Teacher Perception on Integrating School Psychology in the Develo

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

The topic of the study is teacher perceptions of academic and psychological

services provided in schools in the developing nation of Grenada where no formal school

psychological services or school psychologists exist. With this study, I sought to enhance

knowledge on mental health in schools for (a) improved teaching and student learning in

classrooms in Grenada, and (b) development of policies and legislation in regard to the

services and programming to meet the learning and mental health needs of students in

Grenada, and on a broader level to the other islands of the Caribbean Community

(CARICOM).

This chapter explores the roles of education in conjunction with guidance services

including school psychology/the school psychologist. The lack of formalized roles for

school psychologists in Grenada are presented. The importance of teachers’ roles and

their collaboration with school psychologists is also noted. Research literature is

presented on legislation, policies, situational analysis and issues student

face/demonstrate, their impact on the state of education, the services provided to address

the issues, and the significant importance of teachers’ perceptions. A gap is demonstrated

in the knowledge of teacher perception of psychological services where formal school

psychological services/school psychologists do not exist and where school psychology is

new or emerging specifically in developing countries. This study seeks to address this

gap through a qualitative focus group study founded in the cultural context of Grenada

using the conceptual framework of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and the

participatory culture specific intervention model (PCSIM; Nastasi et al., 2004).

Background

Educational experts, researchers, policy makers, and others generally have

acknowledged that progress in every arena in a country can be attained through education

(Onder, 2016). Schooling traditionally is deemed the ideal way to get youth ready to

assume their positions as contributing members of humanity (Morgan, 2015). Global

attention is focused on promoting children’s education and health (Jimerson, Skokut, et

al., 2008). The school is a useful setting for academic, health, and social initiatives (Van

Hout et al., 2012). Academic and mental health problems at school are not new and many

children are at risk for not being successful at school.

Onder (2016) advocated for the provision of influential and successful guidance

services to address the academic, health, and social problems displayed by children in

schools for the achievement of long-term solutions rather than instant returns. School

psychologists and their services are integral within guidance services. They perform a

dynamic function to address both learning and psychological health issues and addressing

children’s needs and rights (Oakland, 2003). School psychology in a country is evidenced

by five factors, namely (a) having professionals identified as school psychologists and

employed with duties characteristic of school psychologists; (b) legal statutes requiring

such professionals to be registered, licensed or credentialed; (c) a school psychology

professional association; (d) university preparation programs with content specific to

school psychology; and (e) preparation of school psychologists at the doctoral level

(Jimerson, Skokut, et al., 2008). Indicators of school psychology were found in 83

countries around the world with some established, some emerging, and others yet to

emerge (Cook et al., 2010). In some developing countries such as Macao and Greece,

teachers perceived the need for supplying more psychological services to schools even

with existing legal mandates and school psychologists (Dimakos, 2006; van Schalkwyk

& Sit, 2013). Grenada, a tri-island and developing nation state in the Caribbean, does not

meet the criteria set by the International School Psychology Association (ISPA) training

accreditation standards for school psychology and demonstrates no evidence of formal

school psychology services (Cook et al. 2010); there are no school psychologists.

Although the position of school psychologist exists in policy documents, positions remain

unopened and thus unfilled.

The Function of the School Psychologist

Their distinctive and comprehensive function necessitates school psychologists

work with other stakeholders, especially teachers (Thielking & Jimerson, 2006). School

psychologists work in schools through consultation and collaboration with teachers to

help children overcome academic and behavioral problems (Jimerson et al., 2009),

emotional and behavioral problems (Hackett et al., 2010), the challenges of living with

chronic illnesses (Nabors et al., 2008), the experiences of natural disasters (Nastasi,

Overstreet, et al., 2011), trauma (Nadeem et al., 2001) and disorders including attention

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Lee et al., 2010); Weyandt et al., 2009). Teachers work

directly with children as the primary professionals in schools. They are charged with the

duty of guaranteeing children learn effectively and develop the skills they need to be

successful. Taxing student behavior impacts teachers lives as well (Axup & Gersch,

2008).

Legislation and Policies

Internationally, the least restrictive environment is mandated for education for all

children (Underwood, 2018). So too, internationally, legal mandates ensure school

systems provide school-based mental health services (Werthamer-Larsson, 1994). There

are laws that govern special education provision and implementation in the United States,

including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) and

Section 504 (O’ Connor et al., 2016), No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the Act of 2001

(Public Law 107-110; U S Congress, 2002), and the Race to the Top (RTT) Grant under

the United States Department of Education (Dragoset et al., 2016).

Grenada is signatory to international and local agreements on schooling and

children’s rights. These include Treaties 1973 and 2002 of the Caribbean Community

(CARICOM; 2019), Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; United Nations, 2000),

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; United Nations, 2015), Treaties 1981 and 2010

of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS; 2016), the OECS Education

Sector Strategy (OESS) 2012-2021 “Every Learner Succeeds” (OECS Secretariat, 2012),

Grenada Education Enhancement Project (GEEP; Project Management Unit, Ministry of

Education and Human Resource Development, 2016), Grenada’s Growth and Poverty

Reduction Strategy (GPRS) 2014-2018 (Antoine, Echno Tech Ltd, 2014), and the

Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development Corporate Plan 2016-2018

(Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development, 2015). Policies to assist

schooling and children’s rights include National Schools’ Policy on Drugs, Grenada,

2002 (Ministry of Education, Human Resource Development and Religious Affairs,

2002), revised draft National Schools’ Policy on Drugs, Grenada 2017 to 2022 (Ministry

of Education, Human Resource Development and the Environment, 2016), National

Schools’ Policy on Drugs Revised (Ministry of Education, Human Resource

Development and Religious Affairs 2018), and child laws of Grenada (Government of

Grenada, 2013).

According to the Revised Draft National Schools’ Policy on Drugs, Grenada 2017

to 2022 (Ministry of Education, Human Resource Development and the Environment,

2016), where national policies exist, they are ineffective and negatively impacted by (a)

inadequate legislation; (b) negative practices that are considered culturally and socially

acceptable in the Grenadian context; (c) lack of sanctions, technical capacity and

financial resources; (d) cultural and religious beliefs; and (e) availability and accessibility

of legal and illegal substances. There is need for political will, modification of laws,

constant creation of suitable procedures and policies, civic learning and understanding,

allotment of economic supplies, and community backing (Ministry of Education, Human

Resource Development and Religious Affairs, 2018).

Situational Analysis in Grenada

In the Caribbean, similar to the United States, students in schools are feasibly

engaging in risky behaviors and displaying mental health conditions (Maharaj et al.,

2009). Schools, homes, and communities are also impacted by violence (Hickling-

Hudson, 2011). At school, there is violence (Frisby et al., 2005; Hickling-Hudson),

wounding and stabbings (Lall, 2007), and corporal punishment, all of which specifically

impact social justice (Breshears, 2014). In homes, there is family violence (Smith et al.,

2011; Hickling-Hudson) and family disruption (Somers et al., 2011). At the community

level, there is violence amongst students (Hickling-Hudson), with high levels of

delinquency, housebreaking, stealing, sexual offenses, and harm offenses (Ministry of

Education, Human Resource Development and the Environment, 2016).

Additional behaviors and mental health conditions include (a) risky sexual

activity, teenage pregnancy (Ministry of Health, Grenada, 2014); (b) sexual abuse (Jones

& Trotman-Jemmott, 2016); (c) suicide (Bittman et al., 2017, Blum et al., 2003,

Debowska et al., 2018; Nadeem et al., 2011, Pilgrim & Blum, 2012); (d) obesity and

eating disorders (Hickling-Hudson, 2011); and (e) substance abuse, illegal drugs, and

high alcohol consumption among youth (Boggs & Durgampudi, 2017; Oelhafen et al.,

2017). Grenada ranked first in the Americas with the highest rate per capita of yearly

alcohol consumption (World Health Organization WHO, 2014). Also problematic for

Grenada are cultural issues related to parenting, cultural practices and poverty (Caribbean

Development Bank [CDB], 2014; Jong & Koning, 2014). The practices included little

adult supervision, no specific household chores or homework, shared sleeping facilities,

little frank discussion with parents about sexual issues, sex being traded for resources,

and migration by parents to other countries including the United States to seek

employment to help support their families, a practice aligned to grandparents’/caregivers’

inability to cope or provide sufficient supervision (Maharaj et al., 2009).

Education is considered key to reducing poverty and increasing individuals’ well-

being. World leaders in 2000 endorsed the United Nations Millennium Declaration and

Millennium Development Goals 2000 - 2015 (MDGs; United Nations, 2000) and the

subsequent Sustainable Development Goals 2015 - 2030 (SDGs; United Nations, 2015),

for the promotion of peace, prosperity and justice for all (Cuenca-Garcia et al., 2019).

The MDGs (a) eliminate severe destitution and starvation, (b) attain worldwide primary

instruction, (c) address gender uniformity and the enablement of women, (d) lessen child

mortality, (e) develop maternal wellbeing, (f) battle diseases such as tuberculosis and

HIV/AIDS, (g) guarantee environmental sustainability, and (h) advance a world

partnership for development (Cuenca-Garcia et al., 2019). Grenada has achieved two of

the seven MDG targets namely (b) universal primary education and (e) improved

maternal health with essentially no maternal mortality (Ministry of Social Development

and Housing, 2014). Poverty continues to be a major problem particularly for Grenada.

While one in every three children on average is poor in the Eastern Caribbean Area

(ECA), the poverty rate is above 50% for children in Grenada (United Nations

International Children Emergency Fund UNICEF, 2018).

The United Nations has 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; United

Nations, 2015). Grenada made commitments to 13 SDGs and in nine of those has made

16 partnership initiatives and voluntary commitments (United Nations, 2019). These

partnered goals are concerned with conservation of marine areas; water, land, and

ecosystems; climate change; and renewable energy (United Nations, 2019). Of these,

renewable energy is on track and some work is being done on the goal of conservation of

natural resources (United Nations, 2019. There are no reports available for the other

seven SDGs partnerships and commitments (United Nations, 2019). Although SDG 4,

Quality Education, is not stated as an area of focus for Grenada, The Ministry of

Education and Human Resource Development Corporate Plan 2016 – 2018 states Access

to Quality Education as Strategic Outcome 3 (Ministry of Education and Human

Resource Development, 2015). Yet, Grenada continues to be plagued by historically low

academic performance in numeracy and literacy on national and external examinations

and high dropout rates (Ministry of Education, Grenada, 2018). Poor learning outcomes

remain the major challenge faced by the education sector in all 16 participating territories

of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). In the OECS, teacher induction

programs range between 10 days to 4 months in length (Bruns & Luque, 2015). In

Grenada, only some new teachers are inducted into teaching (World Bank Group, 2017).

Those who are receive 40 hours or approximately 10 days of training in approaches of

instruction, lesson preparation, classroom organization, assessment, and teacher

professionalism (World Bank Group). Grenada ranked lowest in the OECS region in the

supply of trained teachers (OECS, 2017).

Grenada also had the lowest percentage of students achieving five SCSEC subject

passes each successive year from 2011 to 2015 (World Bank Group, 2017),. A potential

link was proposed between the lack of trained teachers, high repetition rates, and these

low passes (World Bank Group). The Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS;

Pianta et al., 2008), measures three domains and 10 dimensions of classroom practices. It

was used in four OECS countries to set a baseline for the quality of classroom practices

and for understanding where teachers are positioned regarding their professional

competencies (World Bank Group, 2017). Grenada performed the worst in said baseline

on all three domains namely emotional support, classroom organization and instructional

support (World Bank Group).

In Grenada, general education teachers are the principal professionals who work

to address the academic and mental health needs of students in classrooms. The teachers

help students to fulfill their potential and prepare them to become productive members of

society. Table 1 presents demographics on teacher and student enrollment for Grenada’s

public schools.

Table 1

Teacher and Student Enrollment in Grenadian Public Schools 2017

Public Primary

Schools

No. in Schools

Male

Female

Students

11716

Enrollment

6189

Enrollment

5527

Percent

Teachers

678

Enrollment

144

Enrollment

534

Percent

Note. From “Internal Statistics,” by Ministry of Education and Human Resource

Development, Grenada, 2018

Some professionals and services are available in schools to support teachers and

students. While there are no school psychologists working in schools in Grenada, there

are psychologists who Amuleru-Marshall and Amuleru-Marshall (2013) describe as part

of the emerging group of psychologists in the Caribbean with psychological knowledge

based on the validity of perspectives that mirror the culture it assists. Specific to schools,

there are some teachers who have received some professional training in mental health.

These teachers provide some mental health services and counselling to students in crisis

(Aire & Stevens, 2013; van Schalkwyk & Sit, 2013). Overall, however, it is left to

teachers in schools in Grenada to perform many of the roles that in other school systems

are allotted to professionals in guidance services. There is no information on how

teachers perceive and conduct this role, and thus a gap in knowledge exists in that there is

no formal research regarding teacher perceptions of the psychological services available

in Grenada, the importance of addressing the learning and psychological needs of

children in classrooms, the tasks they perform to address those needs, and the function of

a school psychologist. This study is necessary to fill the gap and provide information on

teachers’ perspectives in a particular cultural context.

Problem Statement

For development of school psychology in different cultural contexts, it is essential

to know the function school psychologists perform worldwide (Jimerson et al., 2004).

Internationally, the importance of school psychology/school psychologists and their

interaction with teachers is widely known. Crucial in this process is teacher perception.

During the past 30 years, some studies have been done internationally in countries

including the United States and England on teachers’ perceptions of school psychological

services and school psychologists (Farrell et al., 2005; Gilman & Gabriel, 2004; Gilman

& Medway, 2007; Kikas, 1999; Reinke et al., 2011; Watkins et al., 2001;). However, a

review of the literature revealed few studies between 2013 and 2018 specifically on

school psychology and school psychologists and teacher perception. One study was found

from China (Wang et al., 2015) and another from Macao, a division of China (van

Schalkwyk & Sit, 2013). Thus, there is a gap in knowledge about teachers’ perspectives

regarding school psychological services that are culturally based in Grenada where no

formal school psychological services are present. This may be significant in cultures such

as Grenada where teachers have been singularly responsible for children’s learning and

any associated learning problems.

In developing countries such as Grenada, within general education, some teachers

were identified to provide professional support in classrooms for their colleagues and

students. They are named the Special Education Needs (SEN) teachers. Based on requests

from the general education teachers, SEN teachers are charged with the responsibility of

addressing the students’ needs (Ministry of Education, 2006). In the priority of

stakeholders who address the needs of students, SEN teachers may be fulfilling roles that

would be typically done by a school psychologist. Thus, SEN teachers’ perspectives

would be the most significant to better understand mental health in the classroom. For the

purposes of this study, perceptions of the SEN teachers were the focus rather than

teachers in the general education because SEN teachers are the ones who specifically

provide direct services related to mental health and other issues in the classrooms. The

gap in knowledge concerns (a) perspectives regarding school psychologists in settings

where school psychology is not established and, specifically (b) the perspectives of SEN

teachers. We do not know SEN teachers’ understanding and perceptions of (a) the

importance of school psychology and school psychological services in meeting students’

needs, (b) whether students’ needs are being met, or (c) the roles SEN teachers may play

within the provision of such services. Therefore, although we know the potential

importance of school psychology and school psychologists internationally, in Grenada,

we do not know SEN teachers’ perceptions. This reality particularly limits practitioners

attempting to implement school psychology for the first time into a school system

(Rhodes, 2000).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to explore, examine, and know the perspectives of

teachers, specifically SEN teachers, in the developing country of Grenada regarding the

roles school psychological services play in meeting the learning and mental health needs

of students. Grenada, like many of its counterpart nations in the Caribbean, operates a

school system in which no formalized school psychologist or school psychology

department has previously existed. When there is no school psychologist or formalized

school psychological services in schools as in the case of Grenada, it becomes imperative

to discover SEN teachers’ perceptions. This study explores SEN teachers’ perceptions

regarding: (a) the roles formal school psychology and school psychological services

could play in meeting the academic and psychological needs of students in schools, (b)

the importance of addressing those needs, (c) the school academic and mental health

supports/services that are available, (d) SEN teachers’ roles within the provision of the

services, and (e) perceived barriers regarding their roles. There are heightened

requirements for accountability of student academic and behavior performance from

teachers (Ministry of Education, Human Resource Development and Religious Affairs,

2018; The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Secretariat, 2012). I

surmised teachers’ perspectives would assist in charting a culturally contextualized way

forward for school psychological services in Grenada.

Research Questions

The research questions and interview questions are concerned with documenting

and analyzing SEN teachers’ experiences and perspectives in Grenada. They are centered

on examination of the literature on teacher perception and school psychologists and

school psychological services.

Research Question 1

What are Special Education Needs (SEN) teachers’ perceptions of the academic

and mental health needs of the students in government operated primary schools

in Grenada?

Research Question 2

What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the existing psychological and related

services available in schools in Grenada?

Research Question 3

What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the function formal school psychology and

school learning and mental health services could play in meeting the needs of

students in schools in Grenada?

Conceptual Framework

This study uses Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory as its foundation. This theory

posits an individual’s functioning is connected inextricably in the environment in which

the individual exists (Nastasi et al., 2004). The participatory culture-specific intervention

model (PCISM; Nastasi et al., 2004) provides the framework for this study. PCSIM uses

participatory interpersonal processes with participants serving as cultural brokers to

promote ecological validity of research (Nastasi et al., 2004). Bronfenbrenner’s

ecological framework and qualitative research methods are most suitable for conducting

PCSIM given its participatory nature. Additional explanation is provided in Chapter 2.

PCSIM will be used to construct a vision of future intent mainly understanding

the Grenadian context for developing school psychological services. PCSIM is used to (a)

elicit teacher worldviews, personal theories, and perceptions of school psychology and

school psychological services; (b) allow identification of aspects contributing to school

psychology positively and negatively; and (c) inform design of culturally appropriate

services (Nastasi et al., 2000; Varjas et al., 2005). PCSIM supplies benefits to participants

and researchers and is an excellent model for school psychologists in multicultural

practice (Nastasi, 2006). Listening to the voices of the SEN teachers to define

psychological well-being and associated characteristics in the Grenadian context is aptly

suited to the initial three phases of system entry and relationship building within PCSIM

(Bell et al., 2015).

Nature of the Study

This qualitative study, using interviews and my research journal, investigated

SEN teachers’ perspectives. In this study of SEN teachers’ perceptions of the availability

of services to help address the academic and psychological needs of students, qualitative

research gave privilege to teacher perspectives; illuminated their subjective meanings,

actions and context; provided a complex detailed understanding of their perceptions;

allowed them to talk directly, and permitted them to tell the stories of their profession,

unencumbered by expectations or prior knowledge of effective school psychological

services (Creswell, 2007). It allowed me to (a) explore the existing problem regarding

how SEN teachers perceive school psychological and mental health service support in

schools, (b) use open-ended questions and interviews with SEN teachers in their natural

setting, and (c) obtain a diverse, abundant, and unique account from each SEN teacher on

her perceptions and experiences of the psychological and mental health services available

in schools in Grenada.

There are at least 18 SEN teachers in 31 primary schools in Grenada. They are

assigned to all parishes. The number of students per SEN teacher range from 16 to 42. In

total they provide support to 400+ students. SEN teachers have obtained some training in

special and inclusive education and in working with students who are visually impaired at

the local level. Plans for SEN teachers include sourcing on-line training programs leading

to certification at the degree level in special/inclusive education for working with

students who are visually impaired (Ministry of Education, 2006). Further details

concerning the nature of the study are given in Chapter 3.

Definitions

The Caribbean Community (CARICOM): CARICOM consists of 15-member

countries and 5 associate member countries (CARICOM, 2019). The member countries

have comparable constitutional, societal, academic and traditional systems, the result of

British colonization (Maharaj et al., 2009). In CARICOM, Grenada is the tiniest and most

southern state in the Winward Islands (Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Dominica).

Grenada: Three islands Grenada, Carriacou and Petite Martinique make up the

state of Grenada. The country has a population of 103,328 (males 52,651; females

50,677) (Government of Grenada, 2011). In 2010, Infant mortality was 6.9 per 1000 live

births, birth rate 15%, and life expectancy females was 73 years and 69 years for males.

The population of Grenada is mainly of African, European, and Indian descent. The

official language is English, and the major religion is Christianity. The island of Grenada

has six parishes, namely the capital St. George, St. Andrew, St. Patrick, St. Mark, St.

David, and St. John. Carriacou and Petite Martinique encompass the seventh parish.

Grenada has a reported literacy rate of 94% (Government of Grenada, 2013). The

education system is akin to that of England, with children completing a compulsory

primary and secondary education prior to leaving school at 16+ years. Education and

support services are provided free to students aged 3-16+years. The 57 government-

operated primary schools (students ages 4-17+ years) include faith-based schools.

Government-operated primary schools provide free education to students. In faith-based

school, the government pays the salaries of teachers. The faith-based schools, however,

are run by boards of the faith, and they have input into the teachers selected to work in

their schools. They also provide free education to students.

Special Education Needs (SEN) teacher: SEN teachers refer to teachers in

Grenada with the University of the West Indies (UWI) teacher certification and at least

five (5) years teaching experience. SEN teacher roles include advocacy and

communication among relevant stakeholders. Their service delivery includes

identification, assessment, instruction, monitoring, and reassessment of students

experiencing difficulties in the education system (Ministry of Education, 2006). The

teachers are chosen to work with students, teachers, principals, and other relevant

specialists to ensure the academic, social, behavioral, health and sensory needs of

students referred to them are catered to and monitored in order that progress is

maintained. SEN teachers are required to support teachers in general education

classrooms, and the teachers are expected to utilize SEN teachers’ services. This

interaction between SEN teachers and other teachers is critical in meeting the academic

and psychological needs of students in schools (Ministry of Education). Teachers depend

upon the SEN teachers to assist when students experience difficulties meeting curricula

and behavioral expectations and with meeting students’ special educational, social and

emotional needs (SSSU). SEN teachers are not assigned a particular grade but offer

support informal assessment and remedial programs. They use a push-in method where

they go into classrooms and offer support as needed, or a pull-out method where they

take students from the classroom and give them planned support for 30 minutes to an

hour. SEN teachers also provide staff development sessions for school staff.

School psychologist: The school psychologist is a position framed around the

criteria set for school psychologists in the United States that is included under the SSSU

but has never been operational. School psychologists assess and evaluate the psycho-

educational development and needs of students who are indicated as having difficulties to

function effectively in school, cultivate and take charge in the execution of programs that

empower students to accomplish suitable attainment and regulation, and to consult with

other SSSU personnel, teachers and parents concerning their requirements/concerns

(Ministry of Education).

Government operated primary schools: These schools refer to those in Grenada

including denominational (faith-based) where the government pays the salaries of

teachers.

Student Support Services Unit (SSSU): The SSSU is the practical expression of

one of the most important sub-objectives of the Strategic Plan of the Ministry of

Education 2006-2015 (SPEED II). Namely its purpose is “to develop enabling conditions

for full participation of at-risk and excluded children within the context of gender parity”

(Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 39). The SSSU, established in 2008, supplies a

collection of fundamental services and student development programs. Hurdles students

face are addressed by the SSSU and each student is helped to achieve his/her potential.

The aim of the SSU is to guarantee student retention and graduation from one academic

stream to another.

Assumptions

This study is built on several assumptions. The assumptions were: (a)

identification of participants who work with children, particularly those considered to

have special educational needs would be obtained through the Ministry of Education, (b)

access to SEN teachers would not be difficult to establish, (c) SEN teachers would be

willing to participate and respond candidly and truthfully to the questions offered, (d)

SEN teachers would participate fully, and (e) the SEN program would not be terminated.

Scope and Delimitations

Teachers in private schools are not in the study because the SEN teacher program

only operates in government operated schools. The SEN teacher program is specific to

Grenada. The results may not be generalized to teachers of government operated schools

in Grenada and the other countries in the region.

Limitations

The study results will be limited to SEN teachers in government operated schools

in Grenada. Selective distribution exists, as the total number of SEN teachers is unknown.

Subsequently, the exact percentage of actual SEN teachers represented is unknown.

Significance

This study contributes valuable documentation, analysis, insight, and information

in several ways. First, information was gained about the perspectives, expectations, and

experiences of SEN teachers regarding students’ academic and mental health needs in

schools in Grenada and school psychology and school psychological services. Second,

information was gained about SEN teachers’ understanding of the importance of

academic and school psychological amenities in schools for students. Thus, the study

provided insight into contextual stimuli that may prove useful for enhancing students’

holistic development. It also supports changes to educational practices to significantly

improve access to education for all. Advocacy can be given for the inclusion of

evidenced-based interventions. Improved support and effective delivery of services to

meet the needs and expectations of teacher and better service to students may arise from

this research (see Farrell et al. 2005). Such research may lead to improved student

integration, attendance, and performance. This study may provide information for reform

and capacity building that can help the government and school districts understand how

to implement the services and how to incorporate school psychological services as part of

the overall school infrastructure. It may also provide information on teacher knowledge,

resources, and how to train and support teachers during training (see Jimerson, Graydon,

et al., 2006). Third, SEN can gain information on services available to meet or not meet

student needs, including their roles and the roles other professionals such as school

psychologists play in in meeting students’ needs. Fourth, this study augments the bulk of

data in the literature on the expansion of school psychology deemed particularly

important to understand the characteristics, training, role, responsibilities, challenges, and

research interests of school psychologists around the world (Brown et al., 2012; Jimerson

et al. 2004). Fifth, on a broader level, psychology exists in many countries of the world.

Yet, in many others such as Grenada, school psychology is nonexistent (Jimerson, Skokut

et al., 2008). Member countries of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) share many

common characteristics and this research may further develop school psychology in the

region. Fifth, on an international level, this research may add to the body of knowledge,

and supply distinctive insights concerning similarities, variations, and diversity among

school psychologists in diverse countries (Jimerson, Graydon et al., 2008; Jimerson,

Graydon et al., 2006). Thus, the research may aid in future development and integration

of school psychologists into school systems across the region.

Summary

Research has documented the necessity for school psychologists to work with

stakeholders especially teachers (Farrell et al., 2005). School psychologists work in

schools and collaborate with teachers to help children overcome academic and behavioral

problems. Without the collaboration of school psychologists and teachers, children in

schools may experience difficulties. Ultimately, the intent of this study is to assist SEN

teachers to enhance their capacity, teacher capacity and students’ holistic development.

Students can be helped to achieve their best in school and beyond.

Chapter 2 gives details on the literature review that was done regarding school

psychology, school psychological services and teacher perception. It also informs how

academic and mental health services (including assessment and intervention), cultural

contexts and educational practices worldwide govern school psychology and impact the

services which children are provided in school.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Teachers are important collaborators in the giving of health and social material

(Van Hout et al., 2012). In the developing country of Grenada, teachers are the primary

professionals charged with the academic and psychological well being of students in

schools. Teachers and students in schools are supported by many professionals including

school psychologists. Thus, it is crucial to determine teachers’ perceptions of services

that are available to help them address students’ academic and psychological needs.

Internationally, much has been studied on teachers’ perceptions of school psychological

services and school psychologists. Much less research has been conducted during the past

5 years on teachers’ perceptions of areas such as school psychological services,

particularly where there are no formalized school psychological services or school

psychologists, or where these are emerging or new. The purpose of this study is to speak

to this gap in information and conduct research regarding teachers particularly SEN

teachers’ perceptions in those situations.

The literature reviewed in this chapter informs how teachers perceive school

psychological services and school psychologists’ multivaried roles in the school setting.

The search engines, terms and process used to explore current research on the topic are

presented. Research on the conceptual framework and relevant studies are also provided.

Chapter 2 closes with a summary and transition into Chapter 3.

Literature Search Strategy

A comprehensive review of the literature was done utilizing several sources of

information from the Walden University Library. Available databases were used. The

databases which provided the most relevant literature included Thoreau Walden

University, Library Academic Search Premier, Academic Search Complete, PsycINFO,

PsycEXTRA, Education Source, Education Research Complete, Sage Journals, Pro Quest

Central, ERIC, and Teacher Reference Center. Boolean/Phrase investigatory terms were:

teacher AND perception AND psychologist, switched with the search terms psychology,

school, special, education, teacher perception AND school psychology, teacher attitudes

AND school psychology, teacher views AND school psychology, switched with the

search terms AND programs and services, AND new program, AND in psychology,

teacher perspective AND school psychologist, APA AND perception AND school

psychology, teacher perception AND new AND psychology program, teacher attitude

AND implementing new AND school psychology, implementing school AND psychology

and teacher AND perception attitude opinion or experience or view or reflection or

beliefs, teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology

AND programs and services, psychology AND Grenada, psychology AND school AND

Grenada, psychology AND teacher AND Grenada, psychology AND child AND

Grenada, school AND Grenada, mental AND school AND Grenada, mental AND child

AND Grenada, mental AND teacher AND Grenada, mental AND student AND

Grenada, school psychology AND mental health AND schools global, school psychology

AND mental health AND schools Grenada, school psychology in countries, research

AND school psychologist AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views,

literature AND school psychologist AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or

teacher views, study AND school psychologist AND teacher perception or teacher

attitudes or teacher views, Bronfenbrenner AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes

or teacher views AND school psychology or school psychologist, ecological AND

teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology or

school psychologist, community and school AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes

or teacher views AND school psychology or school psychologist, consultation AND

teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology or

school psychologist, LGBT AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views

AND school psychology or school psychologist, social justice AND teacher perception

or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology or school psychologist,

inclusive education AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND

school psychology or school psychologist, response to intervention AND teacher

perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology or school

psychologist, learning disabilities AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or

teacher views AND school psychology or school psychologist, reading AND teacher

perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views AND school psychology or school

psychologist, literature AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or teacher views

AND school psychological, research AND teacher perception or teacher attitudes or

teacher views AND school psychological, study AND teacher perception or teacher

attitudes or teacher views AND school psychological. The only limiter was peer-

reviewed articles. The date was not limited to allow for historical significance of the area

of study in the literature. References from the articles also provided additional sources of

literature.

The literature search yielded research on teachers’ perceptives of the

psychological services available in educational institutions and the multivaried roles of

school psychologists internationally. A dearth of relevant studies were found for

developing countries, particularly those in the Caribbean or West Indies. The available

studies on teacher perception of school psychologists and school psychological services

surround the areas of (a) health, including mental health, social emotional functioning,

spirituality, crisis and trauma; (b) academics, including inclusion, learning disabilities,

retention, reading, RTI, evidence based practices, interventions and programs; (c)

behavior; (d) Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Questioning (LGBTQ); (e) social

justice; and (f) consultation, mutlticulturalism, ecological factors, community school

based partnerships and participatory research.

Teacher Perception

Roles of the School Psychologist

Teachers and school psychologists have to work together. School psychologists

have multifaceted roles within schools (Thielking & Jimerson, 2006). Differences in the

way teachers and school psychologists intellectualize and approach their work can cause

fractures and ineffective systems of services for children in schools (Capella, Jackson, et

al., 2011). Thus, it is very important to investigate and comprehend the perspectives of

teachers concerning the roles of school psychologists (Thielking & Jimerson, 2006).

On an international level, prior research reports there are differences in the

perspectives of school psychologists and teachers concerning the roles of the school

psychologist related to limitations, dual relationships, and ethical dilemmas (Thielking &

Jimerson, 2006). Stakeholders including teachers reported on effective leadership

practices demonstrated by school psychologists (Augustyniak et al., 2016). Additional

classroom participation by the school psychologist was wanted and needed (Gray, n.d.).

Further, internationally, teachers perceive school psychologists’ services as valuable,

would like to see them more often, and employ equal time across all the services they

provide (Farrell et al. 2005). In a study of the perceptions of school counselors, teachers

in special and regular education, and school psychologists, statistically significant

differences were found based on status, level of school, and geographical position of

school regarding the perception of problems presented by students and mental health

services that are present in the community and schools (Repie, 2005). Mental health

professionals, compared to teachers, were found to be significantly more concerned with

the mental health needs of students (Moon et al., 2017). Researchers reported a lack of

understanding among general educators regarding the role of school psychologists

(Rezzetano & House, 2009). Significant differences were found between education

professionals, teachers and administrators about school psychologists’ responsibilities

and tasks within the sectors (Gilman & Gabriel, 2004). Between group differences were

also found among education professionals’, teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions

regarding the competence and usefulness of services provided in schools for mental

health with respect to knowledge, satisfaction, and perceived helpfulness of school

psychological services and the referral process itself (Gilman & Gabriel, 2004). Teachers

in regular education reported lower levels of comprehension of school psychology,

perceived school psychologists as less useful to teachers, and reported fewer fulfillments

with school psychology services in comparison to teachers in special education (Gilman

& Medway, 2007). Further, both sets of teachers had a narrow comprehension of the

scope of services provided by school psychologists and viewed school counselors as

conveying more services than school psychologists (Gilman & Medway, 2007). In

China, teachers perceived school psychologists’ roles as primarily concentrated on

services for students, with great stress on prevention and early intervention (Wang et al.,

2015). Some teachers were satisfied with the job being done by the school psychologists;

other teachers are dissatisfied due to the perception the school psychologists lack training

and skills (Wang et al., 2015). School psychologists in China were challenged by low

status, insufficient training and proficiencies and work-linked stress (Wang et al., 2015).

In general, school communities hold a conventional outlook of school

psychology. The school communities’ outlook and perceptions regarding school

psychologists was considered a main influence on the scope of services school

psychologists provided (Mendes et al., 2017). In the past, school psychologists were

reported to not be completely sure of their role, which led to difficulty in communicating

with other disciplines and confusion and antagonism regarding psychological evaluations

of school children (Roberts & Solomon, 1970). The school psychologist role is essential

in the required collaboration in public education (Glass & Rose, 2009). Internationally,

researchers note the importance of school psychology and the vital roles school

psychologists played in the prevention of academic and mental health problems and

addressing the academic and mental health needs of students (Oakland, 2003; Thielking

& Jimerson, 2006). School psychologists form partnerships across education, medical,

and family systems (Bradley-Klug & Sundman, 2010). School psychologists’ varied roles

make a significant contribution to the overall development of children in schools (Cook

et al. 2010). Distinctively located amongst school systems, school psychologists have

extensive influence in implementing most wanted transformation in children (Cook et al.

2010). School psychologists are trained to provide psychological and collaborative

services and conduct studies (Zeng & Bordeaux, 2011). They deliver services that merge

education with psychology to support students’ most favorable academic, emotional, and

social functioning in schools (Williams, 2010). Within national laws and policies, they

also provide several types of services and are involved in improving children’s learning

outcomes (Decker, 2008).

The school psychologists’ role has been improved by the increase of the

community schools’ movement and fundamental trends in education including response-

to-intervention approaches and early literacy projects and additional vital movements in

education (Glass & Rose, 2009). School psychologists viewed themselves as (a)

extremely well positioned to work with students, (b) able to dispense time proportionally

among clients of all ages, and (c) giving focus and competency on older clients (Mendes

et al., 2017).

School psychologists are expected to communicate effectively to assist in

producing an encouraging learning environment for students (Macdonald, 2011).

Effective school psychology falls under the banner of leadership (Shriberg et al., 2010).

School psychologists believe they are leaders and propose that leadership in schools is

anticipated from them across domains of practice mainly in the academic, behavior and

crisis areas (Shriberg et al., 2010). As a leader, the school psychologist is able to attain

positive outcomes for students and systems, is competent, knowledgeable, and has

powerful interpersonal skills and personal character (Shriberg et al., 2010). School

psychologists have a role as educational leaders, and it is vital that they become

knowledgeable about the school as a whole system (Lay, 2010). In the process, school

psychologists also have to provide systems-level communication (Bradley-Klug &

Sundman, 2010) and have interdisciplinary coordination with counselors, school social

workers, teachers, administrative staff, and parents (Cook et al., 2010).

Consultation

Consultation is an underutilized source of data that should be tapped by

consultation researchers such as school psychologists who care about both finding and

distributing effective practices into school settings (Conoley et al., 2009). Teacher traits

are primarily credited for both success and failure experiences by consultants and

contributes more so to failure than attainment (Martin & Curtis, 1981). Teacher

characteristics include teacher bias, prejudice, racism, interpersonal issues, and confusion

about distinguishing academic difficulties due to language acquisition from those due to

cognitive learning problems (O’Bryon & Rogers, 2016). Teacher resistant behavior is

also reported to impact consultation therapeutic behavior (Cautili et al., 2006) and teacher

perceptions and openness to everyday school psychologists’ consultation services

(Gonzalez et al., 2004). Consultee’s resistance led to a decrease in therapeutic

questioning by participants, enhanced adverse perceptions of the consultee, and

consultant’s absenteeism (Cautili et al. 2006). However, when teachers are in conditions

that they perceive match their expectation for consultation, significantly higher ratings

are given for the consultants and interventions than are given by teachers in mismatched

conditions (Tysinger et al., 2009). The National Association of School Psychologists

(NASP) informs that consultation is intricately woven within the provision of mental

health services and advocates for the examination of ecological systems that impact the

methods, interventions, and results of consultation in school. (Castro-Villarreal &

Rodriquez, 2017). Consultation is also impacted by gendered factors. Female school

psychologists view soft bases as the categories of information, expert, legitimate

dependency, personal reward, referent, and hard bases as the categories of impersonal

reward, impersonal coercion, legitimate position, legitimate reciprocity, and legitimate

equity (Erchul et al., 2004 p. 584) as more successful than male school psychologists.

Female psychologists also use “soft power strategies”, compared to “harsh power

strategies” (Wilson et al., 2008 p. 103). In the more developed countries, the problem-

solving consultation process can be enhanced within a computer-simulated school

environment (Newell, 2010). School psychologist underestimate how important emails

are to teachers (Kruger et al., 2001). Macdonald (2011) recommended school

psychologists use electronic communication to communicate remotely and quickly

regarding the role of the school psychologists. In less developed countries, mental health

services can be successfully delivered to small groups of schools through group

consultation (Nugent et al., 2014).

Child Health

Teachers in general education perceived they were not equipped to work with

students with chronic conditions. They did not talk about the illnesses with the students

or their classmates, had lowered expectations, and were more indulgent in grading for

their academic output (Duggan et al., 2004; Papadakos et al., 2002). The teachers also

perceived they wanted greater collaboration and support from health professionals

including school psychologists (Papadatou et al., 2002). In the field of special education,

teachers also perceived they are less self-confident than teachers in regular education to

address the learning needs of students plagued by enduring health illnesses (Nabors et al.,

2008). School psychologists provide assistance to special education teachers (Nabors et

al., 2008). In addition, regular education teachers may also gain from education to

develop their comprehensions about operating with students who have prolonged health

conditions (Nabors et al., 2008).

Internationally, school psychologists often work with individuals and groups in

other specialty fields. There are many benefits to be derived from collaboration and

consultation amongst school psychologists, allied providers of health, doctors (Sulkowski

et al., 2011) and teachers (Nabors, 2005; Nabors et al., 2008). School psychologists’

broad scope of knowledge facilitate consultation with teachers regarding (a) children’s

learning, education, and performance at school, with supports at school (e.g., health

linked adjustments for the classrooms, and recommendations) (Kucera & Sullivan, 2011;

Wodrich & Cunningham, 2008); and (b) contact with practitioners in the medical field

(Wodrich & Cunningham, 2008) for children with health-related concerns. In schools,

school psychologists assist in the integration and/or reintegration of children with cancer

(Bradley-Klug & Sundman, 2010; Harris, 2009), leukemia (Hermann et al., 2011; Long,

2011; Schmitt, 2011) epilepsy, Type 1 diabetes mellitus (Kucera & Sullivan, 2011;

Wodrich & Cunningham, 2008), early-onset Type 2 diabetes (Irving et al., 2008), and

when children are involved with substance abuse (Burrow-Sanchez et al., 2009).

Changes in federal legislation in the United States also required evaluations to be

done with more adaptable methods (Decker, 2008). The role of school psychologist

widened to broader tiers and through consultation practice built atop proficiency in

appraisals of neurodevelopmental illnesses (Decker, 2008). Pediatric school

psychologists use evidence-based conjoint behavioral consultation to link and address

concerns of families, schools and pediatricians across systems (Sheridan et al., 2009).

Consultation and collaboration between school psychologists, teachers, parents and

medical practitioners, for example, in the case of pre-term infants also allow

identification of essential targets for holistic intervention with implications for teaching

and learning for practitioners of school-aged children (Chesney & Champion, 2008).

School psychologists assist children with chronic physical and mental health

challenges (Sulkowski et al., 2011). School psychologists comprehend educational

development and how it can be affected by childhood illnesses (Wodrich & Cunningham,

2008). School psychologists assess student’s learning, societal and responsive needs and

give information to teachers on an individual student basis to guarantee students with

chronic illnesses get suitable and wide-ranging supports in school and are fully integrated

in standard education settings as best as possible (Nabors et al., 2008). A systematic

review of children’s experiences with chronic illnesses indicated that children do not feel

comfortable in their bodies or environment, feel their regular lives are disrupted, and

think of ways they can get through their illnesses (Venning et al., 2008). School

psychologists strengthen the children’s sense of person, assist them in recognizing the

condition and creating coping skills with an optimistic outlook for the future (Venning et

al., 2008).

Mental Health

Teachers perceive school psychologists as chiefly providing selection,

assessment, progress monitoring, and referral of students in the provision of

psychological services (Reinke et al., 2011). Yet, a significant gap in research to practice

for school practices and interventions in mental health remains (Reinke et al., 2011)

including in special education (Burns & Yasseldyke, 2009). Exploring the perception of

teachers can also supply vital data about related stimuli and may help in addressing the

research-to-practice gap in school psychology practice (Reinke et al., 2011). Instruction

in mental health is considered key to a teacher’s set of skills for them to assertively

advance mental health, identify mental health issues, become informed about where to

get more specialized intervention when necessary, and add competently to continued

support for children with mental health issues (Trudgen & Lawn, 2011). In the more

developed countries, while teachers felt schools are important places to advance dialogue

on health (Cohall et al., 2007), they reported an overall dearth of proficiency and

preparation for addressing students’ psychological wellbeing (Cohall et al., 2007; Reinke

et al., 2011), and they wanted staff development workshops to address mental health

needs of children (Cohall et al., 2007). In less developed countries, such as Ethiopia,

while teachers in primary schools perceived school based mental health programs as

important and had a positive attitude on the need for them, their perceptions of

psychopathology as a mental health issue in children was limited (Kerebih et al., 2018).

Negative perceptions of students with mental health disorders (MHDs) are linked to (a)

lower confidence in skills to persuade a student to seek assistance, (b) familiarity with

MHDs, (c) knowledge and comprehension of MHDs, and (d) positive perception of the

accommodations presented by tailored and psychosocial services (St-Onge & Lemyre,

2018). Thus, it is vital to establish mental health awareness for teachers and create school

mental health services for intervention in child mental health problems (Kerebih et al.,

2018). Indeed, mental health literacy education among preservice teachers, after three

months, resulted in significant enhancement of mental health comprehension, perceptions

towards mental illness and better help seeking aims in regard to their personal mental

health and the mental health of kin and friends (Carr et al., 2018).

The existence of abstract information in a note or email shows statistically

important incongruence between the perceptions of school psychologists and teachers

about message content viewed as useful or impractical (Kruger et al., 2001). Mental

health providers are trained to focus on problem behaviors more than competencies

(Capella, Jackson, et al. 2011). They are considerably more concerned about the mental

health needs of students than teachers (Moon et al., 2017). They also use a personal one-

on-one approach with a student rather than within the whole setting milieu (Capella,

Jackson, et al., 2011). School professionals concentrate on student performance and

possibly see psychological issues as obstacles to student achievement (Capella, Jackson,

et al., 2011).

Internationally, teachers referred children as being anxious when teachers

perceived (a) an effect on learning in children, (b) nonconforming child behavior, (c) the

children’s problems they reported did not mend after some time, (c) the children reacted

poorly to people they didn’t know, (d) they required assistance, and (e) the information

they obtained from the parents and guardians supported the need for referral (Hinchliffe

& Campbell, 2016). Internationally, school psychologists work together with other

professionals to develop resilient attributes among children to assist them in charting a

future with fulfillment, assurance, and hopefulness (Goldstein & Brooks, 2009). School

psychologists can provide assistance with other stakeholders in the areas of childhood

depression (Ruderman et al., 2013), schizophrenia (Hernandez et al., 2013) and anorexia

nervosa (Jimerson, & Pavelski, 2000). School psychologists educate young people on

their individual mental health, the mental health of others, and how to work together with

service users to challenge discrimination against students with mental health problems

(Sholl et al., 2010). School psychologists play varied roles in addressing the research-to-

practice gap. On a broader level, advocacy is given by Kazak et al. (2010) for a structure

inclusive of many systems including families, cultural customs and systems of mental

health for the provision of evidence-based practices (EBP) for children’s and adolescents’

needs and parent-teacher and child concentrated approaches (Levine & Anshel, 2011).

Teachers’ perceptions of EBPs are impacted by the processes of organizing, executing

and appraising in their school districts (Maras et al., 2014). School psychologists are

more and more pinpointed to be the leading professionals in employing EBPs within

psychological services in educational settings. They are obliged to be action oriented,

highly knowledgeable of EBPs and to provide efficient service (Splett & Maras, 2011).

EBPs include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for conduct problems and anxiety

(Allen, 2011), depressive disorder (Stark et al., 2011) and reduction in symptoms of

depression (Kavanagh et al., 2009). Feeney-Kettler et al. (2010) advocate for

psychometrically sound measures that are also cost efficient for screening young children

with mental problems, to stave off additional adverse effects on their development and

enlighten development of programs.

In developing countries, children and youth with psychological issues have

insufficient and inadequate provision of mental health services (Lund et al., 2009).

Depression is linked with youth who were previously malnourished, or malnourished in

early childhood (Galler et al., 2010), children screened with a family background of

early-onset type 2 diabetes (Irving et al., 2008), and being a victim of cyberbullying

(Perren et al., 2010). In St. Vincent in the Caribbean, use of the Revised Behavior

Problem Checklist (RBPC), a tool reported to be culturally appropriate, showed in

addition to cognitive ability, the academic performance of children living in villages was

significantly influenced by problems with attention and anxiety much more so than their

American counterparts (Durbrow et al., 2000; Jimerson et al., 2006). In the Caribbean,

the system of placement of students into secondary schools is linked with symptoms of

depression in students (Lipps et al., 2010). The system places students with the highest

scores on national competency examinations into their school of choice while students

with lower scores are placed in schools that are lower on their preference of choice

(Lipps et al., 2010).

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Methodical examination of research on ADHD has linked it with compromised

quality of life (QoL) and physical, psychological, and social functioning compared to

other mental health conditions and severe physical disorders (Danckaerts et al., 2010).

Initially, on average, personnel who provided support services to students perceived that

a variety of approaches generally used to treat ADHD were ineffective (Graczyk et al.,

2005). Overall knowledge of ADHD by teachers was reported to be poor, with teachers

more knowledgeable about symptoms and diagnosis than treatment and general

knowledge (Perold et al., 2010). Further, level of knowledge of special education teachers

was reported to be negatively correlated with years of experience and was not

significantly greater than general education teachers’ level of knowledge (Weyandt et al.,

2009). Training was deemed the key component to addressing teachers’ perceptions of

teaching students with ADHD (Rush & Harrison, 2008). Zambo (2008) advocated

information on ADHD should be imbedded into the coursework of preservice teachers

provided by mentors who know how to work with students with ADHD. There are

several important considerations regarding knowledge, training, and teacher perception.

No significant connection has been found between knowledge of ADHD and teacher

practice (Blotnicky-Gallant et al., 2015). Further, years of teaching experience are

correlated negatively with teacher knowledge and opinion of instructing children with

ADHD (Anderson et al., 2012). Internationally, teachers have both positive and negative

attitudes toward instructing children with ADHD (Anderson et al., 2012). In Trinidad and

Tobago, while teachers generally had a positive attitude to students displaying

characteristics of ADHD, their knowledge of ADHD was low, and they thought the

students should be taught by experts (Youssef et al., 2015).

Student and teacher characteristics impact ratings and identification of ADHD

results (DuPaul et al., 2014). Teachers’ perceptions of working with adolescent students

diagnosed with ADHD related to high confidence and willingness, uneasiness and

frustration, behavior issues, teaching issues, and training (Rush & Harrison, 2008).

Younger adolescents were perceived as presenting more problematic characteristics, and

boys were perceived as presenting more symptoms than girls (Evans et al., 2013).

Exploration needs to be done on how girls with ADHD differ from boys with ADHD and

girls not identified with ADHD (Zambo et al., 2013). Teacher perception of students

diagnosed with ADHD is also impacted by multiculturalism and culture. When the

perspective that all cultures should be treated equally is reduced, this (a) leads to teachers

having fewer positive perceptions and interactions with students with ADHD (Thijs et al.,

2012), (b) impacts teacher referral behaviors (Lee, 2014), and (c) leads to African

Americans diagnosed with ADHD being rated with higher levels of symptoms and

deficiencies than their Caucasian counterparts (Evans et al., 2013). In more developed

countries, however, school psychologists have significantly greater knowledge of

attention hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than both the general and special education

teachers (Weyandt et al., 2009) and school psychologists can assess, understand, and

support students with ADHD (DuPaul & Jimerson, 2014). However, caution is given

when determining accommodations such as extended time for students diagnosed with

ADHD (Lovett & Leja, 2015). In determining accommodations for example, use of

extended time may not be a successful strategy for students including those with ADHD

who experience difficulties in management skills (Lovett & Leja, 2015).

The Use of Medication

A review of teachers’ perception on medication among several treatment options

indicated teachers are willing to work with treatment options for ADHD including

medication (Ohan et al., 2011). School psychologists willingly monitor the effects of

medication for students diagnosed with disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD) (Gureaskl-Moore et al., 2005). Thus, both school psychologists and

teachers can work together in this area. Culture may impact teacher perceptions of

medication use for students in schools. In the United Kingdom, teachers viewed the

distribution of psychopharmaceutic negatively and displayed a partiality for

psychotherapeutic approaches to inclusion (Barker & Mills, 2018). In some developing

countries, teachers accept the need for pharmacological treatment for pupils diagnosed

with ADHD in their classrooms; however, not only do they perceive it as dishonorable,

they also do not discuss its need with parents for concern parents will think the teachers

perceive their children as flawed (Fleischmann & Dabbah, 2019). In other countries,

teachers perceived a combination of medication and behavioral interventions as the best

approach. Implementation of many treatment strategies in a reliable manner during

school years was reported as providing the best support for the success of students with

ADHD (DuPaul et al., 2011; Fabiano et al. 2007).

The American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Association of

School Psychologists (NASP) provide standards of psychopharmacology training

(Roberts et al., 2009). There is, however, a paucity of systematic well-conducted trials

about pharmacological agents and the management of disorders such as pervasive

developmental disorder (PDD) (Sung et al., 2010). Additional study is necessary in this

area including the perceptions of stakeholders. Valuation of drug helpfulness in students

can have involvement of school psychologists based on their education in data-based

evaluation and involvement (Roberts et al., 2009). Relevant training would allow for

collaboration with doctors to provide (a) feedback on medical interventions (Roberts et

al., 2009), (b) guidelines necessary for safe medication administration and monitoring,

and (c) guidelines given at the federal, state and district levels (Mazur-Mosiewicz et al.,

2009). School psychologists desire additional participation in medication evaluations,

improved collaboration with medical practitioners and better training in matters related to

drug treatment (Singh & Epstein, 1990). In the Caribbean, education, information,

training, and legislation are needed to discourage self-medication with antibiotics in

children (Parimi et al, 2004).

Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)

Teachers play a significant role in the social and emotional learning (SEL) of

children. They assist students to develop appropriate social skills, interpreting play

situations and cues, sharing viewpoints and shared addressing of problems, or analyzing

interactions and culturally appropriate strategies (Jimerson et al., 2009). Teachers

perceive SEL is vital and schools should take an active role. They value the provision of

training and support from varied professionals and perceive present pressure of academic

requirements lessen the prospects for SEL (Buchanan et al., 2009).

Both teachers and parents acknowledge necessity for professional support from

collaborative engagement of services from varied agencies to address SEL in schools

(Hackett et al., 2010). Teacher’s perceptions of students with social-emotional and

behavioral difficulties (SEBD) involve examining characteristics of children teachers

perceive as having SEBD (Soles et al., 2008) and the psychological support they receive

from personnel on school-based support teams serving children with disabilities (Malone

& Gallagher, 2010). Children’s school and home behaviors, self-control, social skills,

self-esteem (Yeo, & Choi, 2001), level of development, and sex are deemed important in

the evaluation of social mastery, especially disposition and social play (Mendez et al.,

2002). Starting and maintaining play in a group is greatest linked with younger boys

(Mendez et al. 2002). Hackett et al. (2010) reported that teachers’ perceptions of student

social, emotional and behavioral difficulties are much higher than the national level of

perceived mental health difficulties. Teachers perception of their principals’ expectations

predicted how teachers behaved toward students with social, emotional, and behavioral

difficulties (Mac Farlene & Woolfson, 2013). Thijs et al. (2008) noted the necessity to

study teacher perception and the inclusion of how the teacher viewed the teacher-child

relationship when children are suggested for emotional or social problems. Also

important is the consideration of aims of assessments done by teachers when picking

wide-ranging tools to screen children requiring extra help or at SEBD risk (Miller et al.,

2015).

Poulou (2005) advocated for teachers to participate in the creation of programs for

skills related to emotional and behavioral difficulties. Most teachers did not possess

knowledge of nine out of ten programs to address emotional and behavioral problems.

They were unsure if schools provided (a) specific assessments and interventions to

support students, (b) functional behavior assessments (FBA), or (c) intervention planning

(Stormont et al., 2011).

Empathetic teacher actions are a significant trait of positive teacher-student

interaction (Thijs et al., 2008). More negatively perceived child-teacher relationships are

linked with poor school adjustment, particularly for boys (Blankemeyer et al., 2002).

Focus on teacher-student relationship and student-student relationship through organized

and quality instruction of social-emotional skills (SEL) and the creation of a caring, safe

and cooperative school-wide environment are two strategies deemed key for the

promotion of teacher and student engagement (Yang et al., 2018). The Child Behavior

Checklist (CBC; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983) tested in 30 societies including the

Caribbean is suggested as an evidence-based tool to assess 120 emotional, behavioral and

social problems children may experience (Ivanova et al., 2007). An extensive review

between the years 2000 and 2015 of social-emotional and mental health difficulties

(SEMH) in students found a budding evidence base for an affirmative attitude espoused

by teachers and school leaders to pupils with SEMH (Carroll & Hurry, 2018). Teachers

who attended more intensive in-service training had greater positive feelings towards

working with children with SEBD, but teachers with more experience were less willing to

work with the children (Mac Farlene & Woolfson, 2013).

Teachers’ perceptions of students’ emotional and social issues were moderately

comparable across diverse countries. Noteworthy effect ranges were established however,

with possible important variations in syndromes scores across some societies (Ivanova et

al. 2007; Morris et al., 2011). In the Caribbean, measurement of the big 5 personality

traits (agreeableness, openness to experience, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and

extraversion) in adolescents showed positive links between agreeableness, openness to

experience, conscientiousness, and extraversion, while neuroticism was negatively linked

with psychological resilience (Fayombo, 2010). Measurement of several characteristics

of well-being showed similarities among American and Caribbean adolescents (Morris et

al., 2010). Comparison of risk and protective factors among young individuals in the

Caribbean and the United States also show similarities (Blum et al., 2003).

In the United States, supportive teacher behaviors and school psychologists assist

in setting the stage for developing social-emotional learning (SEL) practices in schools

(Buchanan et al., 2009). Teachers perceive school psychologists as taking charge in

imparting social-emotional content to a greater extent than they currently do (Reinke et

al., 2011). School psychologists work with teachers to advance knowledge regarding the

characteristics of children with social, emotional and behavioral difficulties (Soles et al.,

2008). School psychologists also assist in helping children to develop connections and

healthy relations with each other (Cowan & Cohn, 2010). School psychologists, in their

role of strengthening students, are also urged to increase the efficiency of their services,

the scope of their impact on students, and increase student positive experiences (Cowan

& Cohn, 2010).

Behavior

Discipline in the classroom, positive behavior support, and self-discipline assist

teachers to work with students competently (Fanelli & Bonarrigo, 2011). Teachers

perceived themselves rather than school psychologists as possessing main responsibility

for implementing classroom-founded behavioral interventions (Reinke et al., 2011). At

the early childhood level, preschool teachers were found to give more commands to

children that they perceived as having general behavioral problems (Dobbs & Arnold,

2009). There is also variation in how teachers regard their students’ behavior in primary

and secondary schools (Nash et al., 2016). Teachers perceive both teasing and bullying as

detrimental but view teasing as social and bullying as an anti-social behavior. They used

a judgment making method which contemplated a variety of factors for their response

and the impact on how and when they intervened (Smith et al., 2010). Teachers also

perceive aggression as less appropriate than withdrawn behaviors and address all

withdrawn behaviors less proactively than they do aggressive behaviors (Nelson &

Evans-Stout, 2018). Teachers perceive themselves as interactionalist or as trying to

satisfy both themselves and their students and make decisions primarily on their students’

needs per instructional management or planning and conducting teaching and learning.

Alternately, teachers perceive themselves as interventionist or teacher as the authority

pertinent to behavior management or rules and communication (Koutrouba et al., 2018).

School psychologists primarily utilize school-based behavior discussions with

classroom teachers to supply intervention services (Fischer et al., 2016). Mayworm et al.

(2016) advocated for school psychologists to specifically include the use of targeted

teacher consultation to build teacher competency in school discipline. School

psychologists could also help teachers to manage the behavioral problems displayed by

students with ADHD (Kapalka, 2008) and collaborate with teachers and other

professionals to produce successful intervention for their behavior management in

inclusive settings (Wilkinson, 2008). School psychologists also assist students

experiencing behavioral problems. Collaboration eases the effects of targeted positive

discipline (Olley et al., 2010). School psychologists assist teachers and students to

recognize problems around teachers’ authority and resolve problems with discipline

(Yariv, 2009). They educate teachers on practices to address behavioral issues in schools.

Practices such as earning student trust and cooperation are vital (Gregory & Ripski, 2008)

and using authoritative teaching (giving kindness and control) for all students including

those with behavior problems (Baker et al. 2009).

In the Caribbean, there is a strong perceived need for training in child behavior

management for parents (Baker-Henningham, 2011). It is suggested school psychologists

use parent-teacher meetings as opportunities to offer targeted cognitive behavioral

interventions (Flanagan, 2011). In elementary and middle schools, the school

psychologist along with teachers and parents endeavor to build up a sense of community

fairness and individual rights to deal with violence including bullying (Brewer & Harlin,

2008). Internationally, the Adults and Children Together (ACT) against Violence

Training Program was reported as an evidence-based intervention, successful for both

adults and children in enhanced comprehension and outlook of information concerning

violence in childhood (Guttman et al., 2006). There is need for research on preventative

interventions that tackle both school bullying and cyber bullying and their link with

performance in school and mental health (Schneider et al., 2012).

Violence at School

In the United States, there are differences in teachers’ perceptions regarding

behaviors and violence. In Texas, while faculty, staff and administrators were against

having guns on campus, the majority of students wanted guns on campus (Beggan, 2019).

Studies have investigated the function of the school psychologist in challenges with

safety at school (Alsubie et al., 2017). In Saudi Arabia, little training in response to

school crisis intervention was received by all school personnel and schools in general

were inadequately prepared to respond in the event of the occurrence of a crisis at school

(Alsubie et al., 2017). Given the elevated occurrence of exposure to violence among

American children and adolescents, it is vital school psychologists comprehend the

consequences of violence and possess effective intervention strategies to provide trauma-

informed care in schools (Ridgard et al., 2015).

Crisis and Trauma

Teachers can serve as an efficient first source for assessing the psychological

condition of children who experienced natural disasters (Siswa et al., 2011). Teachers

reported that when they witnessed grief after the loss of a parent or loved one in children

with disabilities, they used diverse strategies to supply assistance and needed extra

training and assistance from the school psychologist (Ducy & Stough, 2018). Teachers

perceived that assistance from the school psychologist and a supportive environment

within the school helped them to feel confident in working with children after a traumatic

event (Alisic, 2012). Yet, the teachers struggled with giving best support (Alisic, 2012).

Teachers also help in referring staff and students to a crisis intervention team for

counselling (Conolly-Wilson, 2009).

Collaboration between professionals is deemed essential to effective practice

when addressing crisis (Rees & Seaton, 2011). School psychologists address crises and

trauma that arise in schools. The provision of direct service and consultation among the

school psychologist, teachers and other school professionals positively impact the lives of

children (Little et al., 2011). When teachers perceived alignment and a good match

between training in strategies cognizant of trauma and existing educational customs, they

had greater acceptability for the trauma informed approaches (Mc Intyre et al., 2019).

Interventions that are evidence based are Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma

in Schools (CBITS; Nadeem et al. 2011), trauma-focused cognitive behavior therapy

(Little & Akin-Little, 2019), strengths-based trauma-informed positive education (TIPE;

Brunzell et al., 2016), and group counseling (Leek, 2011). On district and school levels,

school psychologists provide leadership, consultation, and education to school

professionals on the impact of trauma on learning (Nadeem et al., 2011). When school

psychologists present or receive bad news, they should root their skills in what the

medical community and literature base informs about the dimensions of communication,

cultural factors, and delivering hope (Frost et al., 2010). They are urged to use a proactive

rather than a reactive approach to crisis, spend time listening to bereaved children

(Macmanus & Holland, 2011), and use a cognitive development viewpoint (Brown et al.,

2015). School psychologists should build up their cultural proficiency and work it into

the service they provide (Annandale et al., 2011). They should also provide holistic,

rights-based approaches that can access resources to address the needs of more vulnerable

children (Jones, 2008). They are also encouraged to explore the individual strengths and

limitations of teachers and create personalized advice and training (Alisic, 2012).

The Spiritual

Internationally, teachers perceive religious beliefs as a sensitive topic that they

have to balance between the law and freedom of religious expression (Liedgren, 2018).

Teachers question whether to (a) swiftly move away from the topic when it arises to

remain safe from legal and societal ramifications, (b) utilize the opportunities to deepen

student comprehension on the topic and (c) if they do, how far they should go (Hunt &

Davignon, 2016). Some schools are religion based. In Catholic schools, teachers’

perception and responses to behavior are impacted by the school, the school environment,

faith, and individual familiarity from when they attended Catholic school (Mucci, 2014).

Teachers perceive the absence of religiousness as the reason for indiscipline (Silva et al.,

2017). In Iran, in the context of bullying, teachers perceive the underlying influence of

religious beliefs and expected strict conformity by students from their parents (Salehi et

al., 2016). In Israel, teacher perception of the ideal high school student is rooted in their

belief system (Maslovaty, 2002). In developing countries, in carrying out the rituals and

services, following the sickness and death of a loved one, the greater the family’s beliefs,

the more emphasis is placed on following the dictates of their religions (Lobar et al.,

2006).

Religion impacts sex and reproductive health education (Kapinga & Hyera, 2015).

In the Caribbean, young people with a sense of connectedness with parents, school, and

who participate in church activities have lowered health-compromising behaviors (Blum

et al., 2003). School psychologists are encouraged to explore and blend the spiritual

resources of students into interventions (Jerome, 2011). They are also encouraged in

working with teachers and others to mediate between the frame of the issue (e.g.,

indiscipline) and tackling it in the context of religion and spirituality (Silva et al. 2017).

School and Partnership with the Wider Community

Internationally, teachers, school psychologists and other professionals work

together to develop resilient attributes to assist children in charting a future with

fulfillment, assurance, and hopefulness (Goldstein & Brooks, 2009). A tool useful for

assessment of the functioning of inter-professional collaboration is The Index of

Interprofessional Team Collaboration for Expanded School Mental Health Collaboration

(IITC-ESMH; Mellin et al., 2010). The child and adolescent mental health services

(CAMHS) spread sheet model is an instrument used to collaborate with personnel that

plan and create policies on a reasonable basis, which also can be adopted for use in

different nations (Lund et al., 2009).

In the United States, when public school teachers were asked to rate the school

psychological services provided by representatives from the community health centers on

12 dimensions, the teachers who had varying numbers of contacts had significant

difference in ratings for the psychologists on seven of the dimensions, namely,

friendliness, intelligence, trustworthiness, productivity, usefulness for consultation ability

in counseling, and overall rating (Hammond & Rust, 1984). Teachers with more contact

with the representatives from the community health centers rated the psychologists as

more productive and had a positive attitude toward school psychological services

provided by community health centers (Hammond & Rust, 1984). In low and middle-

income countries, community health centers primarily provide some initial assessment

for infants and preschoolers (Lund et al., 2009). The American Psychological Association

(APA) states crucial to international disaster rescue work is building capability in the

districts of lesser developed nations (Zeng & Bordeaux, 2011). A framework of public

health gives a practical guide for collaborators to build a school-based organization of

care following a disaster (Nastasi et al., 2011). Children and youth who have experienced

natural disasters present behaviors that are linked with post-traumatic stress disorder

(PTSD) and other disorders (Wagner et al., 2009). Further, on a community level, school

psychologists, due to their competence in psychological services, collaboration, and

study, are considered well-matched and positioned to lead schools to adopt community-

centers prototypes to assist in closing the research-to-practice gap (Splett & Maras, 2011)

and to educate people (e.g., teaching seniors in the community) to apply effective

practices (Zeng & Bordeaux, 2011).

Ecological approaches geared to families to uphold young people in public

educational situations reduce the progression of disruptive conduct and substance use

during the primary years of schooling (Stormshak et al., 2011). Further, both schools and

communities need to connect with and work collaboratively to tackle the multifaceted

interaction of events and factors that influence students dropping out from school

(Ampiah & Adu-Yeboah, 2009) and the components in community life that impact the

perception of safety in schools, to improve safety at both levels (Lopez et al., 2017). An

eco-tour which consists of students having interactive learning with people in recovery

and the school-based health link resulted in decreased concern over self-stigma about

seeking help and changes in attitude toward people with mental illness (Yau, et al., 2011).

Social Justice

In the classroom, teacher perception of justice is positively related with emotional

involvement, classroom connectedness, and individual effectiveness and negatively

linked with psychological problems (Mameli et al., 2018). Review of the literature

presents a wide range of teacher perception on the concept of social justice. In schools,

some teachers view diversity as a challenge more than a hurdle to teaching and learning

(Kaldi et a., 2017). Some teachers with training do not fully comprehend such concepts

as celebrating differences and equity versus equality (Phoon et al., 2013; Solehuddin &

Adriany, 2017). Those teachers tended to link more strongly low achievement with

familial and cultural factors than with school or socioeconomic factors (Thompson et al.,

2016). Yet with training, some teachers developed an enhanced understanding of anti-

bias curriculum and self-awareness in diversity contexts (Nganga, 2015). Other teachers,

while they value culturally responsive pedagogy, have had inadequate experience with its

approaches and struggle with its implementation (Samuels et al., 2017). Yet, other

teachers have and use socially oriented lens of justice perspectives that promote (a)

access to powerful knowledge for all children (Flores & Ferreira, 2016), (b) culturally

responsive teaching (CRT, Bonner et al., 2018), (c) learning conditions conducive to

promoting empowerment and brilliance (Liou & Rojas, 2016), (d) restorative justice

practices as an alternative to school discipline (Mayworm et al., 2016), and (e) curricula

that communicates compassion and high expectancies to promote students’ histories, self-

respect, and training for a more just outlook (Rojas & Liou, 2017).

School psychologists promote children’s needs and rights (Oakland, 2003).

School psychologists’ role as advocates for social justice involves addressing emotionally

laden topics, deep rooted belief systems, and power difference and power structures that

surround existing relationships (Rogers & O’Bryon, 2008). Fernandez (2015) suggests

school psychologists implement the utilization of mental health practices that

acknowledge the role of culture, language and socioeconomic status. School

psychologists ultimately view social justice as one’s duty and are urged to have

comprehension of resistance and possess skills in advocating for social justice and

manipulating social change (Biddanda et al., 2018; Gubi et al., 2018; Rogers &

O’Bryon). School psychologists and teachers working together to adopt a human rights

perspective may develop an important union to further projects that advance student’s

rights (Veiga et al., 2009). School psychologists take on a comprehensive array of child

safety and defending at targeted and specific levels worldwide (Woods et al., 2011).

Research is needed on investigating the importance of social justice

to psychologists working in educational systems in diverse countries

and social environments (Schulze et al., 2017). School psychologists have spoken out on

issues such as health insurance for children (American Teacher, 2007). In schools, they

support the effort of leaders (Desrochers et al., 2009) and school staff to help children

under economic pressure in the United States (Licitra, 2009). The NASP Convention in

2011 focused on the need for school psychologist to work toward helpful schooling for

students affected by poverty. Yet, both teachers and school psychologists expressed the

need for additional training to assist them in tackling problems of poverty faced by their

students (Willie et al., 2009). A critical review of the data on education for preparation

and competence in school psychology and as a school psychologist is provided by Newell

et al. (2010). Yet, issues continue with teacher preparation and the capability of teachers

to work effectively with multilingual and multicultural environments (Minke, 2011).

Professional development needs to be continuous for both teachers and school

psychologists (Mfuthwana & Dreyer, 2018). Meyer et al. (2016) advocate for the

integration of conversations of gender diversity as a social justice issue throughout the

curriculum.

Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender (LGBT)

Teacher perceptions and attitudes toward LGBT matters are linked to behavior

intention (McCabe et al., 2013). Teachers perceive same gender parents less approvingly

than heterosexual parents and gay men less positively than lesbian women (Herbstrith et

al., 2013). Teachers lack knowledge of LGBT identity development and desired

professional training (Dragowski et al., 2016). Significant positive changes in their

perceptions, attitudes and knowledge are linked with their professional behaviors

regarding LGBT youth (Riggs et al., 2011). Yet, despite acknowledging and reporting the

need to support LGBT youth, teachers’ actions do not represent this, as they may not

constantly intercede on the students’ behalf (Swanson & Gettinger, 2016). There is the

need for research on teacher perception of the barriers and supports regarding

interventions for homophobic and transphobic bullying at schools (O’Donoghue &

Guerin, 2017).

Internationally, a mismatch is found between the theory that all pupils are treated

equally and the practice of silence on varied sexualities and uncertainty about how to

tackle the necessities students face who are lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender

(McIntyre, 2009). Further there is need to attend to the “school-to-coffin pipeline” adding

to LGBT suicide (Bae-Dimitriadis et al., 2017, p. 394). School counselors are more

informed of LGBT issues than teachers and school psychologists (Dragowski et al. 2016).

School psychologists are essential in reversing some of the negative educational and

psychological outcomes experienced by students who are transgender and can begin the

reversal by acknowledging transgender students' rights (DuBois & Losoff, 2015). School

psychologists also need to be informed of and supply suitable support and resources for

children raised by female same-sex couples (Rivers et al., 2008). One resource is the

creation of Gay-Straight Alliance (GSA) groups in high schools (Heck et al., 2011). GSA

groups are linked with more positive outcomes related to school experience, alcohol use

and psychological distress for youth who are lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender

(LGBT; Heck et al.). There are calls for more research and heightened prominence of

critical LGBT issues in journals that support school personnel (Graybill & Proctor, 2016).

Cognitive Ability, Academic Performance and Curriculum

General intellectual capabilities defined by Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

can forecast school achievement (Fiorello et al., 2009) and teacher perception of the

abilities impact the referral process and application of interventions (Petruccelli et al.,

2010). Studies have found that while teachers and school psychologists alike perceive

measurable ability, formed comprehension, and flowing thought as very essential, school

psychologists rate short-term memory and quantitative aptitude more essential than

teachers do (Fiorello et al., 2009). Teachers and school psychologists categorized

fundamental educational assignments according to general intellectual abilities such as

crystallized intelligence and processing speed according to the Cattell-Horn-Carroll

(CHC) theory. School psychologists placed the activities into the expected category more

correctly than the teachers (Petruccelli et al., 2010). Both did not correctly identify items

that fell into the flowing thought and formed comprehension ability areas. Most mistakes

were classifying measures of content knowledge as long-term retrieval (Petruccelli et al.,

2010).

Strong teacher perceptions of constructivist approaches or 21st century skills

(problem solving, critical thinking, cooperation, communication, and creativity) are

linked to students being provided with environments that are more open to student

inquiry and investigation (Anagun, 2018). In the Caribbean, teachers perceived that the

main transformatory learnings on the program occurred through an increase of

pedagogical content knowledge, becoming an insightful practitioner, sharing a

community of practice, and honing their specialized identity (Barras et al., 2016). In the

transfer of transformatory learnings, participants professed amongst additional aspects (a)

an enriched pedagogical practice, (b) a piquing of interest, and (c) a sense of

empowerment that aided the learnings (Barras et al., 2016). However, emphasis their

schools placed on teaching to the test and the challenge of access to educational

technology challenged implementation (Barras et al., 2016). Examination of how schools

in the Caribbean, specifically in Trinidad and Tobago, where the responses from state

tests are used to make decisions on curriculum, highlights the need for ministries of

education in the region to have an established system to support schools, and to employ

instruction in the understanding and usage of the data in the responses’ report (Brown et

al., 2014). In one study, teachers had favorable views, mindsets and regularity of use of

formative assessment approaches in the Grenadian lower secondary schools. However,

both trained and untrained teachers have comparable rates of formative assessment

strategies practice (Young & Jackman, 2014).

Teachers perceive school psychologists can take a proactive role for the range of

students during their formal educational assessments through (a) assessing student needs

on a singular basis, (b) involving the voices of parents of students, (c) factor in attention

to test nervousness, and (d) enhanced interaction amongst schools, parents and student

(Woods et al., 2011). In America, the origin of school psychologists is interwoven with to

the historic progression of the profession (Farrell, 2010). Historically, school

psychologists’ distinguishing function has been to administer IQ tests and use the result

in decision-making about addressing the special educational needs of students

experiencing challenges in learning (Farrell, 2010). In the continuing progression of the

profession, the worth of diagnosing students with cognitive and behavioral difficulties

and the relevance of IQ testing was questioned (Farrell, 2010; Kibby, 2009). Due to an

increase in the need for their distinctive psychological knowledge, questions related to

testing and relevance were deemed unwarranted by school psychologists (Farrell, 2010).

Rather, school psychologists are to take a proactive stance and utilize an amended system

to identify needs and resources for students with disabilities in their formal educational

evaluation (Woods et al., 2011). School psychologists need to use a contextual view

when consulting with parents and educational staff in regard to worries about

achievement, interactions that help students, and the way in which they absorb

communication expressed to them (Marchant et al., 2001). The Learning Behaviors Scale

(LBC; McDermott, 1999) and the Revised Behavioral Problem Checklist (RBPC; Quay

1977, 1983; Quay & Peterson, 1983) are suggested to provide information teachers and

educators need to improve children’s educational prospects in the Caribbean (Durbrow et

al., 2000). Modification of measures of intellectual functioning, specifically swiftness of

sentence understanding, language attainment and promptness of visual hunt using

pictorial material, were found valid for use in developing nations (Baddeley et al., 1995).

Durbrow et al. (2001) found that in the Caribbean, children’s scores on the Revised

Behavior Problem Checklist (RBPC) were as predictive of academic performance as their

counterparts in American populations. School psychologists also used their professional

judgement when selecting appropriate aptitude measure to administer to gifted

linguistically diverse learners that were equitable (Matthews & Kirsch, 2011).

Many students referred for academic difficulties also have deficiencies in self-

regulation skills and motivation (Cleary et al., 2008). Self-regulated learning was

reported to be a desired educational outcome that can be cultivated by teachers who

lessen academic rivalry, supply help during problem solving, and endorse a tone of

collaboration in the classroom (Paris & Newman,1990). Motivating students to engage in

learning was linked with a reduction in the number of high school students who dropped

out of school (Communique, 2010). Addressing the deficiencies was deemed important

by both school psychologists and teachers (Cleary et al., 2010).

However, there seems to be a mismatch between value and practice (Cleary et al.

2010). School psychologists and teachers were not aware of the assessments available for

purchase and did not focus on self-regulation and motivation in their evaluation,

intervention or during instruction (Cleary, 2011; Cleary et al., 2010). Knowledge of

teacher perspectives on evidence-based practices and interventions for academic progress

need to be explored. In more developed countries, teachers are reported to use practices

and intervention that are evidence-based just as regularly as they did others without a

strong research base (Axtell et al., 2009).

A review of research of academic interventions suggests in order of investigation

reading is first, then math, followed by written expression (Bramlett et al., 2010).

Internationally, poor reading ability is linked with many poor consequences (Lilles et al.,

2008). Teachers at the early childhood level are reported to have only 50-60 % accuracy

of pre-kindergarten students’ early literacy skills (Begeny, & Buchanan, 2010). In

developing countries post-assessment of professional training in literacy showed teachers

do not frequently use ongoing assessment, for example DIEBELS, but utilized teacher-

directed lessons implemented at the class level as the most frequently used literacy

intervention (Williams & Staulters, 2010). Yet reading specialists in schools perceive

school psychologists as not playing a contributing role in the diagnosing of students

experiencing difficulties in learning and reading (Kibby, 2009). School psychologists are

aptly positioned to supply teachers with resources and support to address and improve

student reading ability (Lilles et al.). They also assist remedial readers in general

education settings (Schmitt et al., 2011). Incremental rehearsal (IR) is an evidence-based

practice (EBP) teachers and other professionals can use to help students experiencing

difficulties with instruction in reading and mathematics and memorization of content

(Tucker & Burns, 2016). School psychologist are encouraged to document the research

steps of intervention development, implementation, and dissemination (Cappela, Reinke,

et al., 2011). This documentation is expected to assist in promoting the academic forms

of intervention science and direct school psychologists to develop and establish programs

that allow children to succeed in schools (Cappela, Reink, et al., 2011).

Special Education Law and Inclusion

In the United States, examination of the dynamic interplay between federal

special education and accountability policies reveal that NCLB and IDEA represent

contradictory theories of action and influenced teachers’ interpretation and enactment of

the policies (Russel & Bray, 2016). Teachers perceived conflict and expressed concerns

about unintended consequences for students. Teachers also lack understanding of vital

information on IDEIA with partial understanding of requirements enclosed in Section

504 of the Rehabilitation Act that protect the rights of persons with disabilities

(O’Connor et al., 2016), the Americans With Disabilities Act (amended in 2008),

followed by the ADA Amendments Act (ADAAA) January 1, 2009, and since March 15,

2011, the federal rules on disability bias from the Department of Justice DOJ’s Civil

Rights Division (Lovett, 2014). When teachers use criteria that does not follow ADAAA

guidelines, regardless of their good perceptions and intentions, considerable over

recommendation of accommodations may occur (Lovett, 2014). Special education

professionals require additional comprehensive research-informed training to make

decisions on accommodations for student test taking (Lovett, 2014). In developing

countries, government policies further disadvantage the educational attainment and

achievement of indigenous children who are overrepresented in negative statistics but

underrepresented in culturally appropriate services especially those with special

educational needs (Fortune, 2013). In the Caribbean, although beginning teachers and

student teachers agreed with the need for them to play a role in supporting education for

all (EFA) initiatives, they were uninformed about the goals for EFA.

Worldwide, mainstreaming of students both regular and with special educational

needs is the result of the rise of a policy of inclusion (Daane et al., 2000). Inclusive

education involves curriculum and teaching adaptation and the outlook the general

education system should address the varied needs of all students (Woodcock &

Woolfson, 2018). While the success of inclusion lies in the education culture and

complete assistance from management, teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and resistance

provided the greatest obstacles to effective inclusion (Woodcock & Woolfson, 2018).

Attitudes to inclusion increased when teachers perceived greater adequacy of both

internal and external support (Monsen et al., 2014). Preservice educators with special

education majors perceived they acquired significant more information about school

psychological services than regular education majors (Edzards, 1996). However, while

studying an elective unit on inclusive education had a positive influence on preservice

teacher attitude, years of teaching had a negative impact (Varcoe & Boyle, 2014)

Teachers perceived they were able to successfully include children with special needs due

to (a) similar perceptions amongst teachers in self-contained classroom setting and

inclusive classroom settings regarding social interaction interventions appropriate for

young children with disabilities (Rheams & Bain, 2005), (b) peer support networks

established by school psychologists (Boyle et al., 2012) and other professional groups

including educational psychologists and SEN Coordinators (SENCOs; Lauchlan & Greig,

2015), and (c) co-teaching (Solis et al., 2012). Yet, teaching dyads in an inclusive class of

both general education and special education teachers were unsuccessful in balancing as

an effective teaching dyad (Jurkowski & Muller, 2018). Teachers are also unwilling to

include students with disabilities they perceive as showing negative work attitude

(Vermeulen et al., 2012) or behavioral difficulties (Monson et al., 2014).

Internationally, there is wide variation in how teacher perceive inclusion of all

students in mainstream education. In developed countries such as Scotland, teacher’s

attitudes towards inclusion are positive (Rae et al., 2010). In Israel, study of teachers’

perceptions of their special education laws conveyed teachers (a) lacked well-grounded

knowledge about the inclusion law, (b) lacked systemic preparation for inclusion, (c)

perceived the arena as disordered and felt helpless to a variety of forceful factions, (d)

expressed thoughts of unfairness, failure, and exhaustion, (e) transferred most obligation

onto the special education teachers for the inclusion, and (f) settled for a trivial level of

action (Gavish & Shimoni, 2011). In Greece however, the most challenging barrier to

inclusion is the effectiveness of teacher training programs and professional development

in preparing special and general education teachers to work with students with disabilities

(Miller et al., 2013). The majority of teachers and related service providers viewed their

training as minimal preparation for their work as special education teachers, perceived

most of their teaching skills was learned on the job, and the certification program that

general education teachers took to become special education teachers was inadequate

preparation for them to work effectively with students with disabilities (Miller et al.

2013).

Inclusion in developing countries is impacted by insufficient capital, and

resources, untrained teachers, insufficient teachers to cover mainstream classes resulting

in special education appearing an extravagance (Conroy, 2018). In some cultures,

inclusive education is also implemented from external foreign cultures with total

disregard to how internal country cultural issues impact ownership (Mc Donald & Tufue-

Dolgoy, 2013). There is need for focused preservice changes to teacher education

regarding inclusion to tackle the varied needs of preservice teachers in very inflexible

national syllabus (Forlin et al., 2010). In the Pacific region, the most substantial barriers

to inclusion include insufficient teacher preparation, stigma and adverse attitudes toward

people with disabilities and inadequate engagement with the local leaders and key

stakeholders (Sharma et al., 2019). In Grenada, teachers felt special needs students should

be integrated into the mainstream primarily for the purpose of socialization (Ministry of

Education, 2006). Teachers displayed positive attitudes to the concept of inclusion which

they linked to workshops they participated in at the local level and felt students could

learn in inclusive environments with suitable accommodation (Ministry of Education,

2006).

Grade Level Retention

In the United States, results of academic testing were the factor most specified by

teachers for grade retention (Renaud, 2013). Preservice teachers viewed student grade

retention as positive and a necessary step for students with academic challenges, reduced

ability and significant immaturity (Range et al., 2011). Teachers also perceived students

who were retained as having lower social and school mastery (Anastasiou et al., 2017).

Children whose fathers were jailed were retained more often, an action linked to teacher

perception of their academic ability (Turney & Haskins, 2014). Further, in math,

retention at first grade was found to be more harmful than in kindergarten

(Vandecandelaere et al., 2016). The National Association of School Psychologists

(NASP) posits grade retention supplies little advantages for students and should only be

used as a last step (Crepeau et al., 2016). School psychologists do not support retention of

students (Schnurr et al., 2009). Yet, research has also shown grade retention may not lead

to the negative results widely recognized in the literature (Cham et al., 2015) or impact

transition differently from students who progressed naturally (Im et al., 2013). School

psychologists, however, should be involved in making decisions and develop, implement

and consult on the effects of retention (Schnurr et al., 2009). In the Caribbean, concern

has been raised by the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) reform strategy

initiatives in Universal Secondary Education (USE) regarding content of curricula to

teach thousands of students of diverse ability who are mixed together in the learning

environment (King, 2009). Consideration of the composition of groups and the social

contexts is urged when group work is used as an instructional strategy in classrooms

(Blackman, 2010). Students from villages in the country are less likely to be successful in

the common entrance examinations (CEE) (Durbrow et al., 2002). Grade 3 or age 8 is

reported as the point where children’s academic paths are established, and students

separate educationally and cognitively, throughout the years spent in primary education

(Durbrow et al., 2002). In Grenada, during the 2017-2018 school year, students were

retained particularly in the initial grade of both the primary (age 5) and secondary schools

(age 11) (Ministry of Education, 2018).

The Individualized Education Plan (IEP)

Effective development and implementation of an individualized education plan

(IEP) is impacted by (a) attitudes of participants, (b) the institution the participants

worked in, and (c) prior involvement in in-service training and in IEP development (Tike

Bafra & Tevhide, 2009). Special education teachers considered the presence of the school

psychologist to be quite important during the development of Individualized Education

Plans (Arivett et al., 2007). Further, the participation and the leadership displayed by the

school psychologist during the development, implementation, and evaluation of the IEP

were positively linked with augmented ratings of their support/value by special education

teachers (Arivett et al., 2007).

Learning Disabilities

There are differences in teachers’ perceptions of mental and physical disability

types (Thomas et al., 2011) and use of testing accommodations (Lovett, 2011). In more

developed countries, testing accommodations such as extended time were viewed as a

dual edged sword (Lovett, 2011). While extended time assisted students in spite of their

disability, alternately, teachers made inconsistent decisions about extended time and

possibly altered the accurate interpretation of student test scores (Lovett, 2011). Teachers

perceive aggressive behavior more prevalent in adolescents with intellectual disability;

regular and special education teachers seem to have different attribution schema

depending on the presence or absence of intellectual disability (Viachou et al., 2014). In

more developed countries, no significant variances in the scores of students with learning

disabilities who finish school and those who fail to do so are reported on academic

accomplishment and cognitive ability, or on self-reports of universal self-esteem,

fulfillment about reading and deportment and social interactions (Bear et al., 2006).

However, youth with learning disabilities in inclusive middle schools perceived social

support from parent, teacher and classmate differently based on gender and grade level

(Martinez, 2006).

Speaking, Visual, Hearing, and other Communication Disorders

In mainstream classes, teachers’ perception, the psychological age of language

development, and the sociometric index in their peer group of children with speaking

disorders is linked with significantly lowered scores in comparison with children with no

speaking disorder (Martin, 2016). Even when teaching-learning resources are available,

teachers in mainstream classes perceive there is still need for provision of specialist

support to work effectively with students with visual impairment (Pino & Viladot, 2019).

In developed countries, teachers perceive they need to rely on deaf education teachers in

classrooms and report difficulties teaching students who are deaf or hard of hearing

(D/HH) (Lissi et al., 2017). In the Caribbean, deafness and hearing impairment is given

low priority by health systems (Madriz, 2001). A standard set of successful instructional

approaches and fundamental coping strategies should be possessed by teachers in

mainstream classrooms to handle impairments (Pino & Viladot, 2019). In special classes,

highly trained teachers had significantly higher perceived efficacy levels of students with

autism spectrum disorders (ASD) compared to those who had received little or no

training (Horan & Merrigan, 2019). School psychologists encourage early identification

of learning problems and outline interventions that address such needs for students who

are deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH) may experience (Gilbertson & Ferre, 2008). School

psychologist were urged to be aware of the parents’ hearing status and skills of

communication when working with students who were deaf or hard of hearing (Vetter et

al., 2010).

Response to Intervention (RtI)

Response to intervention (RtI) is a broad system of early detection and prevention

that allows teachers to pick out and help readers who are struggling preceding failure

(Bursuck & Blanks, 2010). RtI is viewed as a potential tool for social justice by its

addressing (a) unequal targeting for special education and (b) unsuitable learning

assignment for varied students (Castro-Villarreal et al., 2016). Teachers and school

psychologists have dissimilar viewpoints regarding RtI as a beneficial change

(Hollenbeck & Patrikakou, 2014). Key to the successful functioning of RtI was

cooperation among different kinds of professionals (Reading Today, 2010). Most

teachers perceived themselves as knowledgeable about implementing RtI practices (RtI

screening progress monitoring approaches). However, when asked to apply RtI reliable

principles, some were unsuccessful (Vujnovic et al., 2014), showcasing potential divide

between RtI expectations and teachers’ competence (Vujnovic et al., 2014). In-service

teachers perceived the descriptive review (DR) process of student observation, systematic

data collection and data-based decision making helped prepare them to engage in

purposeful data-based decision making and use of multidisciplinary approaches during

the RtI team process (Meyers et al., 2017).

Within the multitiered framework of RtI, school psychologists could (a) ensure

the use of evidence-based practices (Bursuck & Blanks, 2010), (b) share their knowledge

of instruction practices and methods for improving student motivation with teachers

(Fanelli & Bonarrigo, 2011), (c) clarify confusion that may arise for the child because

different teachers talk about the same concepts in different ways (Reading Today, 2011),

and (d) work with school counsellors (Zambrano et al., 2012).

Evidence-Based Practices (EBPs), Interventions and Programs

In the United States, federal directives for application of evidence-based practices

(EBPs) in school centers focus on the research-to-practice gap in education (Axtell et al.

2009). Teacher perception of EBPs are impacted by districts’ planning, implementing,

and evaluating (Maras et al. 2014). A 2008 statement by the National Association of

School Psychologists (NASP) proposed before application, school psychologists should

reflect on the outlooks of students, teachers and communities on interventions (Rowe,

2012). At the day care level, it is reported there is use of teacher practices that are not

founded on evidence-based data and processes and insufficient interaction between

school psychologists and teachers (Drugli et al., 2008). School psychologists can also

lead schools to take on community-centers models to help in closing the research to

practice gap (Splett & Maras, 2011). Fidelity and adaptation are vital parts in evidence-

based programs (Webster-Stratton et al., 2011). School psychologists are urged to hold

fast to science and research in the scientist-practitioner, proficient practitioner, and the

psychoeducation teaching and application models (Woody, 2011). Yet while eighty-five

percent of school psychologists are practitioners, they contribute less than 10% to the

literature as authors (Carroll et al., 2009). Within a team approach, school psychologists

can participate and take a role in ensuring that evidence-based practices are applied with

reliability (Bursuck & Blanks, 2010). They can be consultants regarding evidence-based

practices and utilize their skills to establish the appropriateness and realism of

interventions (Schmitt et al., 2011) such as not paying enough attention to time

requirements for intervention application (Bramlett et al. 2010). Evidence-based practices

for use by school psychologists include conjoint behavioral consultation (CBC), a model

that allows collaborative home-school partnership. CBC is an organized, secondary

model of service provision in which parents, teachers, and support staff cooperate to

tackle the communal, learning or social necessities of a student for whom they all accept

some responsibility (Garbacz et al., 2008; Sheridan & Steck, 1995) and the production of

successful interventions for (a) behavior by students with high functioning attention

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in inclusive settings (Wilkinson, 2008); (b) school and

home behaviors, self-control, social skills and self-esteem, (Yeo & Choi, 2001); and (c)

parent-teacher and child focused strategies (Levine & Anshel, 2011). School psychologist

considered themselves qualified to use CBC (Sheridan & Steck, 1995). Both parents and

teachers consistently found CBC to be an acceptable, effective and satisfactory form of

service delivery (Garbacz et al., 2008). The research informs rating scales are suited to

many situations for allocating students to economical non-restrictive interventions, or as

initial steps in multistage classifications for selection (Kettler et al., 2012). Caution is

given, however, as some strategies conceived for students in the developed countries may

be unsuitable for students in less well-developed countries (Jimerson et al. 2009).

Ultimately, school psychologists can assist in managing problems through recognizing

the best practices needed in addition to providing support in evaluating the interventions

(Dwyer, 2008).

Theoretical Foundation

The theoretical foundation of this research is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

(1979; 1984). This theory posits there are distinctive levels of effect, or ecosystem, which

impact a person's behavior and are in turn impacted by individuals. The levels include the

microsystem (the close surroundings), mesosystem (the interface amongst these

surroundings), exosystem (factors which incidentally affect the individual), and

macrosystem (the society at large). According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory,

there are multilevel, multidimensional, interwoven relationships between the environment

and the family, school, community and the society (Ecological Systems Theory, 2020).

Thus, at the school level, to make meaning of what occurs in schools, it is imperative to

consider the ecological system and its impact on teaching and learning. Teachers are

integral and essential within school ecologies as are their perspectives regarding

characteristics of their school ecologies and how issues can be tackled (O’Donoghue &

Guerin, 2017). So too, school psychology research is viewed as having an extra

responsibility to be ecological in stance due to its focus on prevention within its arena

(Burns, 2015). A critical review of the confirmation on multicultural training in school

psychology and multicultural competence in school psychologists is provided by Newell

et al. (2010).

Ecological Factors

School psychology research has an extra duty to be ecological in nature due to its

emphasis on prevention and should focus on examining the context in which teaching and

learning takes place (Burns, 2015). Studies with ecological considerations and

stakeholders’ perceptions in the literature include: Ecological considerations paired with

a developmental outlook on children’s competence and mental health (Motti-Stefanidi et

al., 1996; Trussell, 2008), social and emotional experiences in school (Pellitteri et al.,

2000), within-child and environment variables, (Griggs et al., 2009), and classroom

beliefs and expectations (Miller & Black, 2001). Ecological considerations are vital in the

study of stakeholders’ perceptions regarding their interaction with school professionals,

students, and parents. Teachers’ perspectives have been studied in the areas of ecological

school factors. including teacher relationships with others, occurrences and objects (Price

& Mc Callum, 2015). Alternative school psychological models, for example, the

combined positions of school psychologist and school social worker and provision of

combined services, were positively perceived by teachers (Nelson et al., 2006). Nelson

and colleagues advocate such models to encourage others to endorse ecologically

responsive services comparative to their distinctive systems. Teachers’ perceptions of

classroom climate (Ashkar & Kenny, 2009), school culture, and school climate and

student aggression (Boxer et al., 2006; Espelago et al., 2014; Hudley, 1993; Ricketts,

2007; Saarento et al., 2013; Wang, 2009; Wang et al., 2010) have been explored.

Teachers perceived school psychologists are vital in school ecologies and empower

teachers to acquire resilience (Beltman et al., 2016). Teachers also perceived school

psychologists helped them to accommodate an ecological view of problem behavior

students exhibited and gave them additional tools for problem solving, which resulted in

fewer referrals to the school psychologist (Engel et al., 2000). Yet, teachers also

perceived the main role of the school psychologist as working with students (Beltman et

al.). School psychologists have a need to champion the way in which teachers build

quality relationships with their students and how the teachers can scaffold resources for

young people (Liebenberg et al., 2016).

Teachers propose a necessity for an increased solution focus on their professed

necessity and interactions with culturally responsive consultee centered consultation

(CCC) approaches (Castro-Villarreal & Rodriquez, 2017). An effective form of

consultation is the participatory culture-specific consultation model (PCSC; Nastasi et al.

2000). The standard is used to develop mental health programs in developing countries.

PCSC combines qualitative research methods and a participatory action research (PAR)

process. The PAR process represents a participatory or collaborative approach to

consultation to address client, consultee, and systems concerns in a way that mirrors their

cultural experiences (Nastasi et al., 2000). The participatory culture specific intervention

model (PCSIM), based on the earlier concept the PCSC, is founded in an ecological

theoretical context (Nastasi et al., 2004). Consultation done in a multiracial framework is

negatively impacted when there is minimal use of the ecological approach, absence of

cultural receptiveness and differing approaches when identifying problems for African

American, although not for European Americans (Newell, 2010).

PCSIM is described as a method of formative research leading to the growth and

operation of culture specific interventions. PCSIM approaches include participatory

action research and a participatory method (Nastasi & Jayasena, 2014). Participatory

action research positively impacts implementation of school based mental health

intervention (Capella, Jackson, et al. 2011). A participatory action researcher is a catalyst

for change, cultivates dialogue, and incites critical thinking (Estacio, 2012). The action

researcher has to be prepared and able to address challenges and handle pressures

(Estacio). So too, the researcher requires strong commitment, preparedness to learn from

mistakes, inclination and wish to learn from each other, sustain partnerships with others

and tackle mix-ups that surface on personal and professional levels (Nastasi & Jayasena,

2014).

PCSIM utilizes a combination of universal and culture-bound perspectives

(Varjas et al, 2005). This participatory method approach utilizes participatory

interpersonal processes in which participants serve as cultural brokers – those individuals

who ease approval into a system and aid interpretation of the culture (Varjas et al., 2006)

to endorse ecological validity of research (Nastasi et al., 2004; Varjas et al., 2006).

PCSIM has 11 phases. These are (a) evaluating present philosophy, investigation, and

practice; (b) learning the culture; (c) forming partnerships; (d) purpose or problem

identification; (e) formative research on the goal or problem found in (d), (f) culture

specific theory or rational model; (g) programming design; (h) implementation and

adaptation; (i) programming evaluation; (j) capacity building; and (k) dissemination and

translation (Nastasi et al., 2014).

PCSIM supplies benefits to participants and researchers and is an excellent model

for school psychologists in multicultural practice (Nastasi, 2006). PCSIM is cited as a

model for the application of community partnerships to deliver wide-ranging culturally

and contextually pertinent school based mental health services (Doll et al., 2017). It is

reported as a valuable model to address peer victimization (Varjas et al. 2006), thwart

saleable sexual exploitation of children (Kruger et al., 2016), address the needs of hidden

teachers and refugee children in unauthorized schools in Malaysia (Nastasi, 2018),

promote psychological well-being of students in schools (Bell et al., 2015; Swift & Bell,

2010), create culture specific interventions for bullying based on the student’s unique

environmental settings (Huddeston et al, 2011), address the psychosocial recovery of

students affected by large-scale disasters (Nastasi, Jayasena, et al., 2011), and study the

combined input of parents and schools on transformation in aggressive behavior over

time (Brookmeyer et al., 2006).

PCSIM allows for the identification of aspects contributing to school psychology

and informs the design of culturally appropriate services (Nastasi et al. 2000; Varjas et al.

2005). Also key in the process of creating successful school and community founded

interventions is the incorporation of universal and culture specific viewpoints (Varjas et

al. 2005), a process that establishes trust (Kruger et al, 2016). Meyers and Varjas (2016)

advocated for broad conceptualization inclusive of variables such as culturally sensitive

approaches and culturally competent strategies to build trust and lessen resistance. In

school-based consultation, PCSIM and organization consultation can be utilized to boost

cultural expertise and multicultural communication (Meyers & Varjas, 2016). In the

English-speaking Caribbean, a study of non-professionals employed as either non-

governmental or public childcare employees from several Caribbean countries, Jamaica,

Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Kitts-Nevis, and St. Lucia,

found little contrast among their ethnocultural perspectives on child rearing practices

(Gopaul-McNicol, 1999). The employees constantly aligned themselves with and even

agreed with patterns of practices they expressed that could probably link with the

American definition of types of abuse (Gopaul-McNicol, 1999). Further, the majority of

the reported practices were approved by the employees who were uninterested in

changing their habits to accommodate increasing American outlooks of Caribbean society

(Gopaul-McNicol, 1999). Reflections of parents’ childhood and the elaboration of

adjusted scripts are endorsed as an influential tool to urge more involved rights for

students and advance safeguard rights by reducing the usage of punitive corrective

processes and requirements for grownup forms of employment (Brown & Johnson,

2008). Cultural practices also influence a family’s reaction to a child with disabilities

(Thorburn, 1999). It is vital to create meaningful partnerships with families at whatever

level they are comfortable (Finello, 2011). Relevant for formulation family partnerships,

school psychologists’ perceptions of their professional ability and school atmosphere are

connected to the effectiveness of their preparation and facets of their occupation for

interfacing with families (Manz et al., 2009). Challenges may include time, judgements

regarding analysis and advocated interventions, combined obligations, disagreement

across disciplines, and the necessity for administrative backing.

Possible challenges to using PCSIM include negotiating educational priorities,

forming and retaining effective relationships, learning the specific culture in the particular

context, integrating research and practice and varying the role and identity of school

psychologists (Nastasi et al., 2004). For example, there may be a scarcity of mental health

providers or competition for time between psychological well-being and academics (Bell

et al., 2015). Other challenges include contextual influences on teachers’ perceptions

(Nastasi et al., 2011), potential organizational conflict, perceived value of the research, and

interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict.

Summary and Conclusions

From the international literature, we know teacher perceptions of the academic, mental

health, behavioral and other needs of students in classrooms, school psychological

services and school psychologists are varied. Teacher perceptions are impacted by: (a)

legislation, policies, and practices; (b) curricula; (c) competence and training; (d)

assessment and intervention practices they employ; (e) partnership with others including

school psychologists, at the school, home and wider community ecologies; (f) cultural

norms and expectations regarding disability; and (g) poverty, religion and bias. However,

we do not know in the cultural context of Grenada, SEN teacher perception of the

academic, social emotional and behavioral needs of students, school psychological

services and how a school psychologist in schools can impact the services SEN teachers

provide. This research explored the perceptions of stakeholders in schools specifically

SEN teachers to understand how they view the needs of children in schools, the services

they are provided with to assist pupils and how a school psychologist could help to assist

their work. Ultimately, this research aims to assist SEN teachers to help students to

achieve their best in life. Chapter 3 will explore the qualitative study that will be done

with SEN Teachers to determine their perspectives regarding formal school psychology

and school psychological services.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The study was concerned with documenting and analyzing teacher experiences

and perspectives in Grenada about school psychological services within Grenadian

schools and what they perceived to be the roles and activities usually performed by

formal school psychology and school psychological services in a school system. In

Grenada, qualitative research was used to explore SEN teachers’ perceptions and

insights. Phenomenology was the research design. Data collection instruments included

focus group interviews and researcher’s reflexive journal and investigated SEN teachers’

beliefs and experiences regarding psychological services within Grenadian schools, and

what they perceived were the roles and activities usually performed by a school

psychologist in a school system. Transcripts of participant speech were utilized and

identified emergent themes and relationships. Classical content analysis, a qualitative

data analysis technique, was employed (see Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2008).

Research Design and Rationale

The research questions were concerned with documenting and analyzing SEN

teacher perspectives regarding the roles formal school psychology and school

psychological services played in tackling the psychological basics of students in Grenada.

The research questions were:

1. Research Question 1: What are Special Education Needs (SEN) teachers’

perceptions of the academic and mental health needs of the students in

government operated primary schools in Grenada?

2. Research Question 2: What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the existing

psychological and related services available in schools in Grenada?

3. Research Question 3: What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the function

school psychology and school mental health services could play in meeting

the needs of students in schools in Grenada?

In the present study, qualitative research was used to explore SEN teachers’

perceptions of the roles formal school psychology and school psychological services

played in addressing students. Qualitative methods were connected to data-based

problem-solving approaches used by school psychologists (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

Both were characterized by (a) research done in real-life situations from the viewpoints

of the individuals existing within their regular settings, and (b) data collection methods

such as observation, review of records and interviews (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

Qualitative research traditions included narrative which focused on the life of a single

individual, phenomenology which described and uncovered meaning of an individual’s

lived and unlived experience, grounded theory which explored actions and outcomes of

behavior in a culture, case study which explored an issue via one or more cases in a

bordered system and ethnography which exposed the way a culture is defined, the

behavior linked with the culture, and how the culture was valued (Creswell, 2007;

Ruthberg & Bouikidis, 2018).

As a qualitative research tradition, the phenomenological model stressed the

perception of experiences through an investigation of the understanding of vital

participants’ analysis of the world (Bevir & Kedar, 2008) and their “common sense of

thinking” (Bryman, 2004, p.14). Phenomenology concerns the understanding of

experiences linked to a specific happening amongst several individuals (Nastasi &

Schensul, 2005). Phenomenology was best suited to explore what people experienced

regarding a phenomenon through their description of their experiences, rather than the

other qualitative traditions that focused on what caused the phenomenon and inquiry into

their actions, lifestyles, and traditions (Rudestam & Newton, 2001). Yet, qualitative

research traditions such as ethnography through the participatory culture specific

intervention model (PCSIM) highlighted the importance of culture (Nastasi et al., 2004;

Varjas et al., 2005). Formative research conducted by Sohyun et al. (2015) to understand

the school environment in health promoting schools (HPS) in low and middle

income countries (LMICs) noted themes at the individual, school, community and

societal levels that surrounded lack of personal and basic physical resources, absence of

longevity, scarcity of services for health, and an absence of awareness of the importance

of procedure and programs to develop competence; indicating the necessity for the

application of fundamental concept of HPSs when working with schools in LMICs. Thus,

focus on context and culture rather than generalizing US/Western/high-income country

models to developing/low-middle income countries, was vital in developing countries,

elicited teacher worldviews, personal theories, and perceptions of school psychology;

allowed for identification of aspects contributing to school psychology positively and

negatively; and informed design of culturally appropriate services (Nastasi et al., 2000;

Varjas et al., 2005). I had a relationship with the phenomenon, became a joint creator of

the narrative via interviewing, then elucidated the construct of the experience through

reflective analysis and interpretation of the participants’ experiences (see Rudestam &

Newton, 2015).

Both as a school psychologist and researcher, there was interest in what school

psychological and related services mean as a construct and experience to teachers. In

Grenada, where no formalized school psychological services existed, the application of

phenomenologically oriented interviews (Norgaard & Parnas, 2012) allowed the

researcher to access how teachers regarded the school psychological services existed and

how formal school psychological services impact teaching and learning in schools.

Quantitative and qualitative research served different purposes. Quantitative

research used a precise and controlled design with exact measurement and numerical data

to study phenomena (Polit & Beck, 2012; Taye et al., 2016). Quantitative research was

also done in a more controlled setting that permitted the factors under study to be

controlled by the researcher, to establish connections between the factors and the effects

(Rutberg & Bouikidis, 2018). Qualitative research provided textual information rather

than numerical as found with quantitative methods (Rudestam & Newton, 2001).

Qualitative research had several advantages. It (a) scrutinized and theorized contextual

forces (Yardley, 2016); (b) addressed social aspects of research, lived experiences, and

human perceptions (Polit & Beck, 2012); and (c) had greater flexibility, adjusted to novel

information, was grounded on the data gathered, supplied a holistic outlook on the topic

under study, and permitted the researcher to become embedded in the research (Rutberg

& Bouikidis, 2018).

The nature of this study was qualitative, as it was better suited to the study

purpose. School psychologists’ practice was strengthened by accessibility of qualitative

research methods. They (a) allowed exploration and understanding of cultural and

contextual variables in psychological assessment and programming, (b) provided a

mechanism for addressing research into practice gaps, and (c) expanded the data base in

school psychology (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005). Qualitative research also assisted school

psychology researchers who worked in schools with teachers (Kidd, 2002; Leech &

Onwuegbuzie, 2008). It allowed the collecting of views and perspectives from teachers,

for example, strategies that fostered extended relationships between teachers and students

to address their academic and social needs (Baran, 2010) and teachers’ perceptions of

learners with special educational needs (Mukhopadhyay, 2014).

In this study on the perceptions of SEN teachers’ on the roles of formal school

psychology and school psychological services in addressing the learning and mental

health necessities of students, qualitative research gave privilege to teacher perspectives;

illuminated their subjective meanings, actions and context; provided a complex detailed

understanding of their perceptions; allowed them to talk directly; and permitted them to

tell the stories of their profession, unencumbered by expectations or prior knowledge of

effective school psychological services (Creswell, 2007) in their own natural setting,

from their emic insider outlook versus the etic outsider outlook (Nastasi & Schensul,

2005). Through qualitative research, the researcher (a) explored the existing problem

regarding how SEN teachers perceived formal school psychology and school

psychological support in schools, (b) used open-ended questions in focus groups with

SEN teachers in their natural setting, and (c) obtained a diverse, abundant and unique

account from each SEN teacher on her perceptions and experiences of the learning and

psychological services provided in schools in Grenada. In this study, a qualitative

research method used open-ended questions in focus groups and researcher’s reflective

journal to investigate SEN teachers’ beliefs.

Role of the Researcher

The researcher in the phenomenology research tradition had a relationship with

the phenomenon, became a joint creator of the narrative via interviewing, then elucidated

the construct of the experience through reflective analysis and interpretation of the

person’s experience (Rudestam & Newton, 2001). The researcher was also the main tool

of data collection and the quality of data collected was highly dependent on her skills as

an interviewer, observer and getting participants actively involved throughout the process

(Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

Ethical issues in my role as researcher included maintaining a current human

research protections training certificate and potential conflict of interest while pursuing

information in the area of school psychology with school personnel, parents and students,

some of whom I have worked with in a supervisory capacity as Early Childhood

Education Officer I, a position I still held. In my instructional supervision, the multi-role

endeavor of teaching and working with teachers was a typical endeavor (Suh, 2017).

However, when the supervisor is teacher trainer and PhD student in educational research

such as in my case, ethical considerations were given to particular personal

characteristics and contextual factors (Bakx et al., 2016). In the Grenadian context, I was

researcher and consultant in the education setting. As a researcher, my dissertation topic

aligned with a shared goal orientated focus on teachers’ needs for their and schools’

improvement which also garnered more collaboration and interest (Suh, 2017). Personal

issues such as coercion, supervisor egotism and trust could impact my supervisor

supervisee relationship (Ding et al., 2018). To establish mutual trust, I used open

communication and supportive interaction skills that (a) lessened the impact of any

potential personal self-importance and (b) stimulated teachers’ voices including when

they challenged and used their “prohibitive voices” (Ding et al. 2018).

In the role of school psychologist and researcher, there was an ongoing process of

self-reflection of my tacit knowledge which determined personal assumptions and

prejudices toward the topic and during the research process (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005;

Polit & Beck, 2014). A reflexive journal documented thoughts and prospective biases

throughout the research process. A journal was a potentially valuable source of

information on impressions, reactions and major events that happened during the research

process (Rudestam & Newton, 2001).

Methodology

Participant Selection Logic

A purposeful criterion-based sample was used. Based on the research questions

and to exemplify the target occurrence in the natural context from their perception

(Nastasi & Schensul, 2005), participants with exposure or experience in the area under

investigation were deemed eligible and identified to participate in the study (Rutberg &

Bouikidis, 2018). The foremost intent of this research was to access the etic or insider

view, thus participants were 18 special educational needs (SEN) teachers in government

schools; 17 special educational needs (SEN) teachers were in government primary

schools and one SEN teacher was in a secondary school (this teacher transferred from the

primary school to work in a similar “support role” with students, through the secondary

school’s initiative). All gave their consent to participate in focus group interviews. The

number of participants represented some of the original number of SEN teachers. Due to

continual redeployment of teachers and their responsibilities within the school system,

some of the SEN teachers were directly returned to classrooms as main teachers and the

actual number of SEN teachers lessened. The participants were teachers who, based on

the seniority in primary schools, were chosen to work with pupils that teachers reported

as experiencing academic and behavioral difficulties. Inclusion criteria for participation

in the study included (a) worked in a government operated primary school, (b) be a SEN

teacher, (c) had the University of the West Indies’ teacher certification qualification, and

(d) had a minimum of five years teaching experience. Most SEN teachers were female,

and all participants in this study were female. Qualifications of the teachers were varied;

most had not been formally trained in special education. SEN teachers received training

locally and were primarily certified at that level. Most of the SEN teachers had the

University of the West Indies’ teacher certification qualification. The length of time

teaching varied, but they all had a minimum of five years teaching experience. Seventeen

of the SEN teachers worked in all the grades at the primary (K-Grade 6) schools and one

SEN teacher worked in a secondary school. Schools with the Caribbean Center for

Excellence in Teacher Training (CCETT) classrooms did not have SEN teachers and

were excluded from this study. CETT was concerned with literacy development. It was

an initiative established in several Caribbean Countries including Grenada and funded

under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) from the United States.

Instrumentation

Multiple sources of data were used to facilitate saturation and confirmation

(Rudestam & Newton, 2001). The main sources of data collection were open-ended

questioning in focus groups and the researcher’s reflexive journal. Qualitative research

interviewing obtained participants’ views of their existence as depicted in their truths and

achieved admittance to their practices, mindsets, and shared domains (Fossey et al.,

2002). Instrumentation in the phenomenology research tradition involved prepared

questions which served as tools in focus groups and elicited the reflective experiences of

the participants (Rudestam & Newton, 2001). The interview questions asked the

participants to describe their experiences, feelings, actions, statements and thoughts about

the topic of the study (Rudestam & Newton, 2001). Structured questions that were open-

ended enabled more concentrated study of the particular focus of this study (Fossey et al.

2002). Focus groups were best suited for PCSIM because in a cultural context, they

enabled perceptions of stakeholders’ roles in the development of psychological well-

being in students (Swift & Bell, 2010). Overall, focus groups were an effective means to

collect knowledge from an array of participants (Nastasi, 2006), their collective

perspectives on precise topics (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005), were flexible in nature and

meshed with other methods of data collection (Huston & Hobson, 2008). As a tool, focus

groups provided information on the SEN teachers’ educational background, knowledge,

and unique insight into their practices and perceptions of barriers and motivations

regarding mental health services in schools (Merida, 2017). Earlier research concluded

that neither in-depth individual interviews nor focus groups was better than the other.

Yet, more recent research noted semi-structured open-ended questions in the context of a

focus group likely led to sensitive and personal disclosure with some themes generated

only in the focus group rather than during individual interviews (Guest et al., 2017).

Further, the effects of cognitive sparking and cross-participant responses were vital to

this study, thus, focus groups persisted as the clear-cut selection when collecting

information (Namey et al., 2016).

Five to fifteen participants were suggested as the optimal number of participants

for a focused group interview (Schensul & LeCompte, 1999). There were 18 SEN

teachers which necessitated three focus group interviews. The focus group interviews

investigated SEN teachers’ perceptions about the services available to assist them with

meeting the academic and mental health needs of their students within Grenadian schools

and supplied understanding into the culture of the SEN teachers in Grenada. Focus group

interviews were audiotaped with the participants’ written consent. A digital recorder was

used to optimize clarity of recording for exactness of subsequent transcription.

Mapping of Instrument Questions to Research Questions

An interview protocol was created to attain valid and reliable data. Protocol

refinement on the interview questionnaire was done using the 4-step Interview Protocol

Refinement (IPR) Framework (May Luu Yeong et al., 2018). The IPR framework was

deemed a validated tool to enhance reliability and validity of an interview protocol. The

first step involved allying the interview questions with the research questions (see Table

2). The second step involved creating a perception-founded discussion. The interview

questions are written differently from the research questions and are primarily geared for

SEN teachers’ perception of the topic under study. The third step involved getting

responses on the interview protocols. The fourth step involved the interview protocol

being piloted. The week prior to the focus group interviews, a teacher who had (a) taught

at different levels of the education system, (b) comparable qualifications, and (c) similar

years of teaching service as the SEN teachers gave feedback on the writing style and ease

of comprehension and also piloted the interview protocol. The steps had the distinctive

capacity to incorporate social, traditions, verbal styles and collect responses throughout

the refinement of the interview protocol (May Luu Yeong et al., 2018).

Initial consultation took place with participants through written communication

(circular to principals) and receipt of verbal notification from principals. This was

followed by in-person verbal interaction with the individuals at the focus groups. Prior to

the start of the focus group interviews, an introductory session was done as outlined in

the Interview Protocol. The anticipated benefits of this research namely enhanced mental

well-being, improved educational and health services, access to the services, and

effective functioning for individuals were stated. Participants were requested to partake in

interviews in focus groups to explore their thoughts and feelings regarding the academic,

behavioral, and psychological needs of students, the amenities available to help meet

those needs in schools, and how a school psychologist and school psychology could help

meet the students’ needs. Participants were also told follow up individual interviews may

be done if needed, to obtain more in-depth information or to check for accuracy of the

meaning of what was said in the focus groups (Maxwell, 2005). The information was also

included in the consent form. The full protocol for the interviews is given in Appendix A.

Table 2

Research Queries with Interview Questions and Probes

Research Queries

Interview Questions and Probes

Research Question 1:

What are Special Education Needs

(SEN) teachers’ perceptions of the

academic and mental health needs

of the students in government

operated primary schools in

Grenada?

Describe your experience in SEN?

1. Are you presently working directly as a

SEN teacher? If not, what are you doing

now?

2. Tell me about the needs of your

students:

Academic

Behavioral

Mental health

3. Why do you think it is important to

address students’ needs?

Academic

Behavioral

Mental health

Research Question 2:

What are SEN teachers’ perceptions

of the existing psychological and

related services available in schools

in Grenada?

1. How are you currently addressing

students’ needs:

Academic

Behavioral

Mental health

2. What are your challenges?

3. What are the areas in which you could

use more support?

4. Tell me about the supports that exist to

meet those needs.

5. Tell me what you think the role of a

SEN teacher would be in an ideal world.

6. What are the barriers to this role?

7. What types of support would you want?

Research Question 3: What are SEN

teachers’ perceptions of the roles

school psychology and school

psychological services could play in

meeting the needs of students in

schools in Grenada?

8. I am a school psychologist. What do you

see as my role in supporting you in the

classroom?

9. How do you think that could fit your

school?

Data Analysis Plan

The analysis of data, as with the collection of data, was an ongoing, participatory

process that involved both the participants and researcher (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

The initial step in data analysis was listening to the tapes from the focused group

interviews while concurrently writing notes and memos and producing potential thoughts

about connections and groupings (Maxwell, 2005). The initial step was important in

capturing and facilitating analytic thinking about the data (Maxwell, 2005). Next, I read

through the transcription and after member checking (described in later section),

categorized data according to theoretical/conceptual models generated to represent both

emic and etic perspectives, used theme analysis with broader categories and themes, and

employed pattern analysis (e.g., based on gender and age of teacher) to end up with

expanded coding schemes. Analysis incorporated (a) deductive data analysis using pre-

determined deductive codes, pre-determined organizational categories created from the

researcher’s etic perspective prior to focus groups interviews, preexisting conceptual

coding scheme, and theoretical groupings derived from theory (Appendix B); and (b)

inductive data analysis using inductive codes, substantive categories and description of

participants’ concepts and beliefs taken from their own words and concepts to generate

meaning. From the data collected, themes and patterns were identified based on what the

SEN teachers revealed; for example, this included ideas such as mental health needs,

“behaviours,” academics such as math, or study habits/thoughts. This process was

replicated until there was saturation of data and no new meaning was identified in data,

concepts, and conjecture.

Cases that did not fit the criteria established structurally or theoretically were

unearthed. It was important to create categories to sort data for further analysis of

negative cases (Rudestam & Newton, 2001; Maxwell, 2005). For data analysis, as

advocated by Borja et al. (2017), a second coder was incorporated as a partner, impartial

explainer, and checker for interpreter bias to confer with. Moreover, both data partners

employed a reflexive process prior to, throughout, and following every stage of analysis.

At each level during the building of consensus, reflections were shared and after

agreement was met at each stage, general reflections were shared by each partner on the

process (Borja et al., 2017). Thoughts and questions about subsequent codes and themes

were recorded in bordering brackets. The final coding scheme is presented in the Results

section.

Issues of Trustworthiness

There are four proposed criteria and 10 techniques for judging trustworthiness

(Nastasi & Schensul, 2005). Prolonged engagement occurred with sufficient time taken

to ensure emic perspectives and full participation in the research process were met;

prolonged engagement was facilitated in this case by the researcher’s experience (and

thus immersion) into the educational system prior to conducting the study. Persistent

observation occurred during the focus groups interviews and during the ongoing

meetings with participants to check for accuracy of transcription and meaning and

ensured that the full in-depth meaning was captured. Triangulation is the amalgamation

of methodological styles, theoretical philosophies, data bases, examiners and analysis

techniques to investigate the same occurrence (Hussein, 2015). Method triangulation

involved the use of many methods of collecting data regarding the same occurrence (Polit

& Beck, 2012). In this study, open-ended questions in focus groups helped to address

method triangulation. Data source triangulation concerned the gathering of data from

different people to obtain many perceptions and validation of the information (Carter et

al., 2014). I used varied theoretical perspectives and enlisted a peer as a second coder to

have peer debriefing and work collaboratively on coding to address data source

triangulation.

Member checking was an interactive process of negotiated outcome with research

participants to guarantee true representation of their views (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

Member checking to confirm the exactness of data was done by returning to informants

with data to corroborate accuracy and credibility of findings (Rudestam & Newton,

2001). Member checking was also done for credibility of this study by the involvement of

a peer reviewer. Verbatim transcription from the semi-structured open-ended questions in

the focus group was reviewed first by the researcher, second by the peer reviewer, and

third by participants/groups to check for accuracy of representation. Member checking

occurred after the focus group interviews, after data transcription, after data interpretation

prior to presentation of results, and prior to use of the data after presentation of results

(Nastasi & Schensul, 2005).

The participants, the context of the research, and the procedures were detailed in

the final report and provided thick description with continued organized documentation

of research methods, undertakings, judgements, and stages in the course of data

gathering, evaluation and analysis (Nastasi & Schensul, 2005). Such a process afforded

potential transferability and helped to ensure trustworthiness. An audit trail was also laid

with meticulous documentation of raw information, reduction of data, analysis, synthesis,

and process notes, for future retracing of steps and arrival of the same conclusions

(Rudestam & Newton, 2001).

Ethical Procedures

Several legal and ethical issues were addressed concerning human participants

and human rights issues linked with qualitative research. These were particularly

important when research was to be conducted in a setting not bound by legislation and

ethical codes for research. Informed consent is legal in the US, yet the experience and

beliefs of researchers in the US about informed consent in international collaborative

research ranged from viewing legal language as meaningless on consent forms to using

the consent process as a way of educating participants about the study (Dawson & Kass,

2005). This research involved informed consent and was upheld legally and ethically.

All research which includes human beings must be reviewed by institutional

review boards (IRBs) for best practice and to ensure safe and significant research

(Gillespie, 1997). In the United States, any such research conducted at Walden University

must be reviewed by its IRB to ensure adherence to ethical standards and federal

regulations. IRB approval was sought and secured for this study; Walden IRB approval

number # 09-19-19-0043306. United States’ IRBs and foreign IRBs face a number of

pressures and predicaments in reviewing research in the developing world (Kitzman,

2012). These are particularly important when research is to be conducted in a setting not

bound by legislation and ethical codes for research. Less than half of the islands in the

Caribbean have IRBs and only a quarter of those possess membership standards set in the

United States (MacPherson, 2001). Specific to Grenada, the Windward Island Research

and Education Foundation (WINDREF) established in 1994, was registered as a tax-

exempt charitable organization in the United States and one of the very few Caribbean

IRBs that conformed to international standards (Ghersi et al., 2004). It was founded with

facilities provided by the St. George’s University in Grenada and is located there.

Through study and schooling instruction, WINDREF’s undertaking sought to expand

wellbeing and ecological progress. It conducted most of the research done in Grenada and

has collaborated on research internationally (MacPherson, 2001). MacPherson advocated

individuals in lesser developed nations assist their countries to place worldwide

principles into habit. While I verbally shared the topic for this study, I did not complete

the WINDREF’s IRB process.

Culturally, many individuals in Grenada were distantly related by marriage or

blood, everybody knew each person’s affairs, and information was rapidly transmitted

verbally before it hit the media (MacPherson, 2001). Confidentiality, informed consent,

and interaction with individuals in the Ministry of Education were potential areas for

concern regarding suitable protection for the participants in the research study. Additional

ethical concerns which were addressed included: the use of research questions on existing

school psychological services in lay terms; consent to do the research in educational

institutions from the Ministry of Education, consent from teachers who participated in

the study in a system where authority (i.e., the Ministry of Education) is allowed and

expected to do what is deemed best for schools without the need for consent or assent

from teachers; anticipated minimal risks from participation in the study which included

feelings of distress being triggered; and confidentiality of data in a system where

confidentiality was not usually held by legal or ethical and codes.

The legal and ethical issues concerning human participant and human rights

issues linked with qualitative research and in this study were addressed. Existing

standards for educational research in the government operated primary school surrounded

a formal request for permission from the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of

Education to conduct research in schools. The Permanent Secretary/Chief Education

Officer in the Ministry of Education was aware that I planned to do the research study. A

Letter of Cooperation was completed with the Ministry of Education. Confidentiality was

also upheld by the researcher’s and participants’ employer who signed a Letter of

Cooperation, agreed to the confidentiality of information collected and authorized access

to relevant non-public data. Copies of all data collection procedures and consent forms

used in the study were provided to the Ministry of Education.

Coercive intent for participation in the focus groups was lessened by the standard

wording used in circulars sent to the schools from the Ministry of Education being

readjusted, in the case of the circular sent to schools for this study. The circular was sent

to the principals of schools with SEN teachers, informed them and the SEN teachers of

the nature of the study, and invited the SEN teachers to attend the focus group interviews.

SEN Teachers were invited to participate in the research. The consent form for adults was

read through with participants. This form outlined for participants why they were chosen,

stated who the researcher was, gave background information on the purpose of the study,

stated what they were expected to do, the voluntary nature of participant participation,

risks and benefits linked with the study, non-payment for participation, assurance for

their confidentiality, included contact numbers for any questions that arose during the

study, provided personal receipt of a copy of the form, and informed attaching their

signature meant they understand what the study was about and they willingness to

participate (Maxwell, 2005). The opportunity was given by the researcher and was used

by the SEN teachers for clarifications of information on the form. They gave consent and

signed the consent form.

Precautions were taken to minimize any stress reactions. Participants were told

they could withdraw their participation at any time they so desired. Steps taken to

minimize risk and protect teacher welfare included telling participants at the beginning

they were free to participate and to stop whenever they felt to do so and ongoing dialogue

was held about what was happening. Referrals to community outreach for mental health

support services were also available.

Walden University advocates anonymity of participant selection, informed

consent and data collection as the optimal way to nullify influential power dynamics. In

the context of Grenada, initials or demographic information in coded data was avoided as

suggested by MacPherson (2001). The anonymity of participants was upheld with the

assigned pseudonym “SEN teachers” (Creswell, 2007) and signed letters of

confidentiality were obtained from everyone who had access to the data. Prior planning

determined data storage, transmission and availability. Transcripts were kept in a locked

drawer with the keys solely kept by the researcher.

Summary

This qualitative study used qualitative research interviews and researcher’s

journal, to explore SEN Teachers’ perceptions of the roles school mental health

services/school psychology played within the school system in Grenada in addressing the

psychological, learning and social needs of students. Chapter 4 provides the results of the

interviews.

Chapter 4: Results

The purpose of this study was to explore, examine, and become knowledgeable

about the perspectives of SEN teachers in Grenada concerning how the roles of formal

school psychology/school psychologist and school psychological services played in

addressing the learning and mental health needs of students. Three research questions

guided this study. This chapter describes the process of data collection, data analysis, the

results and ends with a summary of the findings.

The Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education granted partner approval to

conduct the study. The week prior to the focus group interview the interview protocol and

the research questions and interview questions and probes were piloted with a teacher, a

peer of the participants who served across grades in the education system. The

participants had not yet been notified by the Ministry of Education thus, I did not want to

enlist their involvement prior to official notification. The confidentiality agreement was

signed by the teacher who then reviewed the protocol, questions, and probes. Changes

were not needed to the wording to enhance comprehension of questions. The teacher

reported they were all in lay terms and easily understood; thus, no changes were made.

The Ministry of Education sent a circular with notice of and schedule for this study to

principals of 31 schools in six parishes who had past, present, or future plans for SEN

teachers. Principals of schools in the seventh parish, the neighboring islands of Carriacou

and Petite Martinique, were not sent a circular by the Ministry of Education. I requested

the circular be sent to all 31 school in an effort to reach all SEN teachers.

A total of 18 participants (17 participants from the primary school and one

participant from the secondary school) attended and participated in in this qualitative

study. There were three focus groups. The first focus group had four participants and took

place on Tuesday, 26 November 2019, at a school. The second focus group had eight

participants and took place on Tuesday, 27 November 2019, at the Ministry of Education.

The third focus group had six participants and took place on Thursday, 28 November

2019, at the Ministry of Education. All participants were female. They ranged in

experience from teachers in their early career to teachers with roles of seniority and

leadership. Participants were verbally given the information on the process of informed

consent for participation and being audiotaped. They signed the consent forms. I also

signed a form attesting to confidentiality for the data provided by the participants.

Participants’ responses were audiotaped using a small voice recorder that was

unobtrusive. Participants were asked six interview questions, accompanied by probes

about their perception of services available in schools in Grenada to address the academic

and psychological needs of students in schools and their roles within the services. Each

participant readily volunteered to participate; participated fully, freely and honestly; and

provided rich, thick, and authentic descriptive responses. No responses were given that

indicated trauma of any kind. Thus, no participant required referrals to community

outreach for follow-up mental health support services.

On completion of the interview questions and probes, participants were verbally

given the opportunity to state comments and questions they had. No extra comments were

given. They were thanked for their participation. Return bus fares from the venue to the

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participants’ schools and light refreshments were provided. This was the regular protocol

used by the Ministry of Education. Participants were identified as “SEN teachers” in

interview transcripts and results. All identifying information regarding level of education

(primary or secondary) and role (e.g., itinerant teacher or vice principal) were removed to

augment confidentiality.

Participants’ responses provided comprehensive data on the three research

questions. No additional focus groups or individual interviews were needed to get more

in-depth information or to check for accuracy of the meaning of what was said in the

focus groups (Maxwell, 2005). Each audio recording was listened to and a transcription

was done. During transcription initial notes were made. The peer reviewer signed the

confidentiality agreement as second coder, listened to the recordings, and reviewed the

transcripts from each focus group sent by the researcher for accuracy and completeness.

The transcriptions were assessed to be accurate and complete by the second coder.

Responses from each transcription were segmented, assigned a code to mark

which focus group it came from, and then grouped together according to research

questions. Segments were moved around manually under the preassigned deductive codes

from the literature, or inductive codes which arose from a participant’s words and

concepts, then put together to form broad themes. The second coder also provided

ongoing collaborative feedback on the codes and themes revealed from the transcriptions.

A summary of broad themes which emerged from the transcripts were emailed to

participants to ascertain their words and perceptions were accurately represented.

Participants responded that their words and responses were accurately incorporated in the

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themes. Broad themes were condensed and new themes were created until there seemed

to be saturation.

During data analysis one discrepant case referred to a future school psychologist

as “she” when it may possible be “he” which did not fit the created criteria structurally or

categorically. The case was placed in a category titled ‘not considered relevant to this

study.’ The researcher kept a reflexive journal in which notes were written throughout the

process. Contents were discussed with the second coder during peer debriefing sessions. I

requested her opinion, a valuable way and examined my own prejudices and suppositions

and defects in your reasoning or procedures (Maxwell, 2005). Noteworthy in the journal

were persistent observations and reflections on the interaction with the cooperating

partner and the passion of SEN teachers giving their best to support students’ needs,

despite many shortcomings. They were eager to know how the researcher operates as a

school psychologist. Information was provided after the interviews were completed.

Study Findings

Findings are summarized according to the three research questions. Themes

relevant to each research question are presented and explicated with participant

perspectives and exemplary quotes.

Research Question 1

What are Special Education Needs (SEN) teachers’ perceptions of the academic and

mental health needs of the students in government operated primary schools in Grenada?

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The first research question sought to identify SEN teachers’ existing perceptions

of students’ needs in the schools where they worked. One main theme and one subtheme

emerged from SEN teachers’ responses to this first question. Figure 1 provides a

summary of the data in the main theme and subtheme.

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Figure 1

SEN Teachers' Perceptions of Students' Academic and Mental Health Needs

in Schools

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Theme 1: Academic, Cognitive, Mental, and Social Emotional Difficulties and

Underperformance “Lost in the System”

This first theme that emerged identified SEN teachers’ perceptions in general of

the academic, cognitive and mental health/social emotional needs students face in their

schools. SEN teachers expressed their concerns that students’ experienced academic

struggles, lacked academic readiness and foundational skills across grade levels. They

reported a high number of students were underperforming on national examinations and

experiencing great difficulty particularly in the area of reading. SEN teachers expressed

puzzlement about why this was so. They referenced “as one teacher says you have

children reaching grade 6 level and they still don’t know the pre-K words when you test

them” and “today I was by the Grade 6 teacher and she was saying look you know simple

words the children don’t know. So children reach up to there and maybe they don’t even

know the Dolce list at the pre primer level. A lot of words they don’t know and teachers

are complaining.”

SEN teachers’ further informed students displayed difficulties in cognitive

categories. They displayed inattentive behaviors, lack of concentration, were easily

distracted, and did not meet teacher/classroom expectations for sitting appropriately in

their seats and participating in class, particularly at the early levels of education. They

stated, “I am a grade one teacher and what I find is that the children, they cannot focus.

Their attention is very short, it’s as if they cannot settle,” and “the behavior, they’re very

hyper, yes like they can’t settle down to anything meaningful.” SEN teachers were

concerned students were disorganized, lacked intrinsic motivation, displayed difficulties

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with retrieving learned information and using analytical skills. They noted “even just to

pack away their toys and stuff, it’s takes a very long time.” I think the children need a lot

of help to really motivate them to learn,” “if we do our lesson say letter sound S today,

the next day they cannot remember,” and “critical thinking skills for about 40% of them

is not where it should be, they depend too much on the teacher to bring everything in a

recall.”

SEN teachers’ also expressed concerns students experienced challenges with

mental health functioning. They informed, “I’ve seen students coming like with children

saying they are possessed. I’ve seen a lot of behavior, it could be mentally, families and

children that are saying like they have demon.” They also informed students had

problems being socially and emotionally competent, and perceived students lacked self-

confidence; needed love, to be responded to, and to be heard; and to claim responsibility

for their actions.

Subtheme 1a: Factors that influence the academic and mental health needs of

the students using an ecological perspective. The interplay between student, home,

school and community. This subtheme that emerged highlighted SEN teachers

perceived it was important, students’ academic and mental health needs should be

addressed. They emphasized addressing students’ needs would (a) avert and tackle issues,

(b) develop their potential, and (c) ultimately lead to adults who are a fit for the ideals

espoused by the Grenadian society in which they live. SEN teachers also perceived what

happened with a child at school was intricately interwoven with what happened at home,

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at school, in the community, and at the governmental level. They informed student

academic underperformance and mental health issues may have several causes.

SEN teachers debated whether students’ academic underachievement was linked

to (a) home or school or both; (b) violence; (c) parental and teacher practices; (d) value of

educational base; (e) academic frustration; and (f) special education They referenced

“these children had a lot of challenges and one of the main one was like death in the

family well, coupled with the low achievement and all other things.” SEN teachers

informed violence was a pervasive problem at the individual, home, school, community

and governmental level. SEN teachers emphasized there was violence in homes, children

felt its brunt, revealed it in their behavior, and teachers not knowing the reasons behind

the behavior, handed out punitive treatment to the students. They perceived violence

impacted students’ academic performance and mental health functioning at school. SEN

teachers described how intense the physical actions were in students’ play with a

potential connection between students’ acting out behaviors and what was happening in

their homes. They reported “as it relates to the social interaction that they really don’t

know how to play, so everything that they do is a rough kind of play, and not playing,

they playing rough,” and “some of them when they growing up, you know they have

domestic problems at home and they coming to the school with it.”

They described the use of corporal punishment in schools which is permitted

under the Education Act. SEN teachers also referenced culturally approved practices of

violence such as “well for example, they are talking constantly in the class and I just call

him and say shut your mouth, those things and them we normally say. Caribbean people

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say shut up, hush your mouth and give them two lashes in their hand.” However, SEN

teachers pondered the effectiveness and value of their methods of physical correction.

They also spoke out about sexual abuse and incest as scourges of violence they perceived

to be unspoken, hidden, but well-known secrets found in homes and the society at large.

They concurred “we have a lot of that issues of sexual abuse and sexual incidents with

minors. So, our schools, our villages are infested with that.” SEN teachers shared their

experiences and talked about (a) doing the right thing; (b) alerting the relevant authorities

about abuse; (c) their perceptions of authorities’ lack of action or ability to keep students’

safe; (d) their helplessness to assist students; and (e) students perceiving a complete lack

of support for their well-being. They informed “so the child thinking now, right through

school life, nothing and nobody looked at their complaint, or whatever you notice and

didn’t do anything.” SEN teachers further discussed and voiced their concerns about

students’ health and safety in general.

SEN teachers discussed several types of interactions and approaches parents and

teachers used with students and how these impacted students’ academic performance and

mental health functioning in schools. They commented about parents having insufficient

language interaction with students, anticipating responses from them beyond their

capabilities, and not providing them with enough love and support. SEN teachers

specifically acknowledged they and parents did not meet students’ social-emotional needs

when students need it by not (a) listening to them (b) giving them the attention they

desired, and (c) focusing enough on those who were retained in classes. SEN teachers

reported “one of the main things is a lack of love and attention at home so a lot of them

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are not getting that. Like they had nobody at home to give them guidance,” and “they

come to tell us something that is bothering them, so we as teachers need to listen, even

though they not getting it at home, we need to listen. Sometimes they come to us about

their work, but the work is not the main thing.”

SEN teachers reflected on the educational base students had when they entered

the primary school. They perceived a strong foundation built with creditable approaches

and techniques as fundamental to students’ educational advancement. However, they

questioned the effectiveness of the methods and strategies and ultimately the foundation

itself at the beginning level of education. SEN teachers perceived the need to have

students’ academic needs addressed at the entry level of education. They spoke about (a)

screening/testing students, (b) screening/testing for students with disabilities, and (c)

wanting universal testing for students on entry into kindergarten in public primary

schools.

SEN teachers also spoke about specific practices and policies on retention and

promotion and lack of support being linked to academic frustration for students. They

mentioned work that students perceived was too difficult for them to complete

successfully and that their academic underperformance and mental health needs were

linked with students’ inappropriate classroom behavior. They perceived “when I started,

if you don’t ready for that level, you were retained and worked with. But then you had it

up, up, up, whether you succeed or not, then out of the system.” Also “another student in

the class who is way below that, way below his peers and most of the time, he just gives

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trouble. It’s because he can’t handle the work, but it’s just that he cannot handle the

work, so he’s disruptive.”

SEN teachers noted consistency in programming and use of specific strategies in

instruction were needed for students to achieve success. However, they perceived there

was inconsistency in programming due to interventions not only being changed often, but

also on a rapid basis. SEN teachers also referenced students’ absences from school and

the potential linked impact on their learning. They perceived “most times you have the

children who are slow, they’re not coming to school too, because they have issues at

home as well.”

SEN teachers perceived students received skilled teaching and pondered why

students continued to underperform academically. They stated, “so once the child gets

quality plus teaching and then you realize that the child can’t read, you know there is a

problem.” They talked a great extent about the need for special education and the dearth

of services to address the academic and mental health needs of students. SEN teachers

emphasized the impact of the loss of the SEN teachers upon regular education teachers in

schools. They informed teachers in regular education are tested by students who display

academic and mental health difficulties.

SEN teachers shared several student academic problems, behavioral

characteristics, and specific health needs such as seizures and hearing impairment and

discussed their experiences with them. They perceived some may require medical

attention and further investigation to discover their interaction and impact upon student

performance. They stated, “you know it have some people who do not hear letter sounds,

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it could be hearing impaired, so they need full assessment.” SEN teachers perceived

students’ underachievement may also be linked with mental health issues. They

advocated for assessment of students’ mental health functioning. They stated, “sometimes

when you focus on reading, the child not getting the reading, but the reading is not really

the problem. Some kind of home thing, some problem the child can’t cope out and you

fighting to teach the reading, coming up with all creative ways. So, the mental health I

think that we need to focus on that a little more to know exactly what is the problem, so

that we can address it properly.”

The SEN teachers proposed it was important to evaluate students to find out the

reasons for their underachievement and to determine educational placement. They further

perceived there was an urgent need for expertise in academic and mental health

assessment. SEN teachers thought it would be most beneficial to use various forms of

assessment to determine students’ academic functioning. They reported the difficulties of

(a) parental denial regarding their child having special educational needs, (b) parental

expectations that the teacher address students’ needs, and (c) parental refusal to have their

child labelled. SEN teachers informed of “parents’ failure to see the child needs. Some

parents tell you my child is normal, there is nothing wrong with my child. They live in

denial. Their child is special needs and they tell you no, no leave him with the regular

children. He’s ok and you find he is a little slow, well I am going to find help for him, I

will help him with the little reading that is the problem, just the little reading. That’s how

they see it,” and “don’t want their child to be labelled.” They also reported general

education teachers did not know how to grade students who were part of the SEN

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program and would say to SEN teachers “why you bring him back here, to do what,

because he cannot work under the grading.” They complained in general that information

and grades given to students on school report cards were not correct. They informed

report cards at the preschool and primary level did not correctly portray student

competence.

Research Question 2

What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the existing psychological and related services

available in schools in Grenada?

The second research question sought to identify SEN teachers existing

perceptions of present school psychological services in the schools where they worked.

Two main themes and two subthemes emerged from SEN teachers’ responses to this

second question. Figure 2 provides a summary of the data in the main themes and

subthemes.

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Figure 2

SEN Teachers' Perceptions of Psychological and Related Services in Schools

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Theme 2a: Providers of Psychological and Related Services that Address Students’

Needs. An Ecological Milieu of Ministry and School

This first theme that emerged reported SEN teachers perceived the providers of

psychological and related services available in the schools to address students’ needs

were (a) in the Ministry – Counselors, Special Education Desk – Speech and Special

Education Officers, Truancy Officers, and Early Childhood Education Officers; (b)

itinerant teachers from the School for the Deaf and the Resource Center for the Blind; (c),

in the school – SEN teachers, Regular education teachers, Principals; and (d) in the

Community – Donors.

SEN teachers acknowledged (a) in some of their schools, they had no knowledge

of counseling services that were available to attend to students’ needs, (b) there were not

enough services and providers available, and (c) individual providers were tasked with

too many schools. SEN teachers informed of the scarcity of counselors and the extent of

work the available counselors were assigned in different parishes. They felt there was too

much work for counselors to manage effectively. They questioned the logic of having the

service, yet having counselors assigned too many schools. SEN teachers stated “I know

we have counselors, but presently my school, we have no counselor assigned to us. You

know we have one counselor, who is I think is for some of the schools in Parish 1.” They

also stated “in Parish 2, they have one counselor for all the schools in the parish. How

much schools are there in Parish 2? 6 schools. Sometimes we don’t see the counselor for

the whole term, not once in thirteen weeks.” SEN teachers perceived “when you really

call on them, they really don’t have the time, they’re not available.”

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Participants also questioned the ministry’s expectations for counsellor

effectiveness to address students’ mental health needs. SEN teachers described

“sometimes the counselor might, if we assign them to a counselor, probably once for the

term, they might see the counselor which I don’t think is effective for a child with mental

issue seeing somebody once a term or once every three weeks. Actually, you should see

this person constantly, daily …I’m here with you.” SEN teachers concurred and said, “as

Miss was saying, it doesn’t make sense, you seeing a counselor this week, then it is not

until four weeks later, the counselor comes back around.” SEN teachers went on to

inform that insufficient, sporadic visits from counselors were only for specific purposes.

SEN teachers stated, “you know you’ll see them probably during like if is to just sit with

the students for Caribbean Primary Exit Assessment (CPEA), or some kind of special

occasion or to deal with a particular issue.” They further stated, “the support from the

counsellors is sadly lacking and a lot of the children who end up being slow and so on, it

is because they have issues at home and with somebody professional to really talk to and

help them iron it out, I think they would have achieved much more.”

Theme 2b: SEN perception of the quality of support from service providers, staff, and

students to meet students’ needs. Interactions between ministry, school, and community

This second theme that emerged was that SEN teachers perceived the types of technical

assistance, usefulness of the assistance they received, and quality of interactions they had

with providers and others to address students’ needs in their schools. SEN teachers

perceived although services were available, (a) service providers were inaccessible and

unsupportive, (b) there was financial impact on parents, and (c) there was insufficiency of

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support from officers at the ministry and also from principals and teachers in schools.

Two subthemes inductively emerged from the data related to SEN teachers’ perceptions

of the quality of support.

Subtheme 2b.1: Lack of help and support. SEN teachers perceived they bore

the brunt of meeting the students’ needs. They were very vocal about their frustration

regarding lack of assistance from the specialists. SEN teachers spoke out about

completing reports on students and never having them acknowledged by the relevant

authorities. They spoke at length about the unavailability of help from the specialists for

speech services in the ministry, causing them to inform parents to take their child to the

doctor for further evaluation and the resultant financial strain on parents. They informed:

(a) “the specialist is involved in every single thing except what they are supposed to do. I

had two children Child 1 and Child 2, when they were in pre-school, two in preschool. I

requested help, they are now in Grade 2, right, and up to now the specialist did not

come;” (b) “cause I remember a time there was a child that have a speech problem and I

was trying to get personnel from the ministry to come to do testing, but they’re not

helping, you understand;” (c) “I identify problems with certain students in schools, like

ok, you might call people in the Ministry that you know can help and you don’t get their

support that you want to help the child in the school;” (d) a parent came with a boy and

he was trying to see how we can help the boy, but to me the specialist, it’s as if they are

detached from the schools;” (e) “there was another incident again where we went to the

classes looking at the children, looking for the children who need help. We send it to the

Ministry and we still didn’t get anything;” and (e) “I have a student with a speech issue,

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right, he has both hearing loss as well as he has some other speech issues, I requested

assistance with that child. It’s been over a year, cause he’s now, maybe two years ago,

cause he’s in form four and I’m yet to receive the assistance. I even go as far as to say

well look if you can’t come to see the child, give me some pointers. I am yet to see that.

He might be graduating soon and then probably after that, the person might enquire “well

what is, where is this child?” I don’t know, but I mean we have a break down there.”

SEN teachers further stated, “so sometimes you have to tell the parents to try to see if

they could bring them to the Doctor and then sometimes the parents can’t afford for

therapy and all them kind of thing and when, we have people in the ministry that could

assist them”.

SEN teachers further perceived there was not enough support from other services

to address students’ needs at the ministerial and school levels. They talked about

insufficient support from the ministry, principals, and teachers to supply staff in order for

the SEN teacher to remain as SEN teachers. SEN teachers stated there were insufficient

visits from officers with their expertise to support SEN teachers trying to address

students’ needs and the subsequent detrimental impact on the implementation and

effectiveness of programs designed to address their needs and enhance students’

academic performance and mental health functioning in the schools.

Subtheme 2b.2: Satisfactoriness of support. SEN teachers also spoke about the

types of support and relationships they had at the levels of ministry, school, home, and

community. SEN teachers shared their experiences with praise of relationships founded

in advocacy, support, and collaboration. SEN teachers spoke about support from the

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ministry to retain their SEN duties, such as providing an additional member to the school

staff to facilitate the SEN teachers’ retention. SEN teachers discussed receiving training

from the Special Education Desk in the Ministry of Education and having discussions on

students’ needs. They related how they collaborated with the counselor about students’

mental health needs. They also praised the work ethic of the counselors. SEN teachers

were very vocal in their praise of the Truancy Officer for getting the job done. They

stated, “once you draw it to the attention of the Truancy Officer, he will say yes, and he

will find them. Well, they get a new name for him you know, the police. He acts as a

family police, because they are such a family, because they always staying home, so he

have that name, the family name police. Basically, he will find them.” SEN teachers

praised the services they received from the Resource Center for the Blind. SEN teachers

discussed support they received for the SEN program from principals in schools who

provided autonomy, space, and materials for SEN teachers to operate the SEN program.

They also referenced receiving support materials created by their colleagues in the early

grades.

SEN teachers spoke at length about working in classrooms with the regular

education teachers providing valuable services through the SEN program schools which

were seen as beneficial and requested by regular education teachers. They reported that in

the main the SEN program helped address the needs and produce improved performance

of many students in the SEN program. They were keen to share students’ successes

resulting from the SEN program. SEN teachers discussed consulting with other teachers

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regarding students’ needs to get additional insight and feedback. They reasoned their

need to provide support not only to each other but to all teachers.

SEN teachers discussed how they designed the organization, approaches, and

interventions they used in schools to support and address students cognitive and academic

needs. They described the composition of their students and perceived their main focus

was on helping them to read. They were keen to share on their individual pull-out

method, and explained students are taught together using instruction based on their

abilities. SEN teachers perceived curriculum content was best taught with an integrated

approach and incorporated some of the curriculum programs in the work they did with

students. They informed they used hands on approaches and creative activities that

attracted students with all levels of academic and mental health functioning and officials

from the Ministry of Education. SEN teachers also informed they incorporated and used

technology with students, even their personal technology. They perceived more

technology was needed based on (a) students’ familiarity with technology, (b) the

positive role technology makes in students’ learning, and (c) the need for more

technology for students’ use. They also perceived students needed extra help which time

did not permit during the school day. As a result, they utilized time outside of school

hours to provide extra assistance to students.

SEN teachers also discussed the approaches they used to address difficulties

students were experiencing with their mental health and social emotional functioning.

They perceived it was necessary to build relationships with their students to uncover their

thoughts and feelings and to build students’ self-esteem and confidence and participation

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in learning. SEN teachers discussed the positive impact of students’ self-perception of

improved academic performance on their self-esteem. They perceived the SEN program

helped students to blend into the regular classroom. They also acknowledged this

blending helped social-emotional skill building.

SEN teachers talked about several strategies they used to promote positive

behavior. The strategies included (a) providing attention; (b) utilizing behavior charts,

having rules and regulations and having them on visual display which helped address

behavior problems they saw when trying to implement a SEN program for some students

within a larger class body of students; (c) assigning specific leadership duties to students

who needed to increase positive behaviors and have prepared activities for students who

finished their work early; d) using systems to share and receive information from parents;

(e) utilizing strategies from existing curriculum programs including the Early Learners

Program - leadership, rules, routines, collaborative team work and problem solving; (f)

systems of motivation – Extrinsic and intrinsic – stating to students why they were being

given a prize; (g) small class size; and (h) providing before and after school support.

SEN teachers perceived, at the school and community level, the PTA provided an

avenue to get to know more about students’ families. They advocated it was vital to learn

as much as they could about their students and their families. SEN teachers, who received

materials from community sources to support the SEN program in their schools, praised

the generosity of their donors.

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Research Question 3

What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the roles school psychology and school

psychological services could play in meeting the needs of students in schools in Grenada?

The third research question sought to identify SEN teachers’ existing perceptions of the

role school psychology and school psychological services could play in addressing

students’ needs.

Two main themes and one subtheme emerged from SEN teachers’ responses to

this third question. Figure 3 provides a summary of the data in the main themes and

subthemes.

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Figure 3

SEN Teachers' Perceptions of Ideal Roles - SEN Teachers and School Psychologists

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Theme 3a: Role of SEN Teacher and Program Past and Present

This first theme that emerged identified SEN teachers’ perceptions in general of

the roles school psychology and school psychological services could play in meeting the

needs of students in Grenada. SEN teachers reported on (a) the background of the SEN

program; (b) how they became SEN teachers; (c) their current role as a past, present or

general education teacher using the SEN program in their classrooms; and (d) their

perceptions of the present-day SEN program.

SEN teachers discussed the beginning of the SEN program in their schools and

how they became SEN teachers. They informed the SEN program was implemented

across primary schools. They stated they were selected as SEN teachers, were offered the

role and accepted it. SEN teachers also discussed their present-day roles in schools. They

are (a) SEN teachers, (b) general education teachers, and (c) itinerant teachers. They

worked in grades preschool to secondary. SEN teachers had several additional roles in the

schools namely vice principal and literacy coordinator. They described how they operated

as SEN teachers in present day and reported on their present-day roles as general

education teachers. They stated, “so for me the program is still functioning in my school.

I really do enjoy working with my students because it allows the children to achieve

something.” SEN teachers also said, “secondary SEN they don’t call it SEN but it’s

support service, not Ministry but a school initiative.” Also, “I am a SEN teacher but

unfortunately, I have not been given the chance to really work with the children generally

except in my classroom”

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SEN teachers were keen to share their perceptions of the end/downgrading of the

SEN program and its impact upon their functioning in schools. Overall, they (a) reported

they were back in general education classrooms, (b) expressed amazement that the

program was current, and (c) speculated whether the SEN program met its demise as a

result of policy makers and changes in policies. SEN teachers generally perceived the

SEN program was not operational. They reported they were returned to the classroom to

replace teachers who retired or were absent. SEN teachers pondered the diminished SEN

program, questioned the reason why the program diminished and wondered if it was due

to the ministry and ministry’s policies. They speculated it may have to do with changes in

people at the level of the policy makers. SEN teachers expressed surprise to learn some

SEN teachers were still operating as SEN teachers and the SEN program was ongoing.

Theme 3b: Ideal Roles – SEN Teacher and School Psychologist

This second theme that emerged highlighted SEN teachers’ perceptions of their

aspirational wishes for their role in the future. They were eager to share and demonstrated

a sound understanding of what they perceived their ideal role would be. SEN teachers

perceived themselves as (a) helping; (b) identifying students’ needs; (c) using a holistic

approach; (d) using initiative; (e) using collaboration; and (f) using advocacy.

SEN teachers perceived in their ideal role, starting early and at all levels of

education, they would assist students to be successful. They discussed how they would

detect students’ needs and address those needs. SEN teachers perceived it would be best

to use an all-encompassing method to address students’ needs. They informed their ideal

role required ingenuity and emphasized the need for teamwork with other professionals.

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They also perceived in their ideal role they would stand up and use activism for practices

that would address students’ needs including (a) calling out themselves to be advocates;

(b) SEN teachers’ activism; (c) calling for extra staff; and (d) rules to address aggression

in students’ play.

They reported on their personal advocacy and advocacy as SEN teachers in

action. SEN teachers said “I told my principal, I went to the principal and I told her

straight up, we’re giving the child a tablet. This is for the child to use when I come to

work with the child, we’re going to be using the tablet in the classroom. I said I know you

may have your rules and regulations. If the child is using the tablet outside of the

prescribed thing, then you do as you see fit. When I done tell you so, you think you go

come and tell me my child can’t use the tablet.” SEN teachers said, “I always had a voice

in my school so I could speak up for myself and so I did.” SEN teachers also informed as

advocates they would call for extra staff and for rules to prevent violent play.

SEN teachers also spoke about their perceptions and aspirational wishes for the

role of school psychology and school psychological services in the future. They were

eager to share and demonstrated their understanding of what they perceived the ideal role

of a school psychologist would be. SEN teachers perceived the school psychologist as (a)

worker with SEN teacher in classroom; (b) helper to SEN teacher on students’ needs; (c)

consultant on areas related to special education; (d) supporter to SEN teachers on student

health and safety; (e) supporter to students for mental health; (f) timely supporter to SEN

teachers for mental health and counseling; and (g) supporter to parents for counseling and

parenting skills.

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SEN teachers desired the school psychologist to be in SEN classrooms, working

with them, to observe students, and to provide strategies. They stated, “You come into the

classroom you observe and then you tell me ok I see this child xyz you give me pointers

how to deal with the child.” Additionally, they said the of the school psychologist, “if you

are assigned to the school, you look at every single child, you look at the specific children

and you play a part. You see just as how the teacher in the classroom working, the school

psychologist in the classroom working just the same, that is just how I see it.” They saw

the school psychologist as a much-needed professional who could help them address

students’ behavioral, social-emotional and cognitive challenges. The school psychologist

would be “helping me to get to know the children, understand what they are thinking,

understanding them more and how can I deal with them, when I get to understand them,

what can I do to really assist the students.” SEN teachers perceived when there were

concerns about a student, the school psychologist would be consulted and do

psychoeducational assessments and behavior management. Further, they saw the school

psychologist as the person to go to about students’ behavior. They informed, “you the

psychologist you know what you are looking for we might be educated with little aspects

of how we can deal with them on a day-to-day basis but we need somebody else as miss

say so we can go to. The go to person to help us with the behavioral as it relates to the

children.”

SEN teachers indicated they expected the school psychologist to provide support,

expert advice, and assistance to support all students in schools living with varied

challenges including domestic violence. They informed, “I say what happen by your

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neighbors last night? He say, “girl police and all we.” He say, “them children don’t sleep,

they had to go by another neighbor for rescue. So all these things they coming to us with,

so how we going to deal with them as a psychologist, you have to help us to know how to

deal with it.” They also expected the school psychologist to provide social-emotional

support for students in such areas as trauma and self-esteem. SEN teachers said “support

whether is emotional support or other support it’s a traumatic thing for the child and so

there has to be somebody who is able to help the child to cope with that and then to work

and move on,” and “a school psychologist can play a great role there. You know to help

the children to develop their self-worth, their self-esteem, their confidence because we

realize that the slower children could be confident in that little slow bunch.”

SEN teachers advocated for the school psychologist’s role to include support for

students on a timely basis and support for teachers personally, inclusive of counseling.

They went on to state the school psychologist had to be there for all teachers both SEN

teachers and regular education teachers. They also indicated they wanted the school

psychologist to provide support at home for children and parents through education,

counseling, and classes on parenting.

Subtheme 3b.1: Challenges and barriers using an ecological perspective –

Government, ministry, home, school, and community. This subtheme that emerged

suggested SEN teachers perceived they are faced with a variety of barriers at the levels of

government, ministry, home, school, and community that prevent them from fully

functioning in their perceived ideal role. They spoke about (a) the value of education; (b)

being unheard by people in charge; (c) lack of interest and lack of belief = lack of support

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= and failure of SEN program; (d) legislation and policies; (e) tension and conflict; (f)

stigma and bias; (g) time; and (h) lack of education and need for training.

SEN teachers thought aloud about government and education. They also pondered

on how parents and children viewed education. They noted children seemed unaware of

the purpose of education. SEN teachers felt they were unheard by administrators. They

perceived policy makers needed to pay attention to the SEN program, have faith in its

worth, and back the program for its success. SEN teachers said, “so if we have the people

who are the authority at the head doesn’t go for the program, it wouldn’t go anywhere, so

hence the reason why it flopped, but it was a good program.” They informed, “if we have

people who are responsible to train the teachers and they do not believe that the children

need that assistance, then of course failure and that’s the main thing.” They informed

there were insufficient resources to address students’ academic and mental health needs.

They also perceived there should be an upgrade in their status and incentives linked with

teachers upgrading their skills, and better accommodations at school for students with

special needs.

SEN teachers spoke about their lack of knowledge about legislation and policies

regarding special education and their roles. They stated, “SEN needs clear cut guidelines

on the roles, responsibilities, you know the policy governing the SEN program. So that

we won’t be caught up between a rock and a hard place with all kinds on Nancy stories

because now parents are getting wiser every day and they going the legal ways.” They

further stated they needed clarity in the event of legal liability. SEN teachers asked

questions on policies for the SEN program. The questions included “is the SEN program

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for children who are just underachievers or persons who have problems?” They stated, “if

that is the focus of SEN then SEN is needed,” because “80 90 % of my class needs SEN.”

They also asked many questions around the target population for SEN. They asked, “so

they are underachievers? What grade do you mean?” “Grade 4,” “I think we really, really

need the program especially early.” “when does the SEN program begin? is it in primary

school?” “it could start from the preschool too I find.” “I need a little more yes as to the

SEN program, is it for children who have special needs?” “So let’s say from kindergarten

and they still haven’t completed the pre-school, are they’re entitled to that SEN

program?” They expressed concern about the need for policies on technology in the

classroom and pointed out teachers’ use of cell phones in the classroom.

SEN teachers expressed there were feelings of tension, lack of understanding

regarding the way in which the SEN teacher operates leading to differing expectations

between professionals. They spoke about their experiences with strained encounters with

officials from the ministry, a lack of respectful communication from the counselors,

conflict and disagreements with the principal, and complaints from teachers around the

value of SEN and class size. SEN teachers said,” based on your principal, they had good

battle with their principal, because the principal did not see the importance of the

program with 5 or 6 children you are wasting time” and “then I had my principal telling

me I’m wasting time because I went over the lesson the following day. Then she came to

me and said didn’t you do that yesterday, and I need to move on. I tried to tell her most of

my class, I don’t have highfliers in my class, maybe one or two that can work for

themselves, but she say, “well give them something to do.” Well, I said Miss they are

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doing something else, “but you’re wasting time with these children,” but I say Miss the

majority is these children, and I have a battle with her all the time because she always

comes to my class and tells me I am wasting time.” SEN teachers spoke of bias against

the SEN program from students in school. They also spoke of students’ stigma about

seeing the counselor at home and school. SEN teachers reported that teachers in general

education wanted to have students in the SEN program separated from the regular

education classes, showed favoritism for particular students and do not view SEN

teachers as equals.

SEN teachers perceived the amount of time needed to keep up with

documentation required by the ministry was better used for working with their students.

They also perceived teachers and parents and individuals who served both roles seemed

to not have enough time to adequately help their children. They said, “you know who

does, you know who doesn’t do homework. They don’t have time to help their children

and you could see it in their homework. They give them the homework to do and you see

children come back home, come back in the school, just as how I give them. It is wrongly

done, it is not written, not clear.” SEN teachers informed, “I had a meeting with one of

the SEN children, their parent and the principal, and she said clearly that she’s in

University of the West Indies (UWI), and she don’t have time to help him, so you see the

work of the SEN teacher again. So, a lot of the parents not only children, parents that is in

UWI now, to me all the parents especially the young parents. They have a system in

school feeding in the school and children that could afford they eating. I remember I

stand up by the school an afternoon and I hear a young parent, “I going and register my

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child to eat in the school, you think I go get up in the morning and cook and it have hot

food in the school, let me go and register my child nuh.” Come on parents don’t have

time. I don’t know if it is the work. I don’t know if it is the busyness. They living in an

instant world.” SEN teachers also pointed out “I have a teacher’s child in my class too,

not doing homework too.”

SEN teachers discussed the impact on their personal lives of working as a SEN

teacher. They informed, “at the end of the day you already tire yourself out with people

children. When you go home you snapping at yours, if you have to sit down with them.

I’m talking from my experience. My son knows! I say to him when we get home, just

give me an hour, don’t come to me, don’t question me.” They also informed, “yeah as a

teacher we does say that. Do not enter my room, constantly snapping at him because I

feel like I am still at it.” They acknowledged, “when I get at home, to the father, I say you

take on that, yeah, so to the father you take on that, leave me alone.” SEN teachers also

acknowledged, “I used to make sure they do their homework, but sometimes, like they

come “mommy,” sometimes, I say oh gosh, hold on, just give me a little time. Oh yes, to

calm first. Then they say “mommy ok, so you don’t want to talk to me.”

SEN recognized education was needed at all levels about the roles of all service

providers including the school psychologists and the services they provide. SEN teachers

perceived they were unsure about the meaning of mental health needs. They perceived

the principals might need the services of the school psychologist. However, they felt the

principals might feel their jobs are threatened. SEN teachers didn’t seem to understand

counselors’ way of working.

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SEN teachers (a) questioned counselors’ expertise, (b) requested counselors’

strategies to use in their classrooms, and (c) voiced their and students lack understanding

of and the need for education on the counselors’ mode of operation. SEN teachers

perceived students needed to be educated on special education in general. SEN teachers

also perceived there was a lack of knowledge about the SEN program. They reported

whilst they had some knowledge and skills with academic needs, they did not have

enough knowledge or skills to competently address students’ academic learning,

behavioral, mental health, and social-emotional needs. SEN teachers identified a need for

training in the academic and mental health areas that would help them function more

effectively to meet students’ needs. They promoted the train-the-trainer type of approach

to training.

Summary

The purpose of this study was to investigate SEN teachers’ perceptions of the

provision of services in Grenada to address the academic and psychological needs of

students in schools and their role in the services. Using a qualitative approach of

interview questions and probes with participants, along with researchers’ journal notes,

permitted greater comprehension of the perceptions of SEN teachers. SEN teachers

participated in this study. Their responses provided valued discernment into their

perceptions. Data coding and analysis revealed four main themes and sub themes (1)

academic, cognitive, mental, and social-emotional difficulties and underperformance

impacted by interplay between student, home, school and community; (2) providers of

psychological and related services that address students’ needs with an ecological milieu

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of ministry and school; (3) SEN perception of the quality of support from service

providers, staff, and students to meet students’ needs with interactions between ministry,

school, and community with lack of help and support and satisfactoriness of support; and

(4) SEN teachers’ perception of the role of SEN teachers and the SEN program, both in

the past and present, the ideal roles for SEN teacher and the school psychologist, and the

challenges and barriers to the ideal roles, using an ecological perspective. Chapter 5 will

address the interpretation of findings, limitations, recommendations, implications for

social change, and the conclusion.

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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendations

This study documented SEN teachers’ perceptions of students’ academic and

mental health needs, school psychology/school psychologist and school psychological

services in Grenada to address student needs, and the role formal school

psychology/school psychologist could play in meeting those needs. Chapter 5 provides a

summary of the results, interpretation of the findings, limitations of the study,

implications for future research and practice, and conclusion of the study.

Summary of Results

Three research questions drove this study and were answered by participants’

responses.

Research Question 1: What are Special Education Needs (SEN) teachers’

perceptions of the academic and mental health needs of the students in

government operated primary schools in Grenada?

Research Question 2: What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the existing

psychological and related services available in schools in Grenada?

Research Question 3: What are SEN teachers’ perceptions of the roles school

psychology and school psychological services could play in meeting the needs of

students in schools in Grenada?

SEN teachers perceived, in general, students across grade levels displayed several

academic, cognitive, and mental health/social-emotional needs and challenges which

were interwoven with their ecological environment. They informed learning and services

are urgently needed, but the number of services and service providers were insufficient,

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and the quality of services ranged from totally unhelpful to significantly helpful. SEN

teachers valued the SEN program and their roles both in the past and present, had a vision

for how they and a school psychologist could best support and address students’ needs,

and were versed in the challenges/barriers they faced to implement their vision.

Interpretation of Findings

The academic, cognitive, social-emotional and mental health characteristics

students displayed in classrooms warranted further investigation. Academically, in

Grenada, students displayed characteristics of disorders such as ADHD, but similarly to

their counterparts in the neighboring island of Trinidad and Tobago, teachers’ knowledge

of ADHD was low, and they wanted expert help to teach students with characteristics of

ADHD (Youssef et al, 2015). Cognitively, although SEN teachers in Grenada recognized

the need for constructivist approaches or 21st century critical thinking skills, they felt

unprepared to provide these.

SEN teachers reported social emotional learning needs such as lack of love and

attention both in homes and school, although they did not have the time to give it to

students who need it. Hinchliffe and Campbell (2016) reported the importance of

relationship to social emotional learning and noted children do not respond well to people

they did not know. Further, empathic teacher actions are deemed a significant trait of

positive teacher-student interaction (Thijs et al., 2008). SEN teachers described student

characteristics which may be symptomatic of mental disorders, yet they were unsure what

characterized poor mental health and did not recognize the signs. Carr et al. (2018)

135

reported significant improvement in mental health literacy can occur after 3 months of

training.

Interwoven was Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory (1979), which proposed an

individual exists in the environment comprised of surrounding systems that the individual

interacts with (Nastasi et al., 2004). It is therefore vital to factor in the interaction to fully

comprehend the individual’s functioning. World Bank Group (2017) reported Grenadian

classrooms were characterized by undertrained teachers and classroom practices low in

quality in the areas of emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional

support. Programs mentioned by SEN teachers given by the Ministry of Education for use

in schools were academic in focus probably because education (academics) is deemed

key to eradicating poverty (CDB, 2014).

SEN teachers, particularly those who were entry level, spoke about the lack of

training. SEN teachers also were concerned about practices such as inclusion and

retention. They felt challenged by inclusion without support. Horsford and O’Sullivan

(2016) informed it is necessary to comprehend teachers’ beliefs regarding inclusion and

support to enrich and facilitate its success. SEN teachers spoke out against students

progressing through the system without being retained when necessary. NASP suggests

retention as a last resort, yet research suggests retention may not necessarily be all

negative (Cham et al., 2015). In the more developed countries laws provide support to

assist students who are retained. In Grenada, there are no Child Study Teams (CSTs),

Response to Intervention (RtI), or Individualized Education Plans (IEPs). The present

main support (without the structure of SEN teachers) is repetition of the standard work

136

for that grade. Although school psychologists do not support retention, they could consult

and help make the determination about whether a student should be retained and assist in

the creation and execution of programs intended for improvement (Schnurr et al., 2009).

SEN teachers bemoaned the current lack of special education processes and

special education law in Grenada. Without IEPs and despite lack of understanding on the

behalf of leadership and staff, SEN teachers did the best they could to address students’

needs. They wanted a preventative focus, valued assessment, and expressed an urgent

need for universal screening and psychoeducational assessment along with the required

expertise of a school psychologist (Gilman and Gabriel, 2004).

In Grenada, SEN teachers were keen to share and spoke out about violence in

general, in homes (Smith et al., 2011; Hickling-Hudson, 2011), and in schools

(Breshears, 2014). Sexual behavior in schools and sexual abuse in general generated

much discussion. It could be SEN teachers may not have a developmentally appropriate

lens for children’s curiosity in regard to sexual behavior, or they might be acting out what

they have witnessed or experienced. More focus may need to be given to supervision and

monitoring of children’s activities and enactment of the mandated reporter legislation. No

mention was made of government approved and sponsored programs in schools or

initiatives such as Child Friendly Schools (Ministry of Education, 2018). This is

noteworthy, given the SEN teachers’ concern regarding violence in play and interaction

among students at school. SEN teachers also expressed uncertainty about the

effectiveness of corporal punishment but were unsure how to manage effectively without

137

its use. They spoke more about aggression but not much about withdrawn behaviors as

also found by Nelson and Evans-Stout (2018).

Of note, Grenada ranked highest in the Americas for annual consumption of

alcohol (WHO, 2014) and had a high level of poverty particularly amongst children

(UNICEF, 2018). SEN teachers spoke out about the scourge of alcohol abuse by parents

and its interaction with domestic violence and impact on children in schools. SEN

teachers spoke out about the impact of poverty on children’s behavior and attitude. SEN

teachers wanted help to address trauma from violence. School psychologists can assist to

provide trauma informed care at schools (Alisic, 2012; Ridgard et al. 2015). Religion is

integral to schools’ curriculum which may be why it was not mentioned as a resource to

address society’s ills. However, in the Grenada context, a school psychologist can also

help to frame the issue (e.g., indiscipline) and tackle it in the context of religion and

spirituality (Silva et al. 2017).

RQ2. No SEN teacher said the number of services provided was adequate. They

all agreed the number of services provided was insufficient, the information about them

was not widely available, and the quantity and quality of the services needed

improvement. They had much to say about the shortage of psychological services and an

insufficient number of counselors. Creation of mental health services is key for

intervention to address children’s mental health problems in less developed countries

(Kerebih et al., 2018). Primary services named or most frequently mentioned were speech

and counseling. Yet, some teachers expressed lack of awareness of the services. Teachers

need to know what services are available to make use of them. Particularly, as they are

138

the main persons to address students’ needs (Aire & Stevens, 2013; van Schalkwyk & Sit,

2013). SEN teachers relied mainly on their personal cultural practices and interventions

they perceived as working rather than evidenced-based practices and interventions.

RQ3. SEN teachers view they role and that of the school psychologist as vital.

SEN teachers shared about the numerous duties they undertake towards supporting

students. Grenada does not have a school psychologist. They expressed insufficient or

complete lack of knowledge or understanding about what the job, duties, training, and

skills of school psychologists entailed. Yet, SEN teachers showed awareness of the role.

They see school psychologists as skilled, helpful, and have high expectations for them. In

the United States, Gilman and Medway (2007) reported teachers had a narrow

comprehension of the role of the school psychologist. In Grenada however, SEN teachers

wanted a broad all-encompassing role inclusive of many roles for the school

psychologist. Some of the roles mentioned duties regarding child abuse and family issues

would be assigned to guidance counselors and social workers, occupations not within the

structure of the education system in Grenada. Koopmann (2007) informed teachers

misunderstood the role of the school psychologist. This may possibly be due to (a) not

knowing the ‘recognized’ role, for example, SEN teachers want a broad role that would

suit their needs and cover areas in which they most need help; (b) knowing the researcher

in Grenada as prior teacher, present early childhood education officer (on leave), and in

the United States as school psychologist (As a safeguard, the researcher did not share

what is done as a school psychologist.); (c) present role as general education teachers

139

who utilized their SEN roles; and (d) many civil servants including teachers multitasking

several professionals roles within the system.

SEN teachers saw themselves and the school psychologist as providing

collaborative educational and psychological services for students, themselves, parents,

and families (Williams. 2010; Zeng & Bordeaux, 2011). Collaboration is key to

implementing interventions (Gonzalez et al., 2004). SEN teachers reported they wanted

the school psychologist to have a daily role that included (a) assessment, (b) consultation,

(2004) and Watkins et al. (2001) studies. Prior research rank psycho-educational

assessment as highest (Farrell, 2010). The results of the current study show this did stand

out in the case of Grenada. Although SEN may think this is a role, they are already doing

which can be improved with training and resources, they were vocal about the limits of

their expertise within the role they performed. They wanted the school psychologist to

provide assessment in special education. SEN teachers felt if the school psychologist

helped them to understand the cognitive profile of their students and gave them

information on their strengths and weaknesses, they could better address them.

SEN teachers viewed the school psychologist as an expert for consultation

(Gilman & Medway, 2007; Castro-Villarreal & Rodriquez, 2017). They wanted

consultation both for themselves and for parents. Castro-Villarreal and Rodriquez (2017)

advocated for examination of ecological systems to help ease resistance found in the

consultation process.

140

SEN teachers wanted an overlapping of roles. Although they did not mention

counselors doing testing, they wanted counselors to provide counseling. They also

wanted the school psychologist to provide counseling for students, parents, and teachers

and support their mental health. They saw the school psychologist as a trainer and

educator conducting workshops for students, staff, and parents in both general education

and special education. They also wanted the school psychologist to use PTA as

opportunities to offer interventions (Flanagan, 2011).

SEN teachers saw school psychologists as taking charge and advancing their

knowledge and skills regarding the characteristics of children with social, emotional and

behavioral difficulties (Soles et al., 2008). They did not see themselves necessarily as the

expert pertinent to behavior management or rules and communication (Koutrouba et al.,

2018).

SEN teachers spoke of their challenges, successes, advocacy and doing the right

thing in relation to ethical and professional practices. The school psychologist can help

with advocacy to address some of the challenges. Part of their advocacy may be social

justice and social change working with teachers and systems to use a socially oriented

lens of justice perspectives to address familial, cultural, and socioeconomic factors and to

help vulnerable children (Flores & Ferreira, 2016).

Limitations

The purpose of this study was to gain insight on current perceptions of school

psychological services available in Grenada. Still, there are natural factors within the

design of the study that generated limitations to overall generalizability. First, the present

141

study was limited to teachers in government-operated schools who currently worked as

SEN teachers in the present or past. Administrators and other support staff who provided

psychological services were not included in the study. Second the circular was sent by the

Ministry of Education to schools with insufficient time to accommodate full receipt and

attendance at the focus group interviews. Not all SEN teachers received the request to

participate in the study. Thus, the participants were not representative of all SEN teachers

current and past in Grenada. Third, the circular was emailed only to principals of schools

and not also to the teachers which may have impacted who was sent to participate in the

focus groups. Fourth, the findings of this study are only applicable to the perceptions of

the participating SEN teachers and their knowledge of psychological and related services

in Grenada. Fifth, the participants were from educational districts some of which the

researcher supervised. Although none of the SEN teachers who participated in this study

were directly supervised by the researcher, the researcher’s familiarity with some of the

SEN teachers may have influenced some of the given responses.

Implications for Future Research and Practice

The importance of studies of teacher perspectives regarding the utilization of

psychological services within education environs has been cited in school psychological

literature. No studies of similar research that has been conducted in Grenada. This is the

first and only study that has explored Grenadian teachers’ perspectives about

psychological services and the role of the school psychologist. Their perspectives are

important as they are the main providers of addressing students’ needs in the schools.

This research contributes to the knowledge of school psychology where school

142

psychology is new, emerging, or still an aspiration waiting for policy makers to bring the

role into fruition. It also informs the development of school psychology services around

the world.

Continuing this line of research and reaching a wider audience of stakeholders in

the state of Grenada would be beneficial. To ensure varied viewpoints are heard, the

perceptions of counselors, speech/language pathologists, and other providers in the

Ministry of Education, principals, general education and itinerant teachers, and other

stakeholders including parents and students can be included. This may supply extra

thoughts and ideas about the sufficiency, value and effectiveness of the existing school

psychological services including which one is most effective or valued. Their perceptions

also afford comparison of perceptions across the different groups, within individual

districts and schools.

Based on the findings of this study and similar published research, it is

recommended in general that providers, namely counselors, itinerant teachers, SEN

teachers who provide school psychological services in Grenada and any future school

psychologist in Grenada:

• Present clear statements of the services they provide and the roles they serve.

• Share information on professional roles and functions in schools using staff

meetings, professional development days, students’ assembly, and PTA meetings.

• Provide professional development sessions to administrators and teachers on the

services.

143

• Inform all teachers, administrators, and staff members about available

psychological services.

• Adhere to the ethical and professional practices set internationally for the

provision and use of psychological services.

• Develop policies and procedures with stakeholder input.

• Enact existing legislation to serve the basis for the special education referral and

intervention process.

• Shift education to a preventative mode of service with a focus on preventative

rather than a wait-and-fail approach (Sheridan and Gutkin, 2000).

• Provide opportunity for providers of psychological services to work at a level

which informs policy development.

• Implement special education services.

• Provide professional development, training, and incentives for SEN teacher to

address students’ academic, cognitive, social-emotional, and mental health needs.

• Create and use contextual Child Study Teams (CSTs) or Response to Intervention

(RtI) approaches for consultation and problem-solving children’s needs.

• Expand role of SEN teachers to make full use of their range of skills and

expertise.

• Hire a school psychologist. SEN teachers indicated they want more services and

support of the school psychologist. Policy makers can facilitate this. Have school

psychological services managed by a trained school psychologist rather than the

Student Support Services Unit.

144

• Use this research to help policy makers provide a blueprint for a contextually

derived role and services for the future school psychologist.

Conclusions

Gilman and Gabriel (2004) reported teacher knowledge of school psychologists

remains unchanged. Sixteen years later, in some countries of the world there are no

school psychologists and school psychology is still not evident (Jimerson, Skokut, et al.,

2008; Cook et al., 2010). This research has shown school psychological services and an

aspirational school psychologist are valued by SEN teachers in Grenadian schools. The

SEN teachers articulated needs of students in schools. They also spoke of the services

available to meet the academic and mental health needs of students in schools, and

access, sufficiency, and value of those services. They described strategies they use to

enable them to address students’ academic and mental health needs. SEN teachers talked

about the aspirational roles they and school psychologists could provide. They identified

a number of barriers/challenges to their desired functioning.

While results of this study indicate some provision of services within the

education system in Grenada, results also indicate the services need to be improved and

expanded to meet students’ needs. Further, while there seems to be a consistent call for

increased services, provided on a timely basis, by qualified professionals from SEN

teachers who perceived students coming to school with increased social emotional and

mental health needs, there also seems to be a resistance or lack of will by policy makers

to address this call. The challenges of SEN teachers and the students they serve must be

addressed. Worldwide, the roles and functions of school psychologists are broadening,

145

and this is key to addressing the changing needs of children today. Lastly, while there

was no established school psychologist in Grenada, SEN teachers who are “expected to

do it all,” the “front line workers” stand committed yet weary to address students’ needs.

The school psychologist’s position when opened would serve to encompass many

services. It is a role, if set to established international policies and enacted legislation,

would help the children, parents, teachers and the community at large, develop citizens

skilled with humanity

146

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