COMMUNICATION AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 100 - INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION
ASSIGNMENT 2024
A. Brief Overview of Course Content
This chapter discusses the definition, characteristics, and interpersonal appeal in
interpersonal communication, relationship development and destruction, improving
interpersonal communication and conflict management and interviewing in interpersonal
communication.
B. Guidelines for Studying the Material
Clearly understand the content of the material regarding the importance of learning the
concept of interpersonal communication, development, and things that can damage
interpersonal communication, improving interpersonal communication, conflict
management, and interviews as a form of interpersonal communication.
C. Learning Objectives
1. Students can recognize the concept of interpersonal communication.
2. Students can explain about the development and destructive things in interpersonal
relationships.
3. Students can explain about improving interpersonal communication and conflict
management.
4. Students can recognize one form of interpersonal communication, namely interviews.
D. Course Content:
1.1 Communication, Relationships and Attraction Interpersonal
Humans are social creatures, unable to live without help from others. Instinctively,
humans need affection, friends to talk to, help, and various other biological and sociological
needs. Ever since Adam was created, he has longed for communication with others. In a
narration, it is mentioned that when Adam was alone at the beginning of his life he felt
lonely, so Allah swt created a friend of the opposite sex, Hawwa who became his wife. With
an interlocutor, they can express their thoughts, desires, feelings of joy and sorrow
experienced by each individual.48
One cannot imagine how complicated life would be without communication. No
human being is able to solve all the problems they face without the involvement of others.
Communication becomes very It is urgent to do both between individuals and individuals,
individuals and groups, and between groups and groups.
In this verse, it is explained that Lukman actively communicates in a monologue by
giving advice to his son. The wisdom in this verse is shared to others, especially to his son
as a form of inheritance of the values of faith, worship, and morals. Lukman communicates
to his son in the form of wise advice which is expected to become an attitude of life that is
optimally practiced in everyday life.
In terms of its nature, interpersonal communication can be divided into two, namely
dyadic communication and small group communication. By definition, dyadic
communication is a communication process that takes place between 2 people in a face-to-
face situation. While small group communication is a communication process that takes
place between 3 or more people face to face and members interact with each other.50
According to Brant R. Burleson in Muhaammad Budyatna, interpersonal
communication can be seen in three perspectives, namely situational perspective,
developmental perspective and interactional perspective.51
Interpersonal communication in a situational perspective, distinguishes forms of
communication on the basis of the characteristics of the communication context, and the
most important are the number of communicators, the physical proximity of the
communicators, the availability of communication channels, especially nonverbal
communication channels and direct feedback received by the communicator. So
interpersonal communication specifically occurs between two people involved in face-to-
face interactions that use verbal and nonverbal channels and have access to direct feedback.
Interpersonal communication in a developmental perspective begins by
distinguishing between impersonal and interpersonal communication. In impersonal
communication, we relate to each other as social roles rather than as distinct persons by
choosing messages that influence the other party based on culture and sociological
knowledge. Whereas interpersonal communication, relates to each other as a unique person
by choosing messages on specific psychological information about the other party. Both
impersonal and interpersonal communication form a unified series. For example, when
people first meet, they only engage in impersonal communication, but if the interaction
continues and the participants express and exchange more personal information about each
other, then their relationship and interaction can become more interpersonal.
Interpersonal communication in the interactional perspective focuses on revealing
the nature and understanding of human interaction rather than trying to identify the different
essence of interpersonal communication. So, in this perspective interpersonal
communication as an adjustment or mutual influence and its interactional nature emphasizes
that for interpersonal communication to occur, each person must influence the observable
behavior patterns of others related to their typical or basic patterns.
The characteristics of interpersonal communication are that communication is carried
out face-to-face, the communication process is free without systematic rules, the position is
equal or almost equal or there is no dominance of the conversation, and the source and
recipient are difficult to distinguish because both act as communicators (message sources) as
well as communicants (message recipients).52
Pearson in Iswandi Syahputra suggests that there are six activities that can be
referred to as interpersonal communication, namely starting from oneself, being
transactional (there is a message transaction between oneself and others), including message
content that is interpersonal in nature, there is physical proximity between people who
communicate, involving interdependent parties, and cannot be changed or repeated.53
In an interpersonal relationship, communication becomes an important source of
personal identification and in expressing who we are, and it is the main way we build, repair,
maintain and change good relationships with others. The durability of interpersonal
relationships depends on our ability to communicate effectively.
Relationships will arise if there is a reciprocal message process, when two or more
individuals react to the verbal and nonverbal behavior of others through the means of
interpersonal communication that relationships begin, grow and develop, and deteriorate.
Relationships will progress through a series of stages in a It is relatively predictable, starting
in terms of initial social encounters, progressing to stages of increased interaction and the
creation of shared rules.54
Relationships are meaningful when we know how to express our feelings, needs and
ideas in a way that others can understand. With this communication, both verbal and
nonverbal can tell us whether we are respectful, friendly, introverted, caring or uncaring,
emotionally expressive or cautious, self-interested or interested in others, assertive or
passive, accepting or judgmental, and so on. Therefore, interpersonal communication skills
are needed in order to create a climate that supports or strengthens healthy communication
relationships, to be a sensitive and responsive listener to others in daily life so that others
will feel safe, be open and honest with us.
The way or style in which one communicates will reflect one's personal identity and
others' point of view or social point of view. With the way or style of cultivating
communication, one will open up opportunities to learn about others and oneself. The more
we interact with people who have different backgrounds, beliefs, different communication
styles, the more we will grow as individuals and members of the world community. In
interpersonal relationships, two important characteristics can be identified, namely first,
interpersonal relationships take place through several stages starting from the stages of
contact, involvement, familiarity, destruction to termination, second, interpersonal
relationships vary in terms of the breadth and depth of the relationship.
In addition to the identification of the above characteristics, interpersonal
relationships also vary in terms of the breadth and depth of the relationship. Relationships
can be described according to the number of topics two people talk about, and the degree of
issues and problems they attach to those topics. The number of topics that a person
communicates about is called breadth, and the degree to which it matters to the individual is
called depth.
In developing relationships, one of the most important and most studied variables is
attraction. There are five main factors that influence attraction, namely:
a. Physical Attractiveness and Personality
Most humans prefer physically attractive people over physically unattractive people,
and humans prefer people who have pleasant personalities over those who do not have
unpleasant or bad personalities.
b. Proximity
Proximity is a factor that makes a person develop a relationship. The closer a person
is, the more opportunities there are to interact.
c. Inauguration
Rewards or recognition can be social in nature such as praise, and material in nature
such as gifts or promotions. Rewards are effective if they are given sincerely and are
not driven by self-interest.
d. Similarities
Generally, people like others because they are similar in terms of nationality, ethnicity,
ability, physical characteristics, intelligence, and especially in terms of similar
attitudes and tastes. The more important the attitude, the more important the similarity.
e. Complementarity
Complementarity is the nature of complementarity. The principle of similarity predicts
that a person will be attracted to those who are similar, which is very dogmatic. The
complementarity principle predicts that a person will be attracted to those who are not
similar to them, which is not dogmatic.
The five factors above are attractions in developing interpersonal communication. A
person will be attracted to certain people and not to others according to the attractiveness of
both physical, personality, closeness, appreciation, similarity and complementarity.
1.2 Development and Destruction Relationship
Every relationship is unique. So too is fostering relationships for unique reasons.
There are several reasons for developing relationships and the process of initiating
relationships. The common reasons for developing relationships are:
a. Reduces loneliness
Human contact reduces loneliness. Sometimes we experience loneliness because we are
physically alone, although being alone is not always lonely. The effort to reduce
loneliness is to try to make more acquaintances. This will help and with this we try to
build interpersonal relationships.
b. Getting stimulated
Humans need simulation. Human contact is one of the best ways to get simulation.
Humans are a composite of many different dimensions and all human dimensions need
simulation. Humans are intellectual beings, and therefore we need intellectual
simulation. Humans talk about ideas, take part in class activities, and argue about
different interpretations of a movie or novel. In this way humans hone their reasoning,
analytic and interpretive skills.
c. Gain self-knowledge
Humans communicate with other humans to know themselves. Seeing yourself can be
known through other people. Self-perception is strongly influenced by what others
believe and think about oneself.
d. Maximizing pleasure and minimizing suffering.
The most common reason for building relationships, and the reason that can encompass
all other reasons, is that humans seek to relate to other humans to maximize pleasure
and minimize suffering. Humans share feelings with others about good fortune and
about emotional or physical suffering.
While the process of initiating a relationship has six steps, namely:
a. Recognizing quality
Qualities are aspects that make the person you meet the right choice. There are visible
and hidden qualities. Obvious qualities are beauty, fashion style, jewelry, and so on.
Hidden qualities are personality, health, talent, intelligence, and so on. With these
qualities, it will give one an idea of who to meet and help one to decide or continue a
relationship with a particular person.
b. Getting the green light
This step is to determine that the person met is suitable for the meeting of interest.
c. Opening encounters
Opening an encounter can be done both verbally and nonverbally. Two suggestions are
to look for topics that will be of interest to both yourself and the other person, and to
look for cues or clues that the person is ready for a longer encounter.
d. Throwing out a guiding topic
A blending topic is one that is of interest to both others and yourself and this will help
bring the two together. Generally, these topics will be found through analyzing free
information, questions and answers.
e. Create a pleasant impression
This step can be done by presenting a part of yourself that will make the other person
want to continue the meeting.
f. Planning the second meeting
If you and your new acquaintance seem to hit it off, then plan a second meeting. This
can be a general meeting, such as eating together every Thursday, or a special meeting
such as at a special place - the beach, a park, and so on.
In addition to relationship development, relationship breakdown also occurs. Half of
relationship development is destruction, the deterioration of relationships and the possibility
of the occurrence of relationship breakdown. Relationship breakdown is the weakening of
the bonds that bind people together. Relationship breakdown can be gradual or sudden,
piecemeal or extreme.
A relationship may not be productive for one or both parties, and disconnection is
often the best thing. This kind of disconnection can allow time for both parties to regain
their independence and freedom, and can draw positive lessons from a relationship that has
suffered damage.
There are several reasons for the deterioration of relationships, namely the
disappearance of the reasons for the relationship, relationships with third parties, changes in
the nature of the relationship, unspeakable expectations, sexual dissatisfaction, work-related
problems, financial difficulties, unfair burden of sacrifice and happiness, and waning
commitment both financial, time and emotional commitment.56
As in relationship development, relationship breakdown involves specific and unique
communication. Some of the communication changes that occur during relationship
deterioration are withdrawal, less self-disclosure, more circumvention, less positive
evaluative reactions and more negative evaluative reactions, less requests for pleasant
behavior and more requests to stop the behavior. negativity, and less complimenting each
other.57 With this relationship breakdown, a person's communication patterns will change
and the way they communicate will affect the relationship.
1.3 Fixed Communication Interpersonal and Conflict Management:
1.3.1 Improving Interpersonal Communication:
Interpersonal communication can be effective and ineffective. The characteristics of
effective interpersonal communication can be seen from three points of view, namely:
a. Humanistic point of view
This viewpoint for interpersonal effectiveness starts with the common qualities that
philosophers and humanists say determine superior human relationships. The humanistic
model for interpersonal effectiveness emphasizes five qualities namely openness, empathy,
support, positive attitude and equality.
b. Pragmatic point of view
In this point of view, interpersonal effectiveness is centered on specific behaviors that must
be used by communicators to get the desired results. This pragmatic model emphasizes self-
confidence, unity, interaction management, expressiveness, and orientation to the other
party.
c. Viewpoint of social intercourse and equality
This perspective is centered on the exchange of benefits and costs, and the implications of
this exchange pattern for the relationship. The social model emphasizes the exchange of
benefits and the bearing of costs. It is necessary to increase the exchange of benefits in times
of increasing costs and increase benefits to reduce the attractiveness of alternatives.58
The various models or viewpoints above will provide an overview for someone in
understanding the effectiveness of interpersonal communication. The goal is to provide
views for someone regarding effective interpersonal communication so that later it can be
chosen which model or point of view will help in a particular communication situation.
1.3.2 Conflict Management in Interpersonal Communication
Conflict is more than just having differences. We differ with others about many
things, but this does not necessarily lead to conflict. Conflict involves a tension between
goals, preferences, or decisions that one feels the need to reconcile. In other words, conflict
involves two perceptions: the perception that our concerns conflict with those of others and
the perception that we and others must overcome our differences. We feel that we must
reach a general agreement or decision. Many people assume that conflict is negative. For
this reason, it is necessary to discuss the misunderstanding of this assumption. In this regard,
we will discuss the five principles of conflict, namely:
a. Conflict is a natural process in all relationships Conflict is a normal, inevitable part of
all interpersonal relationships. When people care about each other and influence each
other, disagreements are inevitable. We find ourselves at odds with people who care
about us. If this happens, then we must resolve our differences and preferably in a way
that does not damage the relationship.
b. Conflict may be excessive or secret
Conflict is not always obvious. Secret conflict exists when people express their
feelings about disagreements indirectly.
c. Conflict means creating interdependence.
d. Conflict is a necessity for change.
e. Conflict makes it possible to diagnose or identify problems.
To overcome conflicts in interpersonal communication, effectiveness in
communication is needed in the form of :
a. Openness
Openness is the willingness to respond happily to information received in responding
to interpersonal relationships. Openness or openness is very influential in fostering
effective interpersonal communication. Openness is the disclosure of reactions or
responses to the situation at hand as well as openness provides information about the
past that is relevant for responding in the present.
b. Empathy
Empathy is feeling what other people feel. Interpersonal communication can be
conducive if the communicator shows empathy for the communicant. If this empathy
grows in the process of interpersonal communication, the atmosphere of
communication relations will be able to develop and grow mutual understanding and
acceptance.
c. Support
Support is an open situation to support effective communication. In interpersonal
communication, an attitude of support is needed from the communicator so that
communicants want to participate in communication.
d. Positive Sense
One must have positive feelings and attitudes about oneself, encourage others to
participate more actively, and create communication situations conducive to effective
interaction.
e. Equality or equality
Equality is the tacit acknowledgment that both parties are valued, useful, and have
something important to consider.
The five communication effectiveness above will overcome conflict in interpersonal
communication. Therefore, good communication is needed by designing or organizing well
the elements that exist in communication, especially in message management, and providing
effective feedback during conflict.
5.3 Interview
An interview is a form of interpersonal communication that occurs between two
people who interact with each other mainly in a question and answer format to achieve a
specific goal. One person asks questions to obtain information and the other listens
carefully, then provides the desired answers until the purpose of the interview is achieved.
For example, an educator questions his students to get further information about these
students.61 According to Stewart and Cash in Joseph A. Devito, there are six types of
interviews, namely:
a. Information interview
In an informational interview, the interviewer is trying to find out things about the
interviewee either about his/her achievements or having a certain reputation. The
interviewer achieves this goal by asking a series of questions designed to elicit the
interviewee's views, beliefs, insights, perspectives, predictions, history, and so on.
b. Persuasive interview
The purpose of this interview is to change someone's attitude or behavior. The
interviewer can ask questions that will lead the interviewee to a desired outcome or
answer questions persuasively.
c. Assessment interview
In this interview, the performance of the interviewee is assessed by management or a
more experienced colleague. The main objective is to find out which parts of the
interviewee are performing well and praise them, and which parts are underperforming
and why and how to improve them.
d. Resignation interview
It is important to conduct a resignation interview to find out the reason for the
resignation. There are many reasons why people resign, whether it's because they want
to or because of other pressures. This interview should be conducted so as not to
influence others. The function of the interview is to make the resignation more
pleasant and efficient for the person resigning and the place where he or she is
resigning.
e. Employee intake interview
This interview is also called a selection interview. In this interview, a lot of
information and persuasion is exchanged. The interviewer will dig up information
about the interviewee, his interests, talents, weaknesses or shortcomings. Besides That
is, an interviewee will get information about the state of the workplace, its benefits or
advantages, and its shortcomings or weaknesses and other issues.
f. Counseling interview
In this interview, the interviewer attempts to provide guidance. The person doing this
is an expert in psychology, guidance, communication, and other fields related to
human relations. The goal is to help a person to cope more effectively with their
problems, work more effectively, get along better with friends, relatives, children,
lovers, and so on, or live daily life more realistically and effectively.
In conducting interviews, in order to make it easy to do so, there are levels or stages
that must be passed, starting from preparation, during the interview, and after the
interview.63 Before conducting an interview, the interviewee needs to prepare himself
physically and intellectually for this interview, set goals, and prepare answers to questions
that have been previously predicted.
During the interview, the interviewee should present him/herself effectively, build
rapport with the interviewer, and display the skills of the interviewer effective interpersonal
communication. When an interview occurs, the interviewee should recognize which
questions are appropriate to answer or which are unlawful and develop strategies for dealing
with specific questions.
After the interview, the interviewee should mentally review the interview that just
took place and follow up the interview with a short letter.
Thus, interviews are important in interpersonal communication. Interviews also have
a specific purpose and it is this purpose that guides and regulates the course of the interview
both in terms of content and format, and will guide the behavior of both parties.
Theory of Interpersonal Communication Theory:
6.1 Theories of Communication Interpersonal
Theory is an abstraction of reality that conceptually organizes aspects of the fixed
empirical world in a systematic manner consisting of assumptions, prepositions, and basic
axioms that are interrelated, and consists of generalized phenomena that are accepted and
proven empirically. According to Alexis S. Tan in Pawit M. Yusup said that theory is a set
of rules that are interrelated with each other or general principles regarding some aspects of
reality.64
Interpersonal communication theories are theories that are widely applied in the
context of interpersonal relationships, namely the communication process that occurs
between two people, either directly or using certain media.65 These communication theories
can be divided into theories centered on individuals, interactions or discourse, and
relationships. For more details on the theory, it can be described below:
6.1.1 Individual-Centered Interpersonal Communication Theory
The theories presented in this section have the advantage of understanding how
individuals plan, generate, and process interpersonal communication messages. These
theories are based on the basic assumption that individual cognitive activity is at the core of
the communication process in generating and processing messages. The theories are as
follows:
a. Theory of Action Set
One of the individual-centered theories is the collection theory. This theory was
written by John O. Green in 2008 under the title Action Assembly Theory with the subtitle
Forces of Creation. This theory discusses the creative nature of human behavior. The focus
of this theory is on real human behavior and especially aspects of behavior that attract
attention in social interaction. This theory also discusses the thought processes carried out
by a person in speaking and acting.66
The AAT theory suggests that each individual has an enormous amount of action
forms stored in memory, and these action forms are depicted in the AAT. multiple forms.
For example, some forms of action are described in memory with low-level codes that can
be equated with motor behaviors, such as hitting a tennis ball. The resulting form of
unification of action forms is a coalition. This coalition will display real behavior and when
this behavior is activated then this action will enter the level of consciousness.
b. Communication Planning Theory
This theory was written by Charkes R. Berger (2008) which is the essence of the
book entitled Planning Strategic Interaction: Attaining Goals Through Communication
Action (1997). The original title, Planning Theory of Communication with subtitle, Goal
Attainment Through Communication Action which is an individual-centered theory of
interpersonal communication.
Communication scholars agree that communication is a means to an end. This theory
seeks to explain how individuals come to an understanding of actions and talk towards each
other in a goal-directed manner, and how individuals produce actions and talk that enable
them to achieve their daily goals.
Berger in Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen A. Foss suggests that plans of
communication behavior are hierarchical cognitive representations of In other words, plans
are mental pictures of the steps one will take to achieve a goal. They are called hierarchies
because certain actions are needed to put things in order, so that other actions can be taken.
Therefore, planning is a process of action plans. Message planning is a major concern
because communication is essential in achieving goals. For example, when students want to
succeed in lectures, they must talk to other students, friends, and even their lecturers to know
what to do. Attendance and activeness in lectures must be maximized, assignments given
must be done well, carefully arranged, and attitudes or behaviors must be maintained to meet
the requirements, so that he will think consciously about what to do and how to do it.
Planning theory is a social-cognitive theory that identifies and describes the
structures and cognitive processes that enable understanding of others' actions and speech,
and produce goal-directed, purposeful action, including verbal speech. The aim of this
theory is to explain how mental plans influence communication.
The orientation of this theory is post-positivist and reflects the tradition of cognitive
realism. This theory seeks to describe the basic cognitive structures and processes that
enable communication processes and also the mechanisms that prevent communication
processes from taking place.
Cognitive realism uses a plan-based approach to interpersonal communication
characterized by seven propositions, namely:
1. Humans seek to satisfy the goals of living. This goal-satisfaction is an ongoing activity
in human life that results in goal-directed and purposeful actions on the part of others.
2. The human ability to think becomes a necessity to satisfy goals.
3. Humans use language to achieve goals. Language is used to accomplish various goals
such as persuasion, providing information, solving problems, and entertaining.
4. Goals are what one wants and how one goes about the endeavor. Therefore, plans are
cognitive images of courses of action that enable one to achieve goals.
5. Knowledge of goals is depicted hierarchically in long-term memory with abstract goals
being at the top level of the hierarchy and subgoals being below them.
For example, the abstract goal is happiness, the subgoal is wealth or helping others.
1. Plans are organized hierarchically and are cognitive images of courses of action that
enable people to achieve goals.
2. Knowledge of goals and plans plays an important role in understanding the speech and
actions of others.
It explicitly identifies a plan and a collection of cognitive processes that are
responsive to progress. This planning theory suggests that when a particular group is doing
or planning something, it should include individuals who are skeptical of the effectiveness
of the potential plan developed rather than including individuals who are alone. This theory
has limitations in terms of bias towards individuals as the unit of analysis. Experts in this
theory suggest that if individuals participate in social interaction, they will engage in
interactive planning. Therefore, each individual should base his or her plan on a goal and the
plan will be followed by others in the interaction.
c. Theory of Constructivism
This theory was developed by Jesse Delia et. al under the title The Constructivist
Approach to Communication published in Human Communication Theory: Comparative
Essays edited by Frank E.X. Dance in 1982. At the core of this theory is the twin nation idea
that individuals differ in terms of their specific areas of social cognitive abilities, and that
differences in these abilities explain differences in message production.
Constructivism is a scientific theory of human interpretation and communication acts
that attempts to explain the nature of functional communication skills and contains elements
of interpretive and critical theories. Constructivism assumes that humans actively interpret
the world and construct meaningful understandings of it.
Constructivism has had a far-reaching impact on the field of communication.
According to this theory, individuals interpret and act according to conceptual categories in
their minds. Reality does not come as it is but must be filtered through the way a person sees
things. This theory is partly based on George Kelly's 1955 theory of personal constructs
which suggests that people make sense of their experiences by categorizing and
differentiating events according to their similarities and differences. Perceived differences
are not natural but are determined by a number of opposites in the individual's cognitive
system. Pairs of opposites such as high/low, tall/short, black/white, hot/cold used to
understand events and objects are called personal concepts or personal constructs.
This theory is general, flexible and broad. It can be applied to different skills,
performed by different types of people, and in different situations. Construtivism is testable,
many researchers have developed innovative methods to measure social perceptions and
communication skills, and this has led to empirical testing. The theory has great potential for
application, particularly with regard to the development of communication skills. This
potential has largely been lost and this leaves the theory with limitations. It has also been
criticized for narrowly focusing interpersonal ideas for the use of other-centered
messages.70 Therefore, every theory has strengths or advantages as well as limitations or
shortcomings.
6.1.2 Interpersonal Communication Theory Centered on Interaction or Discourse
The theories presented in this section are theories on matters that are prominent in
understanding interpersonal communication as an interaction process. Theories This focuses
on the content, forms, and functions of messages and patterns of behavioral interaction from
others. The theories are as follows:
a. Conversation Analysis Theory
This theory was written by Jenny Mandelbaum, in 2008 as one of the interpersonal
communication theories centered on discourse or interaction. This theory is also called CAT
(Conversation Analysis Theory) with the sub title A Descriptive Approach to Interpersonal
Communication which offers a descriptive theory based on observations about
communication both conversations in other behaviors in interaction with implications for the
study of interpersonal communication.
The ultimate goal is to develop basic, common-sense habits and regularities of
interaction that form the basis for everyday communication in formal and professional
settings.
The theory uses field recordings of conversations and other kinds of talk and includes
behavior in interaction as data, and builds systematic descriptions of the mechanisms that
make human behavior possible. These descriptions constitute a theory of communication...
the crucial evidence for determining the relevance of these descriptions to the lived
experience of communicators is found in the orientation that communicators exhibit, and is
demonstrated in overt behavior and practice. Thus, CAT builds theory empirically.
The main features of CAT theory are:
1. CAT relies on the understanding that speech is an action
Key to an understanding of the CAT approach to interpersonal communication is the
observation that to understand the communication of others one must understand that speech
is first of all an action. This means that when someone says something, they are not just
saying or explaining something or conveying information or making meaning, but rather,
they are doing something.
2. CAT has found that actions are structured Structures of conversation allow communicators
to, among other things, coordinate their actions so that speakers take turns rather than
speaking simultaneously, organize their actions with others to build a set of ordered actions,
correct errors and difficulties other in speaking, understanding, or listening, opening or
losing conversations.
3. CAT treats actions as locally organized.
Communication is organized locally. There are two important components to the CAT's
argument regarding what constitutes local. Local means as a context produced and enacted
by actions. So interaction is the creation of context and the renewal of context. Local is also
defined as actions taken in turn, and is a series of organizations.71
CAT uses its analytical tools to decipher the unspoken but relies on prior knowledge.
Almost every action in a conversation can have interpersonal consequences as by-products.
Therefore, CAT describes practices that are specific to interpersonal communication and that
are fundamental to making connections in relationships.
b. Interpersonal Lie Theory
This theory was coined by David Buller and Judee Burgoon. The two have conducted
more than 12 experiments by asking participants to lie to others. The researchers explain that
people often find themselves in situations where they are less than truthful in order to avoid
hurting feelings or offending others, to display their best qualities, to avoid getting involved
in a conflict or to speed up and slow down a relationship. Buller and Burgoon suggest three
types of responses that will be given if you decide not to tell the truth, namely the first
response, you can lie "I was at the STAIN Watampone Library to prepare for the final test
on Human Communication." The second response, you can tell only part of the truth by
removing important parts by saying "I went to a friend's party." The third response is to
deliberately give a vague or evasive answer by saying "I went out for a while."
Buller and Burgoon suggest that there are three strategies in studying verbal lies,
namely:
1. Falsification
Falsification is a total lie in which everything told is the opposite of the true situation
2. Concealment
A liar says he doesn't know when he knows or he says he doesn't remember when he
remembers. He can hide the truth.
3. Subterfuge or equivocation
A pretext for evading or avoiding a problem.
These three lies fall under the umbrella of the concept of deception defined by Buller
and Burgoon as
A message that is consciously conveyed by the sender to help create false beliefs or
conclusions in the receiver.
The lie theory of the two researchers above is called IDT (Interpersonal Deception
Theory) or interpersonal lie theory. The theory determines the conditions of its scope,
namely interpersonal interactions where the communicator's beliefs are clear and
questionable. This theory has been developed by Buller and Burgoon and research
conducted by others over two and a half decades into the broad fields of interpersonal
communication, nonverbal behavior, message processing, credibility, and lying.
The key to understanding Buller and Burgoon's conceptualization of interpersonal
lying is what they mean by interpersonal, interactive, lying, and suspicion.74 Interpersonal
communication is simply defined as the dynamic exchange of messages between two
people. It can be interactive and non-interactive to the extent that it requires immediacy
rather than delayed exchange and opportunities for immediate feedback and mutual
influence, so it is interactive.
To develop IDT lies in understanding lying in face-to-face interactions, as opposed to
lying in diminished states of nature interpersonal and interactive. So they are both
interpersonal and interactive theories.
A lie is defined as a message that is consciously conveyed by the sender to help
develop a false belief or conclusion by the receiver. Lying occurs when communicators
control the information in their messages to convey a meaning that deviates from the truth as
they know or realize it.
In addition, suspicion refers to a belief held without sufficient evidence to warrant
certainty, that a person's speech or actions can be characterized as two-faced. Suspicion lies
between truth and lies, i.e. the suspicious receiver is uncertain whether the sender of the
message is telling the truth or a lie.
c. Politeness Theory
This theory includes discourse-centered or interaction-centered interpersonal
communication theory, written by Daena J. Goldsmith, 2008 with Politeness Theory "How
We Use Language to Save Face".
Politeness theory is a rational model. It directs our attention to how language features
are interpreted in social contexts and explains recurring patterns of language structure, use
and inference. This theory makes predictions about patterns and interpretations of language
use.
The main features in this theory are:
1. General Appearance
Public appearances are called public. One can be observed in actions rather than in one's
self-concept.
2. Social Appearance
One's success in portraying a particular image depends on others picking up on what
one is doing and acting in ways that are more or less suitable.
3. Personal Appearance
Appearance is something that is desired. The actions one takes in a particular interaction
can bring shame and protect or preserve the self.
In every interaction, appearances are vulnerable and unprotected. One always
portrays some public self-image. Many of one's ordinary daily actions have the potential to
threaten one's own appearance or the appearance of others.
Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen A. Foss
argued that politeness is often a goal, because It is a universal cultural value.76 Different
cultures have different levels of politeness and different ways of being polite, but all humans
have a need to be valued and protected which researchers call the face need. Positive face is
the desire to be appreciated and recognized, to be liked and respected. Positive politeness is
designed to fulfill desires such as showing attention, giving compliments, and using
respectful forms of address. Negative face is the desire to be free from annoyance or
disorder, while negative politeness is designed to protect others when negative face needs
are threatened.
Politeness theory provides a detailed description of the kinds of language means that
can be used to avoid embarrassment when people perform an appearance-threatening act.
The main contribution of politeness theory is that it helps us to listen for nuances
about language that can create an overall impression of the speaker, listener, action, and
relationship. These linguistic features are sometimes used to emphasize relationships and
identities even when there is no threat of appearance and speakers sometimes mix and match
strategies to create a sense of identity. different strategies. These strategies will help
understand the process and assist in considering our options in challenging situations.
Civility theory views communication as a rational, social, and cooperative activity.77
Rational can propose that individuals formulate goals in their minds and wisely choose how
to carry out these goals. As a social activity, civility in communication is how people can
arrive at a common understanding by providing guidance, instructions or advice to others.
While cooperative activity is doing cooperation in interaction.
This theory is useful for communication scientists as a normative model of strategic
communication. It directs human attention to normative judgments about what people
should say or do, if they are to be seen as acting appropriately and effectively. The focus of
attention is on dilemmas about interaction and the creative and constructive ways people use
language to create identities and relationships as they perform tasks such as requesting,
advising, or criticizing. Theory Communication Interpersonal Centralized On Relationship
The theories presented in this section are those that are prominent in
understanding relationship-centered interpersonal communication. These theories are
concerned with personal relationships. In contrast to previous theories that focus on
individual message generation or processing or discourse and interaction. The theories can
be explained below:
a. Affection Exchange Theory
This theory originated in 2001 written by Kory Floyd, Jeff Judd, and Colin Hesse in
Affection Exchange Theory with the subtitle A Bio-Evolutionary Look at Affection
Communication. This theory is called AET (Affection Exchange Theory). The theory
suggests that many interpersonal relationships are initiated and maintained through the
exchange of affectionate behaviors, such as hugging, kissing, hand-holding, and saying "I
love you". These expressions of affection often act as defining moments and accelerate
relationship development. However, affectionate communication contributes not only to the
health of the relationship, but also to the health of the person themselves.
The main purpose of this theory is to explain why people human beings communicate
affection towards each other.
others, and with what consequences. The assumptions in this theory are that reproduction
and survival are both superior human goals, communication behaviors can act one or both of
these superior goals even in speculative ways, and individuals need not be conscious about
the evolutionary goals that their behaviors serve.
To strengthen the above assumptions, there are two main assumptions, namely that
human beings, like other living organisms, are subject to the principles of natural selection
and sexual selection. The second assumption is that human communication behavior is only
partially subject to the intentional restrictions of the communicator. Thus AET assumes that
communication is affected not only by socially constructed influences such as gender roles
or cultural norms but also by factual influences in biology and evolutionary adaptation.
AET has several features starting with the proposition that the need and capacity for
affection is innate. Humans are born with the ability and need to feel affection. The next
proposition is that feelings of affection and expressions of affection may be experienced
differently by different people. This theory distinguishes between the emotional experience
of affection and the behaviors that are actually displayed. The final proposition states that
affectionate communication is adaptive with regard to human survival and fertility. This is
The core of AET assumes that receiving and delivering affectionate statements contributes
to survival and reproductive success.78
AET is the first comprehensive theory of affectionate communication and provides a
broader and more powerful view of how affectionate communication contributes to
important and enduring human motivations associated with survival and reproduction.
Moreover, the AET hypothesis provides important empirical support, not only in the fields
of family relationships and health but also in nonverbal communication and persuasion.
However, the theory lacks detail in terms of channels of communication with compassion
for physical health, and inattention to social knowledge. This is understandable as AET
takes a bio-evolutionary and psychological approach.
b. Theory of Affinity
This theory is a relationship-centered communication theory, written by Laura K.
Guerrero in 2008 with the original title Attachment Theory, subtitle A Communication
Perspective. This theory aims to understand the interaction between one another that affects
personality development. In 1969, Bowlby in Muhammad Budyatma provided some of the
most important assumptions about attachment. The basic assumption is that human beings
have an innate tendency to form attachments with others, beginning in childhood and
continuing throughout life.79 Another assumption is that attachment or affection is a product
of biological forces and social interactions in one's environment. A further assumption is
that there is a system of alliances that includes cognition, emotion, and behavior that
appears, is activated or activated when human beings need protection or experience distress
or both.
A key feature of this theory is that it investigates integrated patterns of cognition,
emotion, and behavior across the lifespan. It also addresses how people develop different
attachment styles and how they can be modified.
Communication plays an important role in this theory. Communication has a role in
the attachment process.80 Communication causes attachment styles to develop and change.
For example, young children tend to develop secure attachment styles when they have
caregivers who are attentive, willing to listen, and sensitive to their needs. In contrast,
neglected children tend to behave defensively or shut down their social interactions. The
next role is communication reflects perceptions of self and others, communication mediates
relatedness and relationship quality, and communication reinforces relatedness styles
because people communicate in ways that are consistent with their relatedness styles, which
in turn leads people to treat them in ways that reinforce their models of self and others.
This theory is reflected in specific forms of interpersonal communication, including
relational maintenance, conflict, intimacy, emotional expression, and social skills. This
theory has the advantage of being intuitively appealing, as people can connect relational
styles and see themselves and others. Furthermore, the theory is efficient in that the concept
of attachment styles describes the intersection of models of self and others while also
describing understandable patterns of cognition, emotion, and behavior. It can also be
applied to various aspects of active relationships and crosses methodological and
disciplinary boundaries. If the theory has strengths, it also has limitations.81 The theory has
been limited by size issues and a focus on relatedness as a personality variable. This has led
some communication scholars to argue that the theory is not a theory, but that it is a theory
is variable differences individual which is fun.
c. Communication Confidentiality Management Theory
This theory is a relationship-centered communication theory, written by Sandra
Petronio and Wesley T. Durham in 2008 with the original title, Communication Privacy
Management Theory with subtitle, Significance for Interpersonal Communication. This
theory is a grounded theory based on systematic research designed to develop an evidence-
based understanding of how people manage the disclosure and concealment of personal
information.
There are several assumptions in this theory which are the public-private dialectical
tension, the conceptualization of private information, and the rules of confidentiality.82 This
theory views that the process of disclosure is dialectical in nature, the meaning that people
disclose, they manage a dispute with trade-offs about disclosure and concealment of self-
information. Therefore, one must regulate one's secrecy, what to disclose and what to hide.
This theory also suggests that one way to conceptualize personal information is the
notion of ownership. Personal information is something that is believed to belong to the
individual. Therefore, personal information belongs to the individual and one has the right to
control it. A person has the right to disclose certain information to others or keep it private,
depending on which option is best. To illustrate how people make choices about sharing
information with others, the theory provides the concept of confidentiality rules. These rules
are developed using at least five criteria including cultural, gender, motivational, contextual
and risk-return criteria. These criteria are the backdrop for the development of the rules,
meaning that they provide the guiding lines for decisions that govern the ebb and flow of
personal information. Each criterion contributes to the development of confidentiality rules
that people use to manage their boundaries. For example, cultural criteria are important
because confidentiality often has a specific value in a society, ethnicity, or group. If a culture
establishes openness as an important access to social activities, it is likely that people from
that culture will choose openness over secrecy.
It is a theory that has significant power. It is explicitly grounded and derived from
communication. It is a communication theory that helps one to understand how people
reveal and conceal personal information. It has been used by researchers in interpersonal
communication and family communication. It is a flexible theory that can help researchers in
a fully dialectical understanding of the fluidity of secrecy, and can be applied to real-world
problems.
This theory is a new theory. Therefore, it needs to be further developed and
continuous use of theoretical principles to make adjustments and revisions.
