A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
A Critical Analysis of Mobile Interpersonal Relationships through Uncertainty
Reduction Theory
Over the last few decades, technology has taken a tremendous growth trajectory
which has intensely changed the way in which humans communicate. People are
working primarily from home, scholars are receiving degrees without ever stepping foot
on campus, and global friendships are being made through silly games online. Internet
use has penetrated the majority of our lives as a valuable tool for online expression,
peer-to-peer socialization, and as a resource for products, services, and brands.
Considering statistics from a decade ago, the internet found its way into the lives of 80%
of the population, which resulted from a dramatic 40% increase in use in just five years
(Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). Considering the development of the internet including
examples of high-use social media platforms and more efficient online gaming, it is
evident that this growth trajectory of technology has only heightened between 20102011
and present day (Lamberton & Stephen, 2016). One highly notable way in which
technology has changed human communication and interaction is with the development
of online dating. Through this online platform, individuals are having the chance to
begin, develop, and even end interpersonal relationships without ever meeting the
partner in person. This is happening due to the lack of primary tension in initial contact,
as uncertainty reduction can take place from behind a screen. Uncertainty reduction
theory plays a large role in the way humans interact through media, especially on online
dating apps. By having the ability to gain information about others quickly without
inperson threat, a whole new world of romance has evolved.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Charles Berger, professor of communication at the University of California, Davis,
originated what is now known as Uncertainty Reduction Theory. The basic premise of
Berger’s theory is the idea that when strangers meet, their initial concern is to reduce
the uncertainty about the other or to increase predictability about the behavior of both
themselves and the other involved in the interaction (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998;
Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985; Kramer, 1993). This motivation during human
communication allows for the understanding of communicative actions and the
promoting of relationship development between those involved (Emmers & Canary,
1996; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). Uncertainty reduction theory also focuses on how
people gain knowledge about one another and the creation of proactive and retroactive
predictions about others’ attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors (Griffin et al.,2019;
Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988).
Axioms
Inside of Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory, a series of axioms were
implemented to explain the relationship between the presence of uncertainty and eight
critical variables of relationship development (Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985).
These key variables include that of verbal communication, nonverbal warmth,
information seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity, similarity, liking, and shared networks
(Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst et al., 1985). These axioms help communication
professionals interpret what makes up the uncertainty reduction process during a
human interaction. To briefly expand on the first axiom for a more profound
understanding, it is assumed that as the amount of verbal communication increases,
uncertainty will be reduced, leading to even more verbal communication (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Yifeng, 2015).
Information Seeking
As humans encounter uncertainty in interactions, four strategies have been
developed in which communication researchers believe to represent the way in which
people attempt to reduce uncertainty. These include passive, active, interactive, and
extractive strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst &
Hammer, 1988). Passive strategies are described as impression formation by
unobtrusively observing a person interacting with others, whereas active strategies
consist of forming an opinion about someone by gaining information without directly
contacting them, such as from a third party (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary,
1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020). Interactive uncertainty reduction strategies
involve face-to-face, direct interaction with the person of interest in an attempt to gain
information (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019;
Sharabi,2020). Finally, extractive strategies are conducted by searching the internet for
information about a person (Griffin et al.,2019). These four strategies are utilized in
human interaction daily to reduce the initial uncertainty felt in primary interactions
through tactics of self-disclosure, asking questions, and the intimacy in which fills the
interaction (Antheunis et al., 2012). An example of where these strategies come into
play is expressed by Emmers & Canary (1996) where multiple relationship dyads
expressed that they idealized interactive communication strategies such as relationship
talk and apologies, which in turn helped to increase the intimacy held within the
relationships.
Primary Tension
As it is known that uncertainty reduction theory is utilized in human
communication, it is important to note when this is most often occurring. What is known
as primary tension characterizes the highest uncertainty-filled time in an average
interpersonal relationship (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Primary tension includes the
social unease and stiffness which is experienced while getting acquainted with a new
person of interest (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Both the nonverbal and verbal
expressions of disinterest, tiredness, and physical withdrawal seen within a
communicative setting can be identified as signs of primary tension taking place
(BoothButterfield et al., 1998). As though most individuals encounter these feelings
while meeting others, it is noted that people tend to feel this is an individual response
rather than a tension felt by all parties (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998). Uncertainty and
tension reduction tactics come into play here, as light topics or polite conversations
often fill the air in most initial human interactions (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998).
Mobile Interpersonal Relationships
The communicative social interaction between two or more people defines
interpersonal communication. Through this, relationship development, maintenance,
and the creations of teams or communities occurs (Valo, 2011). The sharing of thoughts
and ideas, meanings and beliefs, and the new creation of the latter, all is what makes
interpersonal communication so incredible. As humans take part in these relationships,
intimacy between individuals sparks and develops. To clarify, intimacy is expressed as
the idea of how close one feels to another as well as the perceived closeness and
interdependence between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996). Previous research
has shown that the varying levels of uncertainty can highly impact the increase or
decrease in intimacy within interpersonal relationships (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). Not
only this, but the decrease in uncertainty is actually recognized as a significant predictor
of higher levels of intimacy between two individuals (Theiss & Solomon, 2008). These
levels of intimacy and the development of interpersonal relationships has been recently
impacted by the technological growth seen in the world. Communication, alone, has
allowed humans to connect to others on a greater scale, but also lets people be more
present in social networks regardless of time or place (Valo, 2011). It has only been
recently recognized that people can now engage in what is known as mobile
interpersonal communication, where interpersonal relationships are actively developing
while not in the same proximity (Valo, 2011). Technology has truly established a new
way of human interaction and relationship development over the last two decades.
Mobile Uncertainty Reduction of Primary Tension
Multiple studies have shown that uncertainty reduction theory has been affected
by online platforms, especially during primary tension. Yifeng (2015) expresses how
online classes have led to a heavy lack of nonverbal cues from face-to-face
communication in which makes it more difficult to establish bonds between students and
teachers. In a similar, but more intimate relational development program, online dating
allows for an informal advantage over those who meet face-to-face due to the access to
personal information of individuals of interest (Sharabi, 2020). It has been noted that
those who have access to background information before actually meeting express less
tense behavior during primary tension, and therefore hold less uncertainty about the
other individual in the encounter (Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020).
Antheunis et al. (2012) also supports this claim, as they looked at how
computermediated communication affected uncertainty reduction strategies due to the
lack of nonverbal behavior. It was found that those who utilized this technological
advantage held more intimate self-disclosure than those in face-to-face interactions, and
initial interactions were less uncomfortable (Antheunis et al., 2012). This heightened
selfdisclosure was also supported in a study by Gibbs et al. (2011), where it was found
that those who participated in online dating allowed for the proactive engagement of
uncertainty reduction activities, in which led to further self-disclosure.
By looking at these studies, it seems as if the use of mobile technology to prompt
initial interactions can have a positive impact on reducing primary tension and the
uncertainty held within. Research by Ruben et al. (2021) suggests that the passive
information-seeking through online platforms may allow users to learn skills to later
enhance their face-to-face communication. By allowing for information-seeking and
uncertainty reduction strategies before primary meetings, those involved may be able to
decrease the tension and stress felt in initial encounters, all while developing a
relationship with the other before actually meeting.
Observations
One of the most commonly used contexts in which mobile interpersonal
relationships are developed is the world of online dating. Before social media and
utilizing apps like Tinder or Bumble, people used to have to meet face-to-face after
having an initial in-person encounter. Now, as technology has developed and media has
become almost more commonly used to connect compared to in person interactions,
relationship development is heavily impacted by the uncertainty reduction strategies
utilized online.
When one begins using online dating apps, they are initiating a phase of primary
tension, as described by Booth-Butterfield et al. (1998). This initial introduction and
relationship analysis begins with an interpersonal interaction and the utilization of
uncertainty reduction strategies (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst
& Hammer, 1988; Valo, 2011). As one utilizes the passive, active, interactive, or
extractive methods as described above, they are attempting to reduce uncertainty which
allows for the growth of intimacy between those involved (Emmers & Canary, 1996;
Griffin et al., 2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988 ; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Some argue that this can be used as an advantage in comparison to those who
only meet face-to-face, as the individuals involved will have a chance to build certainty
of the person of interest prior to actually interacting with them in person (Antheunis et
al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al., 1998; Sharabi, 2020). This can be done by browsing
online dating profiles and gaining extractive information about the online date through
self-disclosure on social media, such as Instagram or Snapchat (Griffin et al.,2019).
Once the two involved in this online dating process get the chance to interact behind
screens instead of tables, they have an option to initiate more intimate discussions
without the immediate response or nonverbal feedback which many people are
intimidated by on first dates. Uncertainty reduction theory can be highly utilized during
this entire online process before even making the decision to meet the date in person
and experience primary tension, in which can lead to more forward and confident
expressions of self and interest and a preestablished sense of intimacy (Booth-
Butterfield et al., 1998; Emmers & Canary, 1996; Theiss & Solomon, 2008).
Analysis
To critically analyze how exactly uncertainty reduction theory takes place in online
dating, and the impacts of this, we must start at the beginning of the theory and online
dating experience, together. Uncertainty reduction theory, as defined by BoothButterfield
(1998), Griffin et al. (2019), Gudykunst et al. (1985), and Kramer (1993), is the attempt
to lessen uncertainty about another by seeking information about them. The whole
concept of online dating is surrounded by the idea of learning about the person of
interest by gaining information about them prior to actually meeting, in which argues the
relevance of this theory to the online dating context in general. The axioms of Berger’s
theory come into play during online dating as the eight key variables of relationship
development are utilized in most successful interpersonal relationships to further
intimacy (Emmers & Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Gudykunst & Hammer, 1988). To
further connect, all four information-seeking strategies can be utilized during the online
dating experience as people have the ability to observe online interaction, seek
information from a third party online source, talk directly to the person of interest, and
browse the internet for information about them as well (Antheunis et al., 2012; Emmers
& Canary, 1996; Griffin et al.,2019; Sharabi,2020).
Primary tension is heavily felt in in-person interaction, and less experienced in
online settings (Antheunis et al., 2012; Booth-Butterfield et al.’s, 1998). This is where
online dating can utilize the positive effect, as more confidence and initiation can occur
by “swiping right” or messaging first without the experience of primary tension. The
digital media puts a barrier between the individuals, all while building a bridge, which
can help influence initiation of relationship development. Further, analyzing, it is clear
that online dating is a prime example of mobile interpersonal communication. As this is
described as the development of interpersonal relationships while not in the same
proximity through media, online dating allows for just this by being in the back pocket of
anyone, anytime (Valo, 2011). Finally, the combination of all concepts discussed above
is truly encompassed by the essence of online dating. As uncertainty is reduced through
the use of digital information-seeking, primary tension is depleted and intimacy between
two individuals in an interpersonal relationship can flourish. Online dating is the most
perfect example of where Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory can fit into a mobile
interpersonal relationship context.
Implications
The theory discussed in this paper has allowed for a new light to be lit on the
online dating experience. As this media has gotten some negative feedback from those
who observe and do not partake and participate, others can see such light with the
knowledge gained from this paper. It was argued that online dating utilizes
informationseeking strategies relevant to Berger’s axioms, which allows for less
awkward initial encounters with those involved in interpersonal relationship
development. A new way of certainty increase has been revealed, allowing for quicker
growth of intimacy between individuals through this online platform. This study utilized
Berger’s theory, along with multiple previous literature, to argue the effectiveness of
uncertainty reduction in media. Limitations of this study include a real-time observation
of one utilizing an online dating app and taking note of which information-seeking
strategies were used. Not only this, but more literature could have been reviewed
regarding specific online dating apps and the effectiveness of such on relationship
development.
From here, areas of interest for further research can be comparing those who
reduce uncertainty in an online platform versus those who do in-person in a longitudinal
study. By observing the intimacy levels over time, it could be interesting to find whether
the information-seeking strategies used online were better or worse than in-person for a
long-term relationship. Essentially, this study allowed for a connection between
uncertainty reduction theory and mobile interpersonal relationship development, which
can be a fascinating topic of interest for future communication researchers.
