (Ilicic &

Brennan, 2020; Restak, 1991). The neural infrastructure that processes social relationships also

processes mediated relationships, suggesting a psychological similarity between real and

parasocial situations (Tukachinsky et al., 2020). Repetitive exposure to parasocial interactions

can develop into socio-emotional bonds, often called parasocial relationships (Dibble et al.,

2016).

When the COVID-19 pandemic compelled whole societies to participate in social

distancing measures, interpersonal communication moved to the digital space. Video

conferencing platforms experienced an increase in downloads in March of 2020 (Zoom 1,330%,

Houseparty 1,072%, and GoogleMeet 2,746%), with Zoom growing from 783,000 downloads to

11.2 million in just one month (Meisenzahl, 2020). While social communication with friends and

family became a digital experience, individuals also increased their entertainment consumption

through screens (Bond, 2022). In a 4-wave panel survey with 166 participants during the

pandemic, Bond (2022) found parasocial relationships increased as the cognitive distinctions

between genuine friends and enjoyed media personalities blurred. The more survey participants

communicated with friends online, the more their parasocial interactions increased (Bond, 2022).

Interpersonal cognitive processing is automatically initiated when specific addressing

cues are given, such as direct verbal statements, physical orientation, and eye gazing (Beege et

al., 2017). Both the visual presentation (bodily addressing) and the auditory involvement (verbal

addressing) enormously enhance parasocial interaction (Beege et al., 2017; Hartmann &

Goldhoorn, 2011). In a study with 198 participants, Hartmann and Goldhoorn (2011) found that

when a performer acknowledged the audience and spoke to the camera in a conversational,

informal manner, the psychosocial mechanisms of the audience members responded as if a real

social encounter occurred. In addition, frontal orientation has been found to increase perceptions

of addressing, leading to enhanced feelings of connection (Beege et al., 2017).

The eyes are a powerful communication tool that both gives and receives information.

Not only do eyes alert an onlooker to the quality and direction of an individual's attention,

receptiveness, and gaze, but they also provide a similar channel of information back (Canigueral

& Hamilton, 2019; Frischen et al., 2007; Leekam et al., 1997). Kampe, et al. (2001)

demonstrated that brain activity linked to reward (in the ventral striatum) increased incrementally

as more attractive targets focused their eye gaze on the viewer. Eye gazing is essential in

initiating interpersonal means such as mindreading, an intuitive assumption of another's

thoughts, feelings, or beliefs (Hartmann & Goldhoorn, 2011). Mind reading, or theory of mind, is

an automatic process that underlies all social encounters and may help establish a sense of

friendship with a media personality (Hartmann & Goldhoorn, 2011). Ilicic and Brennan (2020)

studied eye gazing with three online experiments. They found that direct eye gaze strengthened

the participants' sensation of self-celebrity connection and celebrity authenticity (Ilicic &

Brennan, 2020).

In a mediated environment, producers of entertainment content communicate authenticity

to an audience with strategic demonstrations of imperfection (Lee et al., 2020), ordinariness

(Phua & Tinkham, 2016), and social presence (Enli, 2015). Another way a media performer

strengthens the bond of a parasocial relationship is through self-disclosure, revealing personal

information to another, and enhancing the intimacy of the relationship. Ferchaud et al. (2018) not

only confirmed that self-disclosure positively correlated with elevated levels of authenticity, but

personal disclosure could be positive, neutral, or negative without impacting the reception of the

message. When exposed to a parasocial interaction, if the media personae addressed the audience

through open body gestures and self-disclosed something personal, participants in two

randomized experiments felt it was more authentic, increasing their likelihood to agree and

accept the message (Nah, 2022).

The sense of being with another person is what psychologists refer to as social presence

(Biocca et al., 2003). While initially intended to capture the sensation of physical presence,

advances in technology and media formats have altered how social presence is conceived. When

an individual consumes certain types of media and has a sensory awareness of another person,

even if that person is through a screen, the mechanisms of the brain are triggered to infer the state

of the other (Biocca et al., 2003). This dynamic gives the viewer a sense of presence, even if no

one else is nearby.

Interactive fitness companies can foster parasocial interactions and relationships through

programming techniques and mechanisms to enhance the feeling of community among

instructors and users. Programming is designed to encourage repeat use (Reeves & Nass, 1996).

Technology-enhanced exercise companies, such as Peloton and NordicTrack, allow individuals

to attend immersive media exercise classes in real-time and on-demand with other fitnessfocused

individuals of varying skill levels (Peloton Interactive, 2023). By providing a rich, interactive

environment that simulates in-person events, these exercise companies can transport users into a

supportive yet virtual fitness group (Abad-Santos, 2020; Escalas, 2004; Green & Brock, 2000).

Leaderboards and social features of the technology platform can reinforce the notion of

community. Class formats, camera angles, and instructor presentations have been shown to create

the sensation of being present with others, even if an individual is working out on their own.

Media-integrated fitness programming can tap into innate desires for belonging by

fostering parasocial relationships among users. Production values and techniques, such as camera

angles and casual, intimate, and engaging instructor presentations, can influence the sense of

presence and enhance the feeling of community (Hartmann & Goldhoorn, 2011). Media fitness

instructors foster parasocial relationship development by addressing the user directly in class,

looking directly at the camera, sharing personal details, and encouraging viewers to reach out to

them on social media. Wulf et al. (2021) found that directly speaking to viewers and interacting

with their feedback on chat sites enhanced feelings of parasocial interaction, relationship, and

enjoyment.

Kama Muta

Social connection can sometimes evoke sensations of being moved or feeling touched

(Fiske, 2019). Kama muta, Sanskrit for "moved by love," is the emotion used to describe this

phenomenon and captures the link between the emotional and physiological responses, often

experienced as a positive, warm feeling (Blomster Lyshol et al., 2020). While only lasting a

minute, the emotional response occurs when a "communal sharing relationship (CSR) suddenly

intensifies" (Fiske, 2017, p. 74) and acts as a motivational force to enhance commitment and

attachment to the newly energized relationship (Fiske, 2019). The most basic and essential form

of social interconnection emerges as communal sharing relationships, where each individual feels

equivalent and interconnected and experiences mutual trust and caring. The burst of kama muta

emotion generates the feeling of unity and group identity, affective attachment, and moral

connection, playing a vital part in creating or maintaining communal sharing relationships (Fiske,

2019).

Derived from the relational model theory that posits four ways human relationships are

represented (communal sharing, authority ranking, equality matching, and market pricing), kama

muta is focused on collaborative sharing (Blomster Lyshol et al., 2020; Haslam & Fiske, 1999).

Humans organize and coordinate their social interactions using these four models, which are not

exclusive and often overlap. Communal sharing is classified as "collective belonging and

solidarity" (Haslam & Fiske, 1999, p.242). This group or dyadic social relationship shares a

mutual trust and feeling of unity that blend the individual into a unified entity (Steinnes, 2017).

In general, each member feels responsible for the well-being of the others and often shares

similar values, goals, and purposes. As feelings of collective sharing emerge, kama muta's

emotion sparks an internal movement that creates, renews, or restores a communal sharing

relationship (Fiske, 2019).

Kama muta is not only characterized as a positive sensation but is often sought out once

experienced (Zickfeld et al., 2020). Alan Fiske developed the 24-item inventory that measures

the kama muta experience called the KAMMUS Two (Zickfeld et al., 2019). The emotion is

measured by evaluating appraisal (sudden intensification of communal sharing), sensations

(moist eyes, goosebumps), positive and negative valence, labels, and motivations (wanting to hug

someone, do something nice for someone, tell someone how much you care about them) that

enhance collaborative sharing (Zickfeld et al., 2019). On the surface, kama muta assesses similar

constructs to Haidt's (2000) construct of elevation and Maslow's peak experience. While the

moments contributing to kama muta, peak experience, and elevation share self-transcendence

and appreciation for "humanity's higher or better nature," kama muta is a positive surge of love,

kindness, connection, cooperation, and sharing (Fiske, 2019).

Positive Growth

Challenges to perceptions of safety and security among the greater community left people

shaken (Puccinelli et al., 2021). The Centers for Disease Control’s Morbidity and Mortality

Weekly report indicated that from August 2020 to February 2021, anxiety and depressive

disorders increased from 36.4% to 41.5%, and the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) grew from 21.9% to 30.2% (Cénat et al., 2021; Janiri et al., 2021). Yet, the social media

content surrounding Peloton's "mental health benefits" suggests the presence of positive growth

in a time of heightened stress and trauma during the COVID-19 pandemic. Challenges and

traumas often open the window for positive growth, especially when an opportunity to cast off an

old cognitive framework and rebuild a new personal narrative presents itself (Hefferon et al.,

2008; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Despite the pain of the event, confronting adversity can bring

meaning to a person's life, making way for positive transformation (Naor & Mayseless, 2020).

Tedeschi and Calhoun (2007) described post-traumatic growth (PTG) as the positive change that

occurs in the aftermath of trauma or hardship that elevates the individual's functioning higher

than before. Changes typically are transformational and shift views on the self, relationships, and

the individual's philosophy of life (Tedeschi et al., 2018). Compelling narratives in many myths,

books, and movies illustrate the positive growth transformation after trauma and challenge (Bray,

2018; Weiss, 2014). Overcoming struggle fosters psychological growth, increased self-efficacy

regarding external ability, self-actualization, and an internal sense of fulfillment (Sheldon et al.,

2002; Ryff & Singer, 2006).

Three models help elucidate the details of PTG: the functional descriptive model

(Tedeschi et al., 2018), the meaning making model (Park, 2010), and the affective-cognitive

processing model (Joseph et al., 2012). Each construct highlights how stressful events disrupt an

individual's core beliefs regarding the self and the world and how the two interact (Joseph et al.,

2012; Park, 2010; Tedeschi et al., 2018). The discrepancy between the pre- and post-traumatic

worldview triggers the affective-cognitive processing system to break down and rebuild the

individual's cognitive framework and core beliefs to make meaning from the event (Joseph et al.,

2012; Park, 2010). The cognitive-affective processing must either distort trauma-related

information or modify core beliefs to resolve the chasm between the old and new worldviews

(Joseph et al., 2012; Park, 2010; Tedeschi et al., 2018). The positive growth that emerges from

altering core beliefs comes in an extreme shift in one's experience that triggers life-long changes

in one's orientation to oneself, others, and the world (Naor & Mayseless, 2020). According to

Maslow (1969), as personal growth occurs within the individual, transformation gradually

replaces old concepts, thoughts, attitudes, and behavior with new long-term ones. As a person

gradually orients toward positive, more adaptive behavior in psychotherapy, they are

experiencing positive transformation. While positive growth relies on past experiences to

motivate change, personal transformation is the inspiration to create something new (Naor &

Mayseless, 2020). Positive growth after a trauma or challenge often leads to long-lasting changes

to structural and functional aspects of the mind, shifting views, emotions, identity, and selfimages

(Metzner, 1994; Naor & Mayseless, 2020).

Several scales measure personal growth. The Growth Motivation Index (Bauer et al.,

2015) and the Personal Growth Initiative (Robitschek, 1998) are examples. The Growth

Motivation Index taps into the motivations that foster eudemonic growth in an individual (Bauer

et al., 2015), while the Personal Growth Initiative assesses the thoughts and actions as personal

growth emerges rather than on the motivations of development (Robitschek, 1998). The

dominant approach to measuring growth has been based on positive change from dealing with

traumatic events (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Linley & Joseph, 2004; Peterson et al., 2008). The

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) developed by Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) identifies

five growth domains following a stressful event. Taku et al. (2008) used factor analysis to test

five Post-traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) models to reconcile the differences among the

various measures. Results indicated that measuring positive growth through five factors (relating

to others, personal strength, new possibilities, spiritual change, and appreciation of life) is

multidimensional and can be scored individually or as a total sum (Taku et al., 2008).

Few events have the magnitude to drastically change the attitudes, values, and behaviors

of an entire population, let alone alter how one accomplishes daily life events such as work and

exercise activities. Yet, the COVID-19 pandemic shifted how people oriented themselves in

relation to others and the world around them, turning working from home into a common

occurrence. When gyms and fitness facilities were forced to shut their doors to accommodate

mandatory social distancing temporarily, people had to reconsider how they accomplished their

fitness activity. While seismic events can significantly threaten and frighten individuals, they

have the power to cause old cognitive structures to crumble and build more robust, healthier

versions (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). COVID-19 offered a rare insight into how populations

cope with social isolation and heightened stress. The experiment executed by Mother Nature

applied fear and trauma to socially secluded populations to see how individuals fared. While

most people showed signs of distress (anxiety and depressive disorders up from 36.4% to 41.5%

and the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] up 21.9% to 30.2%), some

communities demonstrated the possibility of resilience and positive growth (Cénat et al., 2021;

Janiri et al., 2021).

Statement of the Problem

Most research on fitness motivation looks at autonomy and competence, two of the three

basic need variables from Ryan and Deci’s (2000) self-determination theory. Very little exists in

looking at how the social aspect of exercise can play an essential role in motivating healthy

behaviors and improving mental health. Of that small collection linking exercise with

relatedness, no study applies those principles to an immersive, digital format. The literature has a

large gap considering digital technology is becoming increasingly prevalent in society. COVID19

highlighted the importance of digital platforms to connect people when distance or quarantine

measures keep people apart. Baumeister and Leary (1995) emphasize the fundamental nature of

the social connection that, when thwarted, leads to ill effects. Numerous studies document how

devastating loneliness, the absence of belongingness, can be physically and psychologically

(Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Cacioppo et al., 2010; Donovan et al., 2017; Leigh-Hunt et al.,

2017). With the prevalence of loneliness steadily increasing, understanding the impact positive

media can have on a population during a stressful event, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, has

the potential to aid in combating feelings of isolation.

Widespread COVID-related social isolation raised the question of how immersive media

fitness equipment might succeed in fulfilling the primary needs for belongingness and wellbeing

set out by SDT. Many scholars have assessed the need for exercise-related behavior focusing on

autonomy and competence as frames of inquiry (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ednie & Stibor, 2016;

Texiera et al., 2012; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2007b). With the need to belong innate in most

behavior, this study will examine the relationship between social connection and personal growth

within immersive media exercise-related behavior. Kama muta captures the emotional response

when a “communal sharing relationship” suddenly intensifies (Fiske et al., 2017, p. 74). The

most basic and essential form of social interconnection begins as communal sharing relationships

where individuals develop a sense of belonging to a group. Many valued, personal associations

emerge from communal sharing relationships, becoming intimate bonds with significant others.

Within the immersive mediated exercise sphere, parasocial relationships represent the social

connections developed with favorite instructors or coaches. As these one-way personal

relationships grow, a feeling of connection and belongingness grows (Beege et al., 2017).

Leaning on self-determination theory, as the need for relatedness is satisfied alongside autonomy

and competence, conditions facilitate psychological growth and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Based upon the empirical argument detailed in the literature review, framed in positive

psychology theories of self-determination theory, belongingness, and positive growth, the

research questions and hypotheses are operationalized for this study as follows:

RQ1: How does kama muta (appraisal and motivation) predict perceived parasocial

relationships?

H1a = Kama muta (appraisal) positively predicts perceived parasocial

relationships.

H1b = Kama muta (motivation) positively predicts perceived parasocial

relationships.

RQ2: How do parasocial relationships influence psychological growth (PTGI – new

possibilities and personal strength)?

H2a = Parasocial relationships positively predict psychological growth

(PTGI – new possibilities).

H2b = Parasocial relationships positively predict psychological growth

(PTGI – personal strength).

RQ3: What is the relationship between psychological growth (PTGI) and perceived

mental health benefits?

H3a = Psychological growth (PTGI – new possibilities) positively predicts

perceived mental health benefits.

H3b = Psychological growth (PTGI – personal strength) positively predicts

perceived mental health benefits.

RQ4: How do perceptions of belongingness to Peloton's immersive media

exercise community relate to perceptions of psychological growth?

H4a = Belongingness positively predicts psychological growth (PTGI – new

possibilities).

H4b = Belongingness positively predicts psychological growth (PTGI –personal

strength).

RQ5: How do perceptions of belongingness, together with parasocial relationships,

improve the explanatory power of perceptions of psychological growth?

H5a = Belongingness and parasocial relationships predict psychological growth

(PTGI – new possibilities).

H5b = Belongingness and parasocial relationships predict psychological growth

(PTGI – personal strengths).

Figure 1

Model of the Relationship Between Belongingness, Personal Growth, and Mental Health

SOCIAL

CONNECTION

PERSONAL

GROWTH

MENTAL

HEALTH

BENEFITS

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Research Design Description

This study extended an analysis of the Peloton experience using an existing dataset.

Initially collected in November 2021 through Prolific Academic, the study used an online survey

hosted on Survey Monkey with full IRB approval (Rutledge et al., pending).

Participants

Participants in the dataset were 18 years of age or over and active users of a Peloton bike

or Peloton digital access membership with a different brand stationary bike. Only Peloton

members were recruited to ensure that responses were based on their media-integrated

experience rather than brand variation. All data were deidentified. Based on the average time,

participants recruited from Prolific Academic were paid $0.21 per minute, equaling

approximately $1.47 for the 7-minute survey.

An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power version 3.1.9.7 to determine

the minimum sample size required to test the hypotheses using multiple regression analysis (Faul

et al., 2007). Results indicated the needed sample size to achieve 80% power for detecting a

medium effect, at a significance criterion of α = .05, was N = 50 for linear multiple regression.

Thus, the sample size of N = 289 is adequate to test the study hypothesis.

Data were available from 318 respondents. The data screening and cleaning process

eliminated 29 respondents that failed to finish the survey. The remaining sample included 289

responses, with 102 females and 186 males, ages 18 to 64 years old. The IRB approval for this

use of the data is in Appendix A.

Measures

Participants were asked to answer some basic questions about Peloton use (length,

frequency, and whether they joined during COVID). These were followed by a series of

questions to measure motivation based on SDT, a Parasocial Relationship Scale, a visual measure

of belongingness, and demographic questions. At the end of the Parasocial Relationship Scale,

participants were given a filter question asking, “Which description best classified their Peloton

experience? An emotional connection or A Change in my life.” If they selected “an emotional

connection,” they were diverted to the four subscales of the KAMMUS2, which measures the

physical and emotional experience of ‘being moved.’ If they selected “a change in my life,” they

were diverted to measures of participants' perceptions of growth using three of the five

dimensions of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory adapted to the Peloton experience. The

dimensions capture self-efficacy, openness to new ideas, and personal growth through cognitive

reappraisal. All participants were also asked if they perceived Peloton as “important for their

mental health.” See Table 1 for the flow of questions. The complete survey is available in

Appendix B.

Table 1

Survey Questions

Questions Scale

1-3 Screener Questions

4-6 General Questions about Peloton Use

7 COVID-19

8,9 Peloton Usage Questions

10-13 Motivation Questions

14 Pandemic and Mental Health Questions

15 Parasocial Relationship Priming

16-17 Parasocial Relationships

18 Open-Ended Question

19 PTGI & Kama Muta Filter Question

20-22 Kama Muta

23 Belongingness

24-34 Demographics

35 Posttraumatic Growth (PTGI)

36 Belongingness

37-47 Demographics

Data were collected for quantitative analysis using empirically validated inventories

assessing the psychological components of the research questions and hypotheses. The measures

used were the Parasocial Relationship Scale (PSR; Claessens & Van den Bulck, 2015),

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi et al., 2017), and the Belongingness Scale

(Gabriel et al., 2020). A question on perceptions of mental health was also incorporated in

assessing the hypotheses.

The following are summaries of the six empirically validated psychological measures

used to address this study's research questions. The survey included questions about Peloton use,

motivational attributes, and demographic information. The wording for demographic questions

was adapted from APA best practices for gender, sexual orientation, and race. All questions were

optional. All measures used Likert scales based on a 1 to 5 scale for consistency and to avoid

undue cognitive load on participants.

Motivations

The researchers developed this measure to translate the structural affordances of the

Peloton cycling experience into categories reflecting SDT constructs and hedonic/eudemonic

experience: Hedonic pleasure, Autonomy/Intrinsic/Eudemonic motivations,

Competence/Efficacy, and Social Connectedness (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Questions 10 through 13

addressed motivations in the survey.

Parasocial Relationship Scale (PSR)

Scholars have argued that parasocial interactions and parasocial relationships measure the

same concept, a short-term or long-term social bond with a mediated other (Dibble et al., 2016;

Hartmann, 2020). The parasocial experience was measured by using the classic Rubin and Perse

(1987) 10-item Parasocial Interaction Scale, adapted to measure the social connection with

instructors. It draws from Horton and Wohl's (1956) research on parasocial interaction and is

internally consistent and unidimensional (Rubin et al., 1985). Based on the analysis and despite

the name, the Parasocial Interaction Scale (Rubin & Perse, 1987) more accurately measures long-

term social bonds or parasocial relationships.

The survey additionally replicates part of a scale Claessens and Van den Bulck (2015)

used to measure participants' parasocial relationships toward instructors. The scale combines

items that reflect the relational aspect of the parasocial experience from existing scales. It draws

from the Auter and Palmgreen (2000) Audience-Persona Interaction (API) scale, the Bocarnea

and Brown (2007) Celebrity-Persona Parasocial Interaction scale, the Hartmann et al. (2008)

Positive PSR scale, the McCutcheon et al. (2002) Celebrity Worship scale, the Rubin and Perse

(1987) PSI scale, and the Hartmann and Goldhoorn (2011) experience of parasocial interaction

inventory. Relational items were selected that compare the celebrity to a friend, investigate

empathy, express the wish to learn about and meet the famed individual, and comment on the

celebrity's attractiveness. Additional items were included to capture similarities to close social

relationships, such as family and friends (Adams & Blieszner, 1994) and interaction on social

media (e.g., Baym, 2015). The result was a 12-item scale investigating long-term connections

applied to all celebrity types. A 5-item Likert scale was used with options ranging from Strongly

Disagree to Agree Strongly. It is scored by calculating the mean. Questions 16 and 17 assessed

parasocial relationships. The Cronbach alpha measure for the adapted scale was .88.

KAMMUS Two

The KAMMUS Two measures kama muta, the experience of being moved that reflects

the physical experience of belonging to a community. This measure consists of four subscales for

a 21-item evaluation (Kama Muta Lab, 2021). A 5-item Likert scale was used with options

ranging from Not at All to A Lot. The scale has been validated across several countries and 15

languages (Zickfeld et al., 2018). If the participant indicated that an emotional connection best

classified their experience with Peloton, they were routed to the KAMMUS Two Scale.

Belongingness

This single-item measure of belongingness visually represents the feeling of being

surrounded by a community or team (Gabriel et al., 2020). In each of the pictures below,

participants were instructed to imagine themselves as the green dot in the center and select the

image that best represented how they felt about their connection to the Peloton community.

Figure 2

Single-Item Belongingness Measure

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) (Adapted)

The PTGI is one of the few measures that assess self-perceptions of growth and

transformation after an event. It does not explicitly address trauma or crisis. Instead, it evaluates

areas of personal growth based on five dimensions: New Possibilities, Relating to Others,

Personal Strength, Spiritual Change, and Appreciation of Life. It was adapted to frame the

Peloton experience as the perceived source of change. A 5-item Likert scale was used with

options ranging from I did not experience this change because of my Peloton use to I

experienced this change to a very great degree as a result of my Peloton use (Tedeschi &

Calhoun, 2004; Tedeschi et al., 2017). Three of the five scales were included here: New

Possibilities, Personal Strength, and Appreciation of Life, as they were deemed the best able to

capture growth from virtual exercise experience. The PTGI is scored by calculating the mean of

each dimension individually or in aggregate. Participants that felt their Peloton experience was

best classified as a change in their life were routed to the adapted three of five PTGI Scales.

Perceptions of Mental Health

The perceptions of Peloton’s importance to participants’ mental health were measured

with Question 14 on a 5-point Likert scale.

Background and Demographic Information

At the end of the study, participants were asked various demographic questions based on

current APA best practices for inclusion and diversity. These questions for demographic and

background information were all researcher-generated measures informed by best practices from

the American Psychological Association (Appelbaum et al., 2018) and U.S. Census Bureau 2020

Census results (U.S. Census Bureau, 2021) demography classifications. Demographic questions

included age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, educational background, employment

status, household income, marital status, and the presence of children. Additional background

questions inquired about Peloton membership and app feature usage, top-five Peloton cycling

instructors, and perceptions of Peloton use during COVID and in the future.

Data Analysis

The data were transported into SPSS for analysis. After reviewing frequencies and

descriptions of the variables and correlations to determine the strength and direction of the

relationships among the variables, the hypotheses were examined using regression analysis.

Simple linear regression was run on hypotheses 1-4. Hypothesis 5 and some additional data

exploration required multiple regression. The PTGI and KAMMUS Two subscales cannot be

aggregated; therefore, each subscale is treated as a separate variable. Additionally, since survey

respondents self-selected into either the PTGI or the KAMMUS Two measure by indicating

whether their Peloton experience was best classified as “an emotional connection” or “a change

in my life,” the two measures could not be run together.

Table 2

Hypotheses, Associated Variables, Measures, and Analysis Used

Kama Muta

H1a: Kama Muta (Appraisal) positively

predicts perceived Parasocial Relationships

KMA

PSR

Predictor

Outcome

Appraisal

Parasocial

Relationship

Simple

Linear

Regression

H1b: Kama Muta (Motivation) positively

predicts perceived Parasocial Relationships

KMM

PSR

Predictor

Outcome

Kama Muta

Motivation

Parasocial

Simple

Linear

Regression

Relationship

H2a: Parasocial Relationships positively

predicts psychological growth (PTGI –

New Possibilities)

PSR

PTGI-

Predictor

Outcome

Parasocial

Relationship

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory -

New Possibilities

Simple

Linear

Regression

H2b: Parasocial Relationships positively

predict psychological growth (PTGI –

Personal Strengths)

PSR

PTGI-PS

Predictor

Outcome

Parasocial

Relationship

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory –

Personal Strength

Simple

Linear

Regression

H3a: Psychological growth (New

Possibilities) positively predicts perceived

mental health benefits

PTGIN

MHQ

Predictor

Outcome

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory -

New Possibilities

Mental Health

Simple

Linear

Regression

Hypothesis Variable Type Measure Analysis

H3b: Psychological growth (Personal

Strength) positively predicts perceived

mental health benefits

PTGI-PS

MHQ

Predictor

Outcome

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory –

Personal Strength

Mental Health

Simple

Linear

Regression

H4a: Belongingness positively predicts

psychological growth (New Possibilities)

PTGI-

Predictor

Outcome

Belongingness

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory -

New Possibilities

Simple

Linear

Regression

H4b: Belongingness positively predicts

psychological growth (Personal Strength)

PTGI-PS

Predictor

Outcome

Belongingness

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory –

Personal Strength

Simple

Linear

Regression

BQ Predictor Belongingness

H5: Belongingness and Parasocial

Interactions predict psychological growth

(New Possibilities & Personal Strength)

PSI

PTGINP

Predictor

Outcome

Parasocial

Relationship

Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory -

New Possibilities &

Personal Strength

Multiple

Regression

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics of Participants

The de-identified data for this study were extracted from the Peloton Experience archival

data set, originally collected in November 2021. The extracted unused Prolific Academic sample

was entered into SPSS 27 for analysis. Recruited participants resided in the United States and the

United Kingdom, reflecting the Peloton brand footprint. Data were available from 318

respondents. The data screening and cleaning process eliminated 29 respondents that failed to

finish the survey. Participants that did not complete the survey ceased responding after the

openended section asking for their thoughts. For 28 respondents, their drop-off most likely

occurred because of survey fatigue despite the short 7-minute length. One respondent

experienced technical issues and decided not to reattempt the survey. The remaining sample

included 289 responses, with 102 females, 186 males, and one trans female, ages 18 to 64 years

old. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated for all the demographic variables to assess

participants' characteristics (Table 3). The sample included 289 individuals aged 18 to 64,

showing the participant mean age as 32.6 years. The sample skewed male (n = 186, 62.8%) and

White (n =

234, 79.1%)

Table 3

Participants’ Demographics (N = 289)

Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Age by Decade

Under 20 9 3.0%

20-29 years 116 39.2%

30-39 years 103 34.8%

40-49 years 38 12.8%

50-59 years 16 5.4%

60 and older 7 2.4%

Gender

Female 102 34.5%

Male 186 62.8%

Trans female 1 0.3%

Cross-tabulations were run to examine the intersectionality of participants. Results demonstrated

a normally distributed sample of race and gender (Table 4). While the sample's racial breakdown

did not fully reflect the population of the United States, with Black and Hispanic groups

underrepresented, it did reflect the population of the United Kingdom (79.1% White, 10.5%

Asian, 2.7% Black, 2.4% Hispanic, 3.0% Other; Office for National Statistics, 2022; U.S. Census

Bureau, 2021).

Table 4

Participant Race and Gender Cross-Tabulations

Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Female Male Trans

Race

White 234 79.1% 88 145 1

Black 8 2.7% 4 4 0

Hispanic/Latinx

Asian

Other

2.4% 2 5

10.5% 5

3.0% 2

Employment status and working from home were assessed to examine how the COVID-19

pandemic had impacted the sample (Table 5). Most participants were employed full-time (n =

199, 67.2%), while approximately half reported working from home (n = 146, 49.3%). Given the

reported affluence of Peloton members, 54.4% of participants reported an income higher than

$50,000.

Table 5

Participant Employment, Income, and Student Status Demographics

Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Employment Status

Full-time 199 67.2%

Part-time 28 9.5%

Not working 19 6.4%

Household Manager 9 3.0%

Student 7 2.4%

Other 27 9.1%

Working from Home

Yes 146 49.3%

No 143 48.3%

Household income

Under $49,999 125 42.2%

$50,000 to $99,999 151 51.0%

Over $100,000 10 3.4%

Prefer not to answer 3 1.0%

While being an active Peloton member was a requirement to participate in the survey, 86.1%

indicated they exercise with Peloton at least once a week, with 55.7% engaging several times per

week. Most of the sample exercised on the Peloton bike (66.2%), while some exercised on a

different brand bike but used the Peloton app (31.4%). The COVID-19 pandemic influenced the

participants' Peloton purchasing decisions (67.6%), with 74% of the sample starting their

membership within a year of the survey date. A large majority (87.1%) reported intentions to

continue using Peloton even after COVID-19 restrictions eased, with 53.4% indicating they felt

very connected to Peloton as a brand.

Preliminary Analysis

Descriptive statistics were examined for scores on Belongingness, Kama Muta (Appraisal

and Motivation), Parasocial Relationship, Posttraumatic Growth (New Possibilities and Personal

Strength), and Mental Health. Tests of normality, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity were

conducted to ensure normal distribution for all test scores. Histograms were created to evaluate

the normality of variable distributions. Box plots and scatterplots were used to assess the

presence of outliers. Measures of central tendency were collected to evaluate the distribution of

data. Scatterplots and Levene’s test were run to determine homoscedasticity, homogeneity, and

ensure linearity.

Histograms, box plots, and Q-Q plots all displayed normally distributed data. The mean

and range for all test scores fell within normal parameters for each measure, with no identified

outliers. The mean, median, and mode are all approximately the same, reinforcing testing data

demonstrating normal distribution (Newton & Rudestam, 2013). Skewness scores fell within -1

and 1, indicating normal distribution (see Table 6). Kurtosis also fell within normal ranges

indicating a normally distributed bell curve. While some kurtosis ranges are expressed as 3,

SPSS uses 0 to denote no excess kurtosis. Significance tests (i.e., Kolmogorov-Smirnov) were

calculated, and normality was confirmed. No transformations were needed, given all tests met

the parameters required for tests of normality.

Table 6

Descriptive Statistics

N M SD Range Skewness Kurtosis

Belongingness 289 2.9 1.075 4 0.158 -0.511

PTGI - New Possibilities 223 15.84 4.294 20 -0.465 -0.036

PTGI - Personal Strength 223 13.83 3.411 16 -0.906 0.645

KM2 Appraisal 66 12.65 3.298 16 -0.221 0.114

KM3 Motivation 66 10.62 3.699 16 0.225 -0.176

Mental Health 289 3.79 0.867 4 -0.888 1.123

Parasocial Relationships 289 40.62 7.439 48 -0.344 1.1

Covariate Analysis

Bivariate Pearson correlations were examined and can be found in Table 7. As a result of

the self-selected divergence within the survey, PTGI and Kama Muta (Appraisal and Motivation)

could not be correlated since respondents answered only one of the measures. Most of the

bivariate correlations had positive, significant p < .01 (2-tailed) associations (Table 7). The only

variable relationships that were not significant were Belongingness/ Kama Muta Appraisal and

Mental Health / Kama Muta Motivation. All relationship associations were positive, with most

ranging from moderate (.3) to strong (greater than .5), according to Cohen (1988). Only Kama

Muta Appraisal/ Belongingness, Mental Health/ Belongingness, Kama Muta Appraisal/

Belongingness, and Mental Health/ Kama Muta Motivation had weak associations (less than .3).

Table 7

Bivariate Correlations between Predictor Variables Using Pearson's Coefficients

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Belongingness ‐‐‐ .395** .421** 0.179 .405** .263** .383**

PTGI - New

Possibilities .395** ‐‐‐ .873** .b .b .538** .594**

PTGI - Personal Strength

.421** .873** ‐‐‐ .b .b .535** .592**

Kama Muta Appraisal 0.179 .b .b ‐‐‐ .554** .419** .563**

Kama Muta Motivation .405** .b .b .554** ‐‐‐ 0.19 .465**

Mental Health .263** .538** .535** .419** 0.19 ‐‐‐ .462**

Parasocial Relationships .383** .594** .592** .563** .465** .462** ‐‐‐

** Indicates p < .01 (2-tailed)

.b Cannot be computed because respondents answered only one of the measures

Primary Analysis

All hypotheses were structured to assess various relationships independently to

understand their influence better and then together for a clearer picture of the whole relationship.

The Relationship of Kama Muta and Parasocial Relationships (Hypothesis 1)

The first hypothesis establishes the foundation for the multiple measures, their

relationships, and directions within the study. The Kama Muta measure captured the general

emotional and physical sensation of belonging to a communal group, testing the atmosphere of

the experience for participants and how that influenced the relationship connection felt toward

the instructor (Fiske, 2019). Even though only 66 respondents self-filtered in the Kama Muta

section, their numbers (N = 66) fell well within the approved a priori power analysis conducted

using G*Power, requiring a minimum sample size of 44 to test the hypotheses (Faul et al., 2007).

Durbin-Watson Model Summary

Using simple linear regression, hypotheses 1a and 1b were each tested to ensure

independent residuals using the Durbin-Watson (D-W) test. This test helps detect if

autocorrelation is present in the residuals of a regression (Field, 2014). Multiple regression was

run combining Kama Muta Appraisal and Kama Muta Motivation. A D-W test was also

conducted. All three D-W tests were deemed healthy. The D-W test statistics vary from 0 to 4,

with a value of 2 signifying no correlation among residuals. Values between 0 and 2 indicate a

positive correlation, and values between 2 and 4 represent a negative correlation. Values less than

1 or greater than 3 are cause for concern. All three D-W tests were deemed healthy.

Table 8

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Kama Muta Appraisal & Motivation)

Parasocial Relationships

R R2 Adjusted R2

Std. Error of

the

Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Hypothesis 1a

Kama Muta Appraisal

.563a* .317 .306 6.515 1.993

Hypothesis 1b

Kama Muta Motivation

.465a*

.216

.204

6.98

1.916

Hypothesis 1 Combined

Kama Muta Appraisal & Motivation

.592a*

.351

.33

6.402

1.973

* Predictors: Kama Muta Appraisal 1a, Kama Muta Motivation 1b, Kama Muta Appraisal &

Motivation 1 Combined

H1a = Kama Muta (appraisal) positively predicts perceived Parasocial Relationships

H1a predicted that Kama Muta Appraisal would positively influence perceived Parasocial

Relationships. The simple linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test Kama

Muta Appraisal's predictive power on Parasocial Relationships was significant, F(1, 64) =

29.680, p = < .001, R2 = .317. There was a Durbin-Watson statistic of 1.993, indicating the

independence of residuals. Kama Muta Appraisal statistically explained 31.7% of the variance in

Parasocial Relationship, adding significantly to the prediction (p < 0.05) with an adjusted R2 =

30.6%, a medium effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, increased Kama Muta

Appraisal response was associated with a greater Parasocial Relationship. H1a was supported.

H1b = Kama Muta (motivation) positively predicts perceived Parasocial Relationship

H1b predicted that Kama Muta Motivation would positively influence perceived

Parasocial Relationships. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test

Kama Muta Motivation's predictive power on Parasocial Relationship was significant, F(1, 64) =

17.619, p = < .001, R2 = .216. There was a Durbin-Watson statistic of 1.916, indicating the

independence of residuals. Kama Muta added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05),

explaining 21.6% of the variance in Parasocial Relationships with an adjusted R2 = 20.4%, a

medium effect size according to Cohen (1988). Thus, increased Kama Muta Motivation response

was associated with greater Parasocial Relationships. H1b was supported.

H1Combined = Kama Muta (appraisal) and Kama Muta (Motivation) positively predicts perceived

Parasocial Relationships

Further analysis of the variables was deemed important based on the results of H1a and

H1b. Multiple regression with a 95% confidence interval combined Kama Muta Appraisal and

Kama Muta Motivation to determine if the predictive power would increase. The analysis was

significant, F(2, 63) = 17.000, p = < .001, R2 = .351. Kama Muta Appraisal and Motivation

combined added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 35.1% of the

variance in Parasocial Relationships with an adjusted R2 = 33%, a large effect size according to

Cohen (1988). There was a Durbin-Watson statistic of 1.973, indicating the independence of

residuals. Thus, an increase in the combined Kama Muta Appraisal and Motivation response was

associated with greater Parasocial Relationships.

Table 9

Linear and Multiple Regression Predicting Parasocial Relationships with Kama Muta Appraisal and

Motivation

Parasocial B 2

95% CI for B SE β β R R

Relationships

LL UL

.563a .317

Constant 25.143 18.746 31.539 3.202

Kama Muta Appraisal 1.335 0.845 1.824 .245 .563

.465 .216

Constant 31.597 26.344 36.851 2.63

Kama Muta Motivation .982 .515 1.45 .234 .465

.592 .33

Constant 23.856 17.41 30.303 3.226

Kama Muta Appraisal 1.045 .467 1.623 .289 .441

Kama Muta Motivation .466 -.049 0.981 .258 .22

Comparing the Predictive Power of Kama Muta with the Single-Item Belongingness Measure

Since Kama Muta (Zickfeld et al., 2018) and the single-item visual measure of

Belongingness (Gabriel et al., 2020) both tapped into feelings of communal connection, a simple

linear regression was run using Belongingness instead of Kama Muta to compare the predictive

power of the two measures. This comparison was done to establish a baseline of predictive

power between the measures. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to

test the Belongingness predictive power on Parasocial Relationship was significant, F(1, 287) =

49.249, p = < .001, R2 = .146. There was a Durbin-Watson statistic of 2.067, indicating the

independence of residuals. Belongingness added statistical significance to the prediction (p <

0.05), explaining 14.6% of the variance in Parasocial Relationships with an adjusted R2 = 14.3%,

a medium effect size according to Cohen (1988). Thus, an increase in Belongingness response

was associated with a greater Parasocial Relationship response. The difference between the

Kama Muta and Belongingness measures in predictive power is substantial. The reasons for the

difference will be addressed in the Discussion.

The Role of Parasocial Relationships and Psychological Growth (Hypothesis 2)

Hypothesis 2 assessed how Parasocial Relationships with Peloton Instructors predicted

psychological growth. Before the Parasocial Relationship (PSR) section in the survey, the

participant was primed with questions about their favorite instructor(s) and told to keep that

instructor in mind as they answered PSR questions. Psychological growth is assessed through

two Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) dimensions: New Possibilities and Personal

Strength.

Durbin-Watson Model Summary

The D-W test statistics for hypotheses 2a and 2b were close to 2, indicating that the

relationship between Parasocial Relationships and PTGI – New Possibilities and PTGI –

Personal Strength were independent and contained no autocorrelations.

Table 10

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Parasocial Relationships)

PTGI - New

Possibilitiesb

R R2

Adjusted

Std.

Error of

the

Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Hypothesis 2a

Parasocial Relationshipsa .594 .353

.35

3.462 2.189

a Predictors: (Constant), Parasocial

Relationships b Dependent Variable: New Possibilities

Table 11

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Parasocial Relationships)

PTGI - Personal

Strengthb

R R2

Adjusted

Std.

Error of

the

Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Hypothesis 2b

Parasocial Relationshipsa .592 .348

.348

2.755 2.069

a Predictors: (Constant), Parasocial

Relationships

b Dependent Variable: Posttraumatic Growth Inventory -Personal Strength

H2a = Parasocial Relationships (PSR) positively predicts psychological growth (PTGI – New

Possibilities)

H2a predicted that Parasocial Relationships would positively predict Psychological

Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval

to test the Parasocial Relationship predictive power on Psychological Growth (PTGI) New

Possibilities was significant, F(1, 221) = 120.529, p = < .001, R2 = .353. There was a

DurbinWatson statistic of 2.189, indicating the independence of residuals. Parasocial

Relationships added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 35.3% of the

variance in Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities with an adjusted R2 = 35 %, a large

effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, a more robust Parasocial Relationship response

was associated with greater Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities. H2a was supported.

Table 12

Linear Regression Predicting PTGI - New Possibilities with Parasocial Relationships

LL UL

.594 .353

Constant 1.772 -.795 4.339 1.302

Parasocial

Relationships .35 .287 .413 .032 .594

H2b = Parasocial Relationships positively predicts psychological growth (PTGI – Personal

Strength)

H2b predicted that Parasocial Relationships would positively predict Psychological

Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval

to test Parasocial Relationship predictive power on Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal

Strength was significant, F(1, 221) = 119.392, p = < .001, R2 = .351. The data met the

assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.069). Parasocial Relationships

added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 35.1% of the variance in

Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength with an adjusted R2 = 34.8 %, a large effect size

according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, a more robust Parasocial Relationship response with

Peloton Instructors was associated with greater Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength.

PTGI - New

Possibilities B % CI for B 95 SE β β R R 2

H2b was supported.

Table 13

Linear Regression Predicting PTGI - Personal Strength with Parasocial Relationships

LL UL

.592 .351

Constant 2.685 .643 4.728 1.036

Parasocial

Relationships .277 .227 .327 .025 .592

The Role of Psychological Growth and Mental Health (Hypothesis 3)

Hypothesis 3 was designed to test the dynamic between psychological growth and

perceived mental health. Both PTGI sections (New Possibilities and Personal Strength) were

initially assessed separately. Multiple regression was then run, combining PTGI New

Possibilities and Personal Strengths to see the combined association with Mental Health.

The Durbin-Watson Model Summary

The D-W test statistics for hypotheses 3a, 3b, and 3combined were all close to 2, indicating

that the relationships between PTGI – New Possibilities, PTGI – Personal Strength, and Mental

Health were independent and contained no autocorrelations.

PTGI – Personal

Strengths B % CI for B 95 SE β β R R 2

Table 14

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Posttraumatic Growth Inventory)

Std. Error

Mental Health Adjusted of the Durbin-

R R2 R2 Estimate Watson

Hypothesis 3a

PTGI – New Possibilities .538 .289 .286 .746 1.910

Hypothesis 3b

PTGI - Personal Strength .535 .286 .283 .747 1.895

Hypothesis 3 Combined

Kama Muta - New Possibilities &

Personal Strength .554 .307 .301 .738 1.911

a Predictors: (Constant), PTGI - New Possibilities, PTGI - Personal Strength b

Dependent Variable: Mental Health

H3a = Psychological growth (PTGI – New Possibilities) positively predicts perceived mental

health

H3a predicted that Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities would positively

predict perceived Mental Health. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval

to test Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities predictive power on perceived Mental

Health was significant, F(1, 221) = 89.847, p = < .001, R2 = .289. The data met the assumption of

independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 1.910). Psychological Growth (PTGI) New

Possibilities added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 28.9% of the

variance in perceived Mental Health with an adjusted R2 = 28.6 %, a large effect size according

to Cohen (1988). Therefore, more robust Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities was

associated with greater perceived Mental Health. H3a was supported.

H3b = Psychological growth (PTGI – Personal Strength) positively predicts perceived mental

health

H3b predicted that Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength would positively

predict perceived Mental Health. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval

to test Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength predictive power on perceived Mental

Health was significant, F(1, 221) = 89.847, p = < .001, R2 = .286. The data met the assumption of

independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 1.895). Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal

Strength added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 28.6% of the

variance in perceived Mental Health with an adjusted R2 = 28.3 %, a large effect size according

to Cohen (1988). Therefore, a more robust Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength was

associated with greater perceived Mental Health. H3b was supported.

H3Combined = Psychological growth (PTGI – New Possibilities & Personal Strength) positively

predicts perceived mental health

While not a formal hypothesis, an additional multiple regression analysis was run to

explore the predictive power Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities and Personal

Strength Combined had on perceived Mental Health. The multiple regression analysis with a

95% confidence interval to test Psychological Growth New Possibilities and Personal Strength

predictive power on Mental Health was significant, F(2, 220) = 48.784, p = < .001, R2 = .307.

The data met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 1.911).

Psychological Growth New Possibilities and Personal Strength added statistical significance to

the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 30.7% of the variance in Mental Health with an adjusted R2

= 30.1 %, a large effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, more robust Psychological

Growth (PTGI- New Possibilities and Personal Strength) was associated with greater mental

health perceptions.

Table 15

Linear and Multiple Regression Predicting Parasocial Relationships with Kama Muta Appraisal and

Motivation

Mental Health B 95% CI for B SE β β R R2

LL UL

.538 .289

Constant 2.026 1.649 2.403 .191

PTGI - New

Possibilities .110 .087 .133 .012 .538

.535 .286

Constant 1.862 1.450 2.275 .209

PTGI - Personal Strength

.138 .109 .167 .015 .535

.554 .307

Constant 1.823 1.414 2.231 .207

PTGI - New

Possibilities .061 .014 .107 .024 .297

PTGI - Personal Strength

.071 .013 .130 .030 .276

The Relationship between Perceptions of Belongingness and Psychological Growth

(Hypothesis 4)

The purpose of Hypothesis 4 is to assess the predictive power the single-item visual

measure of Belongingness had on Psychological Growth (Gabriel et al., 2020).

The Durbin-Watson Model Summary

The D-W test statistics for hypotheses 4a and 4b were relatively close to 2, indicating that

the relationships between Belongingness, PTGI – New Possibilities, and PTGI – Personal

Strength were independent and contained no autocorrelations.

Table 16

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Belongingness)

Std. Error

PTGI - New Possibilitiesb Adjusted of the

R R2 R2 Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Hypothesis 4a

Belongingnessa 0.395 0.156 0.152 3.954 a Predictors: (Constant),

Belongingness b Dependent Variable: Posttraumatic

Growth Inventory -New Possibilities

Table 17

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Parasocial Relationships)

2.193

Std. Error

PTGI - Personal Strengthb Adjusted of the

R R2 R2 Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Hypothesis 4b

Belongingnessa .421 .177 .173 3.12 2.086 a Predictors: (Constant),

Belongingness b Dependent Variable: Posttraumatic Growth

Inventory -Personal Strength

H4a = Belongingness positively predicts Psychological Growth (PTGI – New Possibilities)

H4a predicted that Belongingness would positively predict Psychological Growth (PTGI)

New Possibilities. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test the

Belongingness predictive power on Psychological Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities was

significant, F(1, 221) = 40.885, p = < .001, R2 = .156. The data met the assumption of

independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.193). Belongingness added statistical significance

to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 15.6% of the variance in Psychological Growth (PTGI)

New Possibilities with an adjusted R2 = 15.2 %, a medium effect size according to Cohen (1988).

Therefore, a more robust Belongingness response was associated with greater Psychological

Growth (PTGI) New Possibilities. H4a was supported.

Table 18

Linear Regression Predicting PTGI - New Possibilities with Belongingness

LL UL

.395 .156

Constant 11.243 9.732 12.754 .767

Belongingness 1.583 1.095 2.071 .248 .395

H4b = Belongingness positively predicts psychological growth (PTGI –Personal Strength)

H4b predicted that Belongingness would positively predict Psychological Growth (PTGI)

Personal Strength. The linear regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test the

Belongingness predictive power on Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength was

significant, F(1, 221) = 47.506, p = < .001, R2 = .177. The data met the assumption of

independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.086). Belongingness added statistical significance

to the prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 17.7% of the variance in Psychological Growth (PTGI)

Personal Strength with an adjusted R2 = 17.3 %, a medium effect size according to Cohen

PTGI - New

Possibilities B % CI for B 95 SE β β R R 2

(1988). Therefore, a more robust Belongingness response was associated with greater

Psychological Growth (PTGI) Personal Strength. H4b was supported.

Table 19

Linear Regression Predicting PTGI - Personal Strength with Belongingness

LL UL

.421 .177

Constant 9.939 8.754 11.125 .601

Belongingness 1.339 .956 1.722 .194 .421

The Role Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships Play in Psychological Growth

(Hypothesis 5)

The purpose of Hypothesis 5 is to consolidate the various variables that play a role in the

psychological growth participants experienced from their Peloton exposure. Belongingness and

Parasocial Relationships enhanced psychological growth (PTGI) during the COVID-19

pandemic.

The Durbin-Watson Model Summary

The D-W test statistics for hypotheses 5a, 5b, 5a+Mental Health, and 5b+Mental Health were all

relatively close to 2, indicating that the various relationships between the variants were

independent and contained no autocorrelations.

Table 20

PTGI – Personal

Strength B % CI for B 95 SE β β R R 2

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Belongingness & Parasocial Relationships)

Std. Error

PTGI - New Possibilitiesb Adjusted of the Durbin-

R R2 R2 Estimate Watson

Hypothesis 5a

Belongingness & PSRa .616 .379 .373 3.400 2.235

a Predictors: (Constant), Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships

(PSR) b Dependent Variable: Posttraumatic Growth Inventory -New

Possibilities Table 21

Durbin-Watson Test for Autocorrelation (Belongingness & Parasocial Relationships)

Std. Error

PTGI - Personal Strengthb Adjusted of the Durbin-

R R2 R2 Estimate Watson

Hypothesis 5b

Belongingness & PSRa .622 .387 .381 2.683 2.120

a Predictors: (Constant), Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships

(PSR) b Dependent Variable: Posttraumatic Growth Inventory -Personal

Strength

H5a= Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships predicts psychological growth (PTGI –

New Possibilities)

H5a predicted that Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships would positively predict

Psychological Growth New Possibilities. The multiple regression analysis with a 95% confidence

interval to test Belongingness and Parasocial Relationship predictive power on Psychological

Growth New Possibilities was significant, F(2, 220) = 67.099, p = < .001, R2 = .379. The data

met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.235).

Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships added statistical significance to the prediction (p <

0.05), explaining 37.9% of the variance in Psychological Growth New Possibilities with an

adjusted R2 = 37.3 %, a large effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, increases in

Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships are associated with greater Psychological Growth

New Possibilities. H5a was supported.

Table 22

Multiple Regression Predicting PTGI New Possibilities with Belongingness and Parasocial

Relationships

LL UL

.616 .379

Constant 1.466 -1.062 3.995 1.283

Belongingness .711 .249 1.173 .234 .177

Parasocial

Relationships .306 .238 .374 .034 .520

H5b= Belongingness and Parasocial Interactions predict psychological growth (PTGI –

Personal Strengths)

H5b predicted that Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships would positively predict

Psychological Growth Personal Strength. The multiple regression analysis with a 95%

confidence interval to test Belongingness and Parasocial Relationship's predictive power on

Psychological Growth Personal Strength was significant, F(2, 220) = 69.409, p = < .001, R2

= .387. The data met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.120).

Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships added statistical significance to the prediction (p <

0.05), explaining 38.7% of the variance in Psychological Growth New Possibilities with an

adjusted R2 = 38.1 %, a large effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, increases in

Belongingness and Parasocial Relationships are associated with greater Psychological Growth

Personal Strength. H5b was supported.

PTGI - New

Possibilities B 95% CI for B SE β β R

Table 23

Personal Strength with Belongingness and Parasocial

Relationships

LL UL

.622 .387

Constant 2.399 .403 4.394 1.013

Belongingness .666 .302 1.031 .185 .209

Parasocial Relationships .236 .183 .290 .027 .505

The Predictive Power of Adding Mental Health to Hypothesis 5

While not a formal hypothesis, results presented in a manner that suggested adding

perceived Mental Health to the Hypothesis 5 equations would be informative.

H5+Mental Health= Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health predict

psychological growth (PTGI – New Possibilities)

The multiple regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test Belongingness,

Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health predictive power on Psychological

Growth New Possibilities was significant, F(3, 219) = 63.017, p = < .001, R2 = .463. The data

met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.243). Belongingness,

Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health added statistical significance to the

prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 46.3% of the variance in Psychological Growth New

Possibilities with an adjusted R2 = 45.6 %, a large effect size according to Cohen (1988).

Therefore, increases in Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health is

associated with greater Psychological Growth New Possibilities.

PTGI - Personal

Strength B 95% CI for B SE β β R

Table 24

New Possibilities with Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships,

and Mental Health

PTGI - New Possibilities B 95% CI for B SE β β R R2

LL UL

.681 .463

Constant -1.072 -3.578 1.433 1.271

Belongingness .547 .113 .981 .220 .136

Parasocial Relationships .232 .164 .300 .035 .394

Mental Health 1.586 1.053 2.118 .270 .326

H5+Mental Health = Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health predict

psychological growth (PTGI – Personal Strengths)

The multiple regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test Belongingness,

Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health predictive power on Psychological

Growth Personal Strength was significant, F(3, 219) = 64.221, p = < .001, R2 = .468. The data

met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value = 2.119). Belongingness,

Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health added statistical significance to the

prediction (p < 0.05), explaining 46.8% of the variance in Psychological Growth New

Possibilities with an adjusted R2 = 46.1%, a large effect size according to Cohen (1988).

Therefore, increases in Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and perceived Mental Health is

associated with greater Psychological Growth Personal Strength.

Table 25

Personal Strength with Belongingness, Parasocial

Relationships, and Mental Health

LL UL

.684 .468

Constant 0.422 -1.56 2.403 1.005

Belongingness 0.538 0.195 0.881 0.174 0.169

Parasocial

Relationships 0.179 0.125 0.232 0.027 0.382

Mental Health 1.235 0.814 1.656 0.214 0.319

Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and Psychological Growth Predictive Power on

Mental Health

Analyzing the various statistical relationships inspired a final assessment utilizing the

Hypothesis 5 variables but looking at the predictive power on Mental Health.

Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and Psychological Growth (PTGI- New Possibilities

& Personal Strengths) predicts Mental Health

The multiple regression analysis with a 95% confidence interval to test Belongingness,

Parasocial Relationships, and Psychological Growth (PTGI- New Possibilities & Personal

Strengths) predictive power on perceived Mental Health was significant, F(4, 218) = 26.083, p =

< .001, R2 = .324. The data met the assumption of independent errors (Durbin-Watson value =

1.903). Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships, and Psychological Growth (PTGI- New

Possibilities & Personal Strengths) added statistical significance to the prediction (p < 0.05),

explaining 32.4% of the variance in perceived Mental Health with an adjusted R2 = 31.1%, a

large effect size according to Cohen (1988). Therefore, increases in Belongingness, Parasocial

PTGI - Personal

Strength B 95% CI for B SE β β R

Relationships, and Psychological Growth (PTGI- New Possibilities & Personal

Strengths) are associated with greater perceived Mental Health.

Table 26

Multiple Regression Predicting Mental Health with Belongingness, Parasocial Relationships,

PTGI - New Possibilities, and PTGI - Personal Strength

LL UL

.569 .324

Constant 1.391 0.838 1.945 0.281

Belongingness 0.03 -0.072 0.133 0.052 0.037

Parasocial

Relationships 0.018 0.001 0.035 0.009 0.148

PTGI - New

Possibilities 0.05 0.003 0.097 0.024 0.244

PTGI – Personal

Strength 0.057 -0.003 0.116 0.03 0.219

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

This study examined social connection's relationship with psychological growth

and mental health benefits within an immersive media exercise platform during the

COVID-19 pandemic. Response to the COVID-19 virus offered a rare insight into how

populations cope with societal deprivation and heightened stress. By providing a

landscape that illuminated social isolation's pitfalls, the pandemic highlighted

beneficial practices and positive media technologies that contributed to psychological

growth and feelings of transformation (Richardson, 2020). While many struggled with

Mental Health B % CI for B95 SE β β R R 2

increased loneliness, worsening mental health outcomes, and increased stress, those

who engaged in immersive media exercise programs like Peloton saw improved mood

and well-being (Gupta et al., 2021; Stewart, 2020).

Designed around the self-determination theory framework, this study diverged

from the typical perspective of using autonomy and competence to assess exercise

motivation and outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Instead, the social component of

relatedness was highlighted as a potential catalyst for psychological growth beyond the

expected physiological benefits. While autonomy, competence, and relatedness all play

roles in satisfying the basic psychological needs of well-being, in a fitness

environment, dynamics of autonomy and competence are inherently present (Hagger &

Chatzisarantis, 2007b; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Teixeira et al., 2012). Exercise is not

typically considered a social activity, making social connection an overlooked yet

powerful motivator.

Social connection is a multifaceted concept that is both vital and complex. It

can be experienced in different ways, making its measurement complicated. Three

measures – kama muta, parasocial relationships, and belongingness – assessed how

individuals felt connected to the Peloton community from different perspectives

(Claessens & Van den Bulck, 2015; Gabriel et al., 2020; Zickfeld et al., 2018). Each

measure was selected to capture different aspects of belongingness. Kama muta

captures the physical sensation of connection; parasocial relationships look at the

emotional engagement with the instructor as a means of connection. The

belongingness scale was a visual measure that attempts to circumvent the translation of

experience into words to capture perceptions of group inclusion.

Summary of the Findings

This study demonstrated that sensations of social connection measured via

parasocial relationships and a visual belonging measure positively predicted both

psychological growth and perceptions of mental health within an immersive media

exercise platform. Findings suggested that belongingness, parasocial relationships, and

perceptions of mental health improvement were all related to increased psychological

growth. The research questions were tested in five separate hypotheses. The first

hypothesis posited that kama muta experiences, measured using the scales of appraisal

and motivation, would positively predict parasocial relationships. As kama muta scores

increased, so did scores on parasocial relationships, indicating that feelings of

community are related to enhanced attachment and connection to the instructor.

Analysis of the data showed that there was a statistically significant, positive

relationship with a moderate effect size. The second hypothesis posited that parasocial

relationships would positively predict psychological growth. The presence of

parasocial relationships implies that the community connection has moved beyond

being a group member into an intimate social experience with an instructor. The

association was also statistically significant and positive with a large effect size.

Hypothesis 3 looked at the relationship between psychological growth and perceptions

of mental health, predicting a positive relationship. Data analysis was significant and

positive with a large effect size.

Assessing the difference between the various scales measuring social

connection, the belongingness circles did not capture the complexity of the construct,

making them a weaker prediction variable. The weakest relationship tested was

Hypothesis 4, using belongingness circles to predict psychological growth (Gabriel et

al., 2020). While the relationship was statistically significant and positive, it was at the

lower end of a medium effect size with a small power of explanation (New Possibilities

r2 = .156, Personal Strength r2 = .177).

The final hypothesis posited that belongingness and parasocial relationships

would have a more substantial explanatory power of changes in psychological growth.

Since social connection is a complex dynamic, two scales measuring various aspects of

belonging should have increased predictive power. The relationship was more robust,

positive, and statistically significant with a large effect size. In addition, when mental

health is added to belongingness and parasocial relationships as predictors of

psychological growth, the explanatory power of the relationship becomes much greater

(new possibilities r2 = .463 up from r2 = .379, personal strength r2 = .468 up from r2

= .387). Mental health and psychological growth were highly correlated variables.

Interestingly, when belongingness, parasocial relationships, and psychological growth

predicted mental health in a regression analysis, the association was positive and

statistically significant but not as robust in its predictive power.

Interpretation of Results

This study showed how social connections developed through mediated

technology were positively related to changes in psychological growth and mental

health, even among a population dealing with the isolation of COVID-19. While

perceptions of isolation or loneliness were not measured, the timing of the survey and

the nature of the COVID-19 social isolation measures provides an intriguing natural

comparison between participants and the general population. Social deprivation and

heightened stress were part of societal life when this survey was conducted (November

– December 2021). Understanding that participants were likely to experience such

stressors highlights the importance of the findings of this research.

Hypothesis 1

As hypothesized, kama muta was a statistically significant predictor of

parasocial relationships. Two factors of kama muta, appraisal and motivation, were

measured separately and together to assess their association with parasocial

relationships. Appraisal captured the sensations of sudden intensification of communal

sharing measuring feelings of “an incredible bond” or “an extraordinary feeling of

being welcomed” (Zickfeld et al., 2018). Motivation measured the sudden desire to

express communal appreciation with feelings of “wanting to hug someone,” “do

something nice for someone,” or “tell someone how much I care” (Zickfeld et al.,

2018). The relationship was positive. As kama muta experiences increased, the

intensity of parasocial relationships grew. Results from regression analysis showed that

kama muta had a medium effect on parasocial relationships, with kama muta appraisal

accounting for 31.7% of the variation in the model, kama muta motivation at 21.6%,

and the two scales together accounted for 35.1%. The results suggested that feelings of

community and social connection within the Peloton experience were related to

enhanced perceptions of a social bond with the instructor.

Results from Hypothesis 1 supported the notion that intensifying social

relationships increase the development of parasocial relationships. The ability of kama

muta to strengthen social connections and parasocial relationships aligns with previous

research (Fiske et al., 2017; Haslam & Fiske, 1999; Seibt et al., 2019). Kama muta is

experienced when sparks of “collective belonging and solidarity” are felt (Haslam &

Fiske, 1999). The communal sharing relationship that inspires experiences of kama

muta enhances group trust, unity, and group identity, all aspects needed to form deeper

bonds with others (Fiske, 2019; Steinnes et al., 2019). Since mediated relationships

and social relationships use the same neural infrastructure to process, parasocial

relationships and real relationships emerge from the same social bond that inspires

kama muta experiences (Tukachinsky et al., 2020).

Hypothesis 2

In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is noteworthy that the parasocial

relationships formed through immersive mediated exercise platforms were related to

participants' perceptions of psychological growth. Two posttraumatic growth inventory

(PTGI) dimensions, new possibilities and personal strength, assessed the relationship of

psychological growth with parasocial relationships in Hypothesis 2. New possibilities

captured an openness toward development through phrases like “I am able to do better

things with my life” and “new opportunities are available which wouldn’t have been

otherwise” (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Personal strength tapped into feelings of

increased resilience and internal fortitude with phrases such as “I discovered that I am

stronger than I thought I was” and “I know better that I can handle difficulties”

(Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). The relationship in Hypothesis 2 was positive, meaning

that as parasocial relationship connection increased, so did the respondents' experience

of psychological growth. Results from regression analysis showed that parasocial

relationships had a large effect size relative to psychological growth, with parasocial

relationships explaining 35.3% of the variation in new possibilities and 35.1% for

personal strength. The data suggested that a stronger social connection with the

instructor is accompanied by greater psychological growth.

Self-determination theory posits that individuals will psychologically thrive if

the three basic psychological needs – autonomy, competence, and relatedness – are met

(Ryan & Deci, 2000). The exercise world offers opportunities for autonomy and

competence (Edmunds et al., 2007). When the social need is satisfied, as with

immersive mediated exercise platforms demonstrated by Hypothesis 1, conditions

support psychological well-being and positive growth (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Additionally, a preponderance of evidence links social connection to positive

outcomes, especially under stressful conditions (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Cacioppo

& Patrick, 2008; Cacioppo et al., 2015; Kawachi & Berkman, 2001). The fears

associated with the COVID-19 virus and the mandated social isolation introduced

stress, feelings of isolation, and trauma to large percentages of the population (Cénat et

al., 2021; Gupta et al., 2021; Janiri et al., 2021). Hypothesis 2 demonstrated that social

connection through parasocial relationships with a mediated exercise instructor played

a vital role in psychological growth during this period of stress. Social bonds have been

shown to buffer against stress and provide purpose, belonging, security, and self-worth

(Kawachi & Berkman, 2001). Ties to others also play a beneficial role in the recovery

from trauma (Prati & Pietrantoni, 2009; Schroevers et al., 2010).

Hypothesis 3

Psychological growth was a statistically significant predictor of perceptions of

mental health improvement. Two Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) dimensions,

new possibilities and personal strength, measured mental health separately and

together. The positive relationship for all assessments showed that higher perceptions

of mental health accompanied higher psychological growth. Results from regression

analysis showed that psychological growth had a large effect size in predicting mental

health, with psychological growth new possibilities accounting for 28.9% of the model,

psychological growth personal strength 28.6%, and psychological growth combined

(new possibilities + personal strength) accounting for 30.7%.

Results suggested that as psychological growth occurred, perceptions of mental health

improved.

Psychological growth emerges from challenges and traumas when individuals

confront old cognitive frameworks and rebuild personal narratives (Hefferon et al.,

2008; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Working through adversity and overcoming struggle

fosters increased selfefficacy, self-actualization, and can bring meaning and fulfillment

to an individual’s life (Sheldon et al., 2002; Ryff & Singer, 2006). Every compelling

narrative embedded in myths, movies, and good books highlights this dynamic of

positive growth emerging in the aftermath of trauma and challenge (Bray, 2018; Weiss,

2014). Programming designed for immersive mediated exercise platforms like Peloton

can move the audience through a psychological narrative of struggle, culminating in

overcoming the challenge at the end. Combining this narrative journey with the

documented physical benefits of exercise, such as increased endorphins and hormones

that increase happiness and optimism, can prime an individual to modify core beliefs

and reorient them toward more positive, adaptive thoughts and behavior (Ai et al.,

2021; Naor & Maysless, 2020).

In this study, mental health perceptions improved with psychological growth

within the immersive media exercise format. It follows logically that exercise can

facilitate shedding negative cognitive structures and replacing them with growth-

oriented beliefs that overall wellbeing would improve. Tedeschi and Calhoun (1996)

suggested that the relationship between psychological fitness and growth is comparable

to that between physical fitness and physical challenges. Those who have developed

strength through the rigors of working out can withstand more than those weaker. As

individuals develop psychological strength through adversity, they have been shown to

generate a mental state better at withstanding challenges (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996).

Bandura (2001) emphasized the importance of self-efficacy, the belief in the ability to

control one’s functioning and environment. Efficacy beliefs have been shown to impact

individuals' decisions about their willingness to undertake challenging activities and

perceptions of their ability to bounce back after difficulties. Self-efficacy is developed

through mastery experiences such as those individuals build toward a fitness routine

(Bandura, 2008).

Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4 posited that belongingness, as measured using visual depictions of

how an individual fits in a group, would positively predict psychological growth

(Gabriel et al., 2020). In Hypothesis 4, two Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI)

dimensions, new possibilities and personal strength, assessed psychological growth

through sensations of belongingness. The relationship was positive but had the weakest

relationship of all the variables studied. While statistically significant, results from

regression analysis showed that the belongingness circles explained 15.6% of the

variability in psychological growth new possibilities model and 17.7% of the

psychological growth personal strength model.

Despite the low correlation, the belongingness circles provided a key insight

into how individuals perceived their within-group fit. The feeling of belonging is a

complex experience, requiring other measures to tap into the various contributing

nuances. This study's measures of belonging, such as kama muta and parasocial

relationships, captured more of the contextuality believed to exist. For example, the

belongingness circles' relationship to parasocial relationships was analyzed to see how

the circles measure compared to that of kama muta and parasocial relationships. Even

though all three variables measure social connection, they capture the dynamic in

different ways. The single-item belongingness circles’ relationship with parasocial

interactions was statistically significant but only explained 14.6% of the variability,

where both kama muta dimensions showed a much stronger relationship. These results

indicate that feeling close to the Peloton community was related to the development of

parasocial relationships, but the physical sensations of community captured by kama

muta were better predictors. For example, the belongingness measure does not capture

the quality or attachment an individual experiences but is a straightforward assessment

of how they see themselves in relation to the group.

Hypothesis 5

The belongingness and parasocial relationship combination assessed two

Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) dimensions, new possibilities and personal

strength. Hypothesis 5 combined the belongingness measure with parasocial

relationships to test if the explanatory power of psychological growth improved by

adding the second variable that captured a more personal aspect of connection—

attachment to the instructor. The relationship was positive for both new possibilities

and personal strengths, demonstrating that as belongingness and parasocial

relationships increased, so did psychological growth. Results from regression analysis

showed that belongingness and parasocial relationships had a large effect size,

accounting for 37.9% of the model for new possibilities and 38.7% for personal

strengths. When mental health was added to the predictor variables, the model

accounted for 46.3% of the variability in new possibilities and 46.8% for personal

strength. Results suggested a strong relationship between belonging, parasocial

relationships, perceptions of mental health, and the development of psychological

growth.

Consistent with Baumeister and Leary’s (1995) basic needs theory, social

connection impacts well-being and psychological growth in many forms. Hypothesis 5

demonstrates to varying degrees how central the need to belong is, even in the exercise

domain, an activity often considered a solitary task. “Working out” in a gym is a

modern concept, but historically, exercise is training the body for optimal function and

fitness (Callaghan, 2004). Throughout human history, exercise has taken the form of

playing, training, or applying skills to physical activities like hunting or fighting.

Following self-determination theory, seeking social connection in a historically group-

oriented action aligns with the assumption that when it is attained, wellbeing will

follow (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) also suggest that consistent

and stable social support plays a substantial role in the development of psychological

growth.

Adding perceptions of mental health to the list of predictors in Hypothesis 5

followed along these lines. Research shows that the lack of social connection

undermines mental health, and social bonds ameliorate it (Cacioppo et al., 2010; Chang

et al., 2017; Donovan et al., 2017; Leigh-Hunt et al., 2017). Therefore, belongingness

should improve mental health which, in turn, should prepare the environment for

psychological growth. Adding a variable to capture the individuals’ perceptions of the

Peloton experience on their mental health increased the model's explanatory power by

more than 8%, explaining close to 50% of the variability of psychological growth.

Since the variables for mental health and psychological growth were highly

correlated, additional analysis was performed to examine the predictive power of

psychological growth for perceptions of mental health. Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004)

suggest that while psychological growth often positively correlates with decreased

psychological distress, this is not always the case. To test that, belongingness,

parasocial relationships, and psychological growth were run to see their predictive

power on mental health. Using psychological growth as a predictor variable rather than

an outcome variable did not have the same result, with belongingness, parasocial

relationships, and psychological growth explaining only 32.4% of the effect on mental

health compared to 46.3% of psychological growth new possibilities and 46.8% of

personal strength.

This result may suggest that while belongingness is related to improved mental health

and psychological development, psychological growth may not need to be present for

mental health to improve.

Implications

This study sought to determine how social connection was related to the

experience of immersive media exercise platforms and if it was associated with mental

health improvement and psychological growth. All results demonstrated that the feeling

of belonging, whether to a community of fellow members or a special connection to the

instructors, can be experienced through mediated technology. Peloton’s investment in

technology where social bonds could develop was well spent as participants who felt

connected reported more mental health benefits and experienced a greater sense of their

strengths and openness to new things, both factors in self-efficacy and resilience

(Tedeschi et al., 2018).

Positive Media Technology of Health and Wellness

Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) established positive psychology to

scientifically highlight what makes life worth living rather than purely focusing on

illness and problems. Positive media psychology applies positive psychology

frameworks to examine the relationships and processes of media use that shape

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, along with effective interventions to promote well-

being and flourishing (de Leeuw & Buijzen, 2016; Gregory & Rutledge, 2016; Raney

et al., 2020). Lyumbomirsky et al. (2005) found that although happiness has a genetic

component, intentional activities in several life applications lead to subjective

wellbeing. The media technology used in immersive exercise platforms such as Peloton

is designed to support intentional behaviors through performance-tracking applications

and engaging classes.

However, this study suggests that a powerful part of this positive technology is how it

can connect its users to a community and enable parasocial relationships with the

instructors.

Loneliness severely impacts one in twelve individuals living in industrialized

countries, and the numbers are growing (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018). In the pursuit of

health and wellbeing, it is helpful to know what activities promote beneficial outcomes.

Proximal location, time, and subjective experience sometimes interfere with social

connection (Allen, 2021; Allen et al., 2022). This study demonstrated that immersive

media exercise platforms can provide a social outlet while improving health, both

physically and psychologically, at the same time. For individuals who cannot always

connect to social groups in person, this technology can temporarily immerse them in an

environment that offers the experience of community and a supportive group. While

technology is not a substitute for in-person contact, having an activity that can be

accessed anytime can help assuage feelings of loneliness.

The COVID-19 pandemic was a disruptive and traumatic influence on the lives

of many worldwide. The results of this research are notable, considering the stress and

trauma most people experienced during the pandemic. Despite the social isolation

many populations felt, this study suggests that those who engaged in immersive media

exercise experienced measurable benefits through access to a reliable social community

and regular exercise.

Brand and Audience Engagement

The results of this research study also have implications for brand development

and audience engagement. A brand, a customer’s perception of product value, is only

as good as the associations linked to it (Batey, 2015). These experiences and

encounters with a product or service are strengthened through repeat exposure or

weakened without it. Brand connection, measured through kama muta, has been shown

to linger even 10 years beyond the last exposure (Garner, 2022). Emotional

connections fade slower than routine-oriented memories, adding to building brand

connection's benefits (Thomas & Diener, 1990). Individuals seek products and services

that meet specific functional and emotional needs. This study has shown how a product

or service can satisfy the emotional need to connect with others, especially while

simultaneously meeting utilitarian, experiential, and identity needs (Batey, 2015). For

Peloton, the power of the brand meaning became so moving that users enthusiastically

shared anecdotes of the product's benefits on social media. Thus, brands have an

opportunity to prioritize social connection in their marketing strategies to enhance

brand meaning and reap economic benefits.

Limitations and Future Research

The present study had some limitations. First, all surveys contain

methodological challenges. In this study, the survey design diverting participants to

either kama muta or psychological growth questions prevented the variables from

being examined together. The three variables that measured belongingness, a core

component of the research project, were kama muta, belongingness circles, and

parasocial relationships. This lack of casewise data across all variables limited kama

muta's use to understand psychological growth better. The relationship of kama muta

and belonging with parasocial relationships suggests this might have been a useful

variable.

Every scientific study has both limitations and possibilities. The analysis must

zoom in on a specific grouping of variables to examine the dynamic relationship of a

particular set of variables. While the focus on the designated variables illuminates

certain aspects of the relationship, part of the relationship may go unaccounted for. This

study determined that belongingness in its various forms had a strong relationship with

mental health and psychological growth, especially while using virtual technology. Yet,

other dynamics were also at work, raising questions about additional variables or

expanded scales that might offer more explanatory power. Future research could

answer these questions.

This study did not use a validated measure to assess mental health. Instead, it

evaluated the perception of mental health improvement based on participants’ reports

and the usage of the immersive media exercise platform. While self-report satisfies the

American Psychological Association’s (APA) assessment standards for research,

mental health is a dynamic and complicated construct. A validated mental health

screen would yield more robust results, especially over a longitudinal assessment.

Looking into how specific psychological classifications (i.e., depression and anxiety)

are influenced within the virtual exercise technology format could yield valuable

findings.

A snapshot of the population coping with the isolation of COVID-19 was

captured within this study. Loneliness and feelings of societal separation were real

experiences felt throughout the world. While the pandemic provided an excellent

opportunity to examine virtual social connection among a socially distanced sample,

the opportunity exists to see how the psychological dynamics unfold during non-

pandemic times. While the fundamental needs of autonomy, competence, and

relatedness would still be relevant, seeing how the drive for social connection changes

among a socially integrated sample would be helpful.

Along these same lines, this study demonstrated that virtual exercise programs

can provide a social outlet while improving physical and psychological health. With

isolation and loneliness on the rise worldwide, looking at how specific populations

respond within the virtual exercise environment could have many societal benefits.

Specifically, older populations increasingly face more time alone, leaving them at risk

for loneliness (Cacioppo & Patrick,

2008). The unexpected death of a spouse or feeling separated when adult children move

away can leave older individuals feeling lacking in their social connections. Looking at

how virtual exercise programs impact older populations could prove beneficial.

Conclusion

Technology can improve well-being and mental health in many powerful ways.

This study shed light on the psychological dynamics of social connection in immersive

media exercise platforms and demonstrated the benefits of their use. Little research to

date has investigated technology implementation to enhance feelings of social

connection and belonging. This study found that belonging to a positive, mediated

community is linked to mental health benefits and positive personal growth. Immersive

media exercise programs can effectively generate sensations of social bonds through

their class content. Instructors play a vital role in securing feelings of connection

through thoughtfully designed production while providing a social media presence to

connect with users. The parasocial relationships that develop enhance social connection

because they can feel like genuine relationships occurring in an intimate setting.

Feelings of community, relationships, and improved mental frameworks were related to

experiences off the bike through personal development and appreciation of strengths.

While immersive media exercise platforms are not a substitute for genuine human

connection, understanding that they provide feelings of social connection and

community that benefit psychological functioning is a positive step forward.

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