DISEASE OUTBREAKS OVER TIME COMMUNITY RESPONSE AND
SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE
Introduction
Humans have lived with disease since time immemorial. Some of the major disease
outbreaks that hit the world on a large scale include the Smallpox epidemic that has existed
since the 18th century, The Black Death that appeared around the 1340s and 1350s, and the
Spanish Flu epidemic in 1918. These three outbreaks are some of the disease outbreaks that
have a massive effect on people's lives in the world with a very high mortality rate. In
addition to causing a large number of deaths, the plague also changed the pattern of human
life in various aspects, such as lifestyle, mindset, and the dynamics of daily life.
There have been many books that discuss disease outbreaks. Each book has a particular
point of view, be it from a health perspective (Ewald, 1994; Lacroix, 2012), anthropology
(Keshavjee, 2014; Lynteris, 2020), as well as history (Oldstone, 2010; Cunningham and
Grell, 2000). The book written by Frank M. Snowden, which is under review, is one of
many books on the topic of disease outbreaks in the world. One thing that makes this book
unique and different from other books is that it does not only tell the history of various
disease outbreaks that have occurred in the world, but also look at the patterns of societal
change that formed after the outbreak.
The book consists of twenty-two chapters. Each chapter discusses a disease outbreak that
once plagued the entire world, including the social, cultural and scientific effects of each
outbreak on the lives of the world's people. The topics raised in this book are very relevant
to the current state of the world which is also being gripped by the Covid-19 Pandemic. We
can take lessons from all previous outbreaks and-if possible-"predict" what socio-cultural
changes will happen to human life after this pandemic ends sometime in the future.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
Epidemic Disease Outbreaks In World History
In the opening section of the book, Snowden specifically mentions that he will only discuss
epidemics for three reasons. First, epidemics cause anxiety and spread terror in society. In
addition, epidemics have also been noted to have a direct effect on increasing mass hysteria,
levels of religiosity, and even the practice of scapegoating a person or group of people (p.2).
Epidemic disease outbreaks also have a devastating effect on health care systems, economic
systems, and human life in general (p.2). Secondly, epidemics have a direct impact on the
history of human life in the world as they are currently one of the main causes of death and
suffering for people around the world (p.3). Thirdly, epidemics will exist for all time. From
time to time, new epidemics will emerge that sweep the world and cause turmoil in the
dynamics of human life (p.3).
Each of these epidemics is described in great detail, starting from the beginning of the
emergence, the process of spreading, to the effects of the spread of the disease. Although
Snowden clearly mentions in the introduction that the approach he has chosen in this book is
a historical approach, readers will be a little surprised to see the detailed discussion of each
disease outbreak that also does not leave the fact that the spread of disease outbreaks is
basically a biological event. Therefore, Snowden still includes a thorough description of the
etiology, method of spread, and movement of the disease within the human body. On the
one hand, this is positive as it provides detailed information about the disease. On the other
hand, readers may become confused when they encounter terms such as Humoral Medical
Philosophy (p.17), Prophylactic Procedure (p.106), inoculation (p.104), Effiuvia (p.193),
and others. Snowden certainly provides an explanation of these terms. However, readers
should make it a habit to read and find such terms in this book.
In addition to describing the disease outbreak from its biological side, Snowden also
provides a geographical background of the location of its spread. Because the disease did not
only occur in one region, but also spread throughout the world, Snowden's explanation also
includes the emergence of disease outbreaks in several regions, such as America, Europe,
Asia, and Africa. This is one of the advantages of this book. The global nature of the
discussion provides a broad picture and helps readers understand the history of disease
outbreaks, especially epidemics over time. Snowden also describes the effects of each
disease outbreak on human life, namely changes in the lifestyle and mindset of the
community. The emergence of a new, long-term lifestyle due to disease outbreaks is the
main point of argument that Snowden builds in this book by describing four main changes in
human life after the spread of the plague.
First, the development of new public health strategies. These strategies included, for
example, vaccination, quarantine, the construction of sanatoriums, and policies to conceal
the identity of sufferers. Second, the growth of "intellectual history," i.e. the emergence of
many new concepts and theories related to emerging disease outbreaks, such as Germ
Theory, Tropical Medicine, and the Modern Biomedical Disease Paradigm. This is also
related to the emergence of actors who brought about these intellectual changes. Third, the
emergence of spontaneous public responses. These spontaneous responses usually take the
form of stigmatization and scapegoating of a group, mass hysteria, riots, and increased
religiosity. These responses can be looked at more deeply to observe the affected community
and its social construction. These social constructs can include human relationships, the
moral priorities of religious leaders and politicians, the relationship between humans and
nature, and standards life has changed rapidly compared to the time before the plague.
Fourth, the emergence of disease outbreaks due to war. There are several examples of wars
that gave birth to epidemics, such as the emergence of the Yellow Fever epidemic in Saint
Domingue when Napoleon conquered there in 1802-1803. Another example is Napoleon's
conquest of the Russian Empire in 1812 which also brought with it outbreaks of dysentery
and typhus. These two epidemics were responsible for "wiping out" the Russian Royal
family from within and helped pave the way for Napoleon's control of the region. It then
influenced the changing face of world geopolitics.
The argument built by Snowden as a whole is the main advantage of this book. From this
argument, there are several things that are closely related to the current state of the world
that is being hit by the Covid-19 Pandemic. There are things that we can take and learn from
the experience of handling disease outbreaks that occurred in the past presented in this book.
Lessons From Past Disease Outbreaks
Evaluating the interactions between disease outbreaks and society in the past provides the
necessary background to deal with the questions raised by society in the face of SARS, avian
flu and the recent Ebola. What have we learned as a human race from the experience of
recurrent deadly disease outbreaks over the past four centuries? That question is now re-
emerging as a major societal question. The threat of disease outbreaks is real. Disease
outbreaks know no time or place. It can occur anytime and anywhere - not limited to poor
and developing countries, even developed countries can be attacked by disease outbreaks. In
addition, the extreme changes in the world's climate that are occurring at this time are
increasing the potential for future disasters. What, then, are our defenses? What factors drive
vulnerability humanity to disease outbreaks? How prepared are we to face these challenges?
How the global community deals with these issues is a critical factor in determining the
survival of our societies, and perhaps even our species.
Experience with SARS and Ebola two major "dress rehearsals" of the century- serve as a
sobering reminder that our public health and biomedical defenses still have many gaps and
are easily damaged. Key features of modernity, such as population growth, climate change,
rapid transportation, the spread of megacities with inadequate urban infrastructure, wars,
poverty and widespread social inequality, increase the risk of another disease outbreak in the
future. Unfortunately, none of these key features of modernity appear to be abating anytime
soon. This is also touched upon by Berridge, Gorsky and Mold (2011) in their book Public
Health in History. The approach they use in this book is the same as Snowden's, which is a
historical approach. However, they focus on one topic, namely public health over time. This
book can be used as an additional reference by readers who want to better understand the
topic of public health in particular.
Discussions of epidemics always begin with an examination of their effects on the individual
human body and then move on to their effects on society at large. The clinical
manifestations of any disease are crucial in observing the societal response to a medical
crisis. Snowden in this book has done this well. However, readers can also read other
references that have a slightly different approach from Snowden, namely LeMay (2016) in
his book Global Pandemic Threats: A Reference Handbook. As the title implies, this book
has a systematic explanation of the global pandemic problems that occur in the world, the
controversy surrounding the pandemic, and the solutions that arise in overcoming the
pandemic. This book is also equipped with a list of and organizations that are influential and
closely involved in the process of finding solutions to pandemic problems. Furthermore, this
book also contains key data about global pandemics that have hit the world in the past.
A final important theme of the book is that epidemic diseases are not random events that hit
societies unexpectedly and without warning. Instead, each society generates its own specific
vulnerabilities. To study it is to understand the structure of society, its standard of living and
its political priorities. Epidemic diseases, in that sense, have always been markers, and the
challenge of medical history is to decipher the meanings embedded in them.
After reading this book, there are four important lessons to be learned from past disease
outbreaks. First, over-confidence in the existing health system makes people less vigilant
against emerging disease outbreaks. Of course, we must trust health practitioners in dealing
with disease outbreaks. However, we should also not let our guard down and assume that the
existing health system is perfect. Members of society must work together to fight disease
outbreaks and continue to evolve with the times because disease outbreaks will also continue
to evolve.
Secondly, in relation to the first point, people must realize that the existing health system
has many "holes". These holes are not intentionally created by humans, but rather relate to
the limited capabilities of humans today. Our health system may be successful in eradicating
certain diseases at the moment. However, global climate change, the easy movement of
people, and the rapid growth of human numbers provide opportunities for new diseases to
emerge in the future-or old diseases that we thought were gone could reappear sometime in
the future.
Third, related to the second point, disease outbreaks can mutate very quickly and that makes
it difficult for our health system to learn about them. That difficulty can lead to the length of
time it takes for health practitioners to find a vaccine against the disease outbreak.
Therefore, preventive measures need to be implemented in the society. There is a very
famous saying in this regard, which is "Prevention is better than cure." This saying sounds
trivial, but it is the right thing to apply in order to deal with the ever-growing disease
outbreak.
Fourth, the handling of disease outbreaks in a country is always related to the political
dynamics that exist in that country. The handling of this outbreak can be used as a political
tool used by power holders to "regulate" their citizens. Furthermore, the handling of disease
outbreaks is usually also closely related to the "strengthening" of the existence of political
elites and religious figures.
Snowden's View On The Covid-19 Outbreak
In April 2020, Roge Karma, a reporter for the news website Vox, conducted a phone
interview with Frank Snowden and asked his opinion on the Covid-19 disease outbreak that
is currently sweeping the world. Snowden states in his book that disease outbreaks are not
random events that hit society. Each community in society creates its own vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. In this interview, Snowden further explains his statement. According to
him, there is one main reason why modern society is no longer as susceptible to Cholera as
it was in the 1800s. The reason is the revolution in sanitation. We now have good sewage
systems, clean drinking water sources, and a wide range of sanitary products. However, this
does not mean that we are immune to other diseases.
In that regard, Snowden says that we live in a modern world that is different from the world
of the past - a world of globalization. This difference creates a different vulnerability to
disease outbreaks. Globalization is closely related to the high rate of human increase. With a
world population of 7.7 billion people (UN, 2019), the world population has become very
dense. The large number of human populations in the world also results in changes in the
pattern of relationships between humans and the environment. Humans today have exploited
the environment too much and destroyed most of the natural habitats of animals. This was
not the case in the past. As a result, new types of diseases have emerged that have never
existed before. Some examples of new disease outbreaks that emerged due to changes in the
pattern of human relations with the environment and also animals include Avian Flu which
spread through wild birds, Ebola and MERS which spread through bats, and the disease
outbreak that plagued the world today, Covid-19, spread through wet markets in Wuhan City
in China. Then, the disease outbreak is now easily spread throughout the world through the
ease of human mobilization using various modes of transportation. A virus will easily move
from a country in Asia to Europe because it is carried by people traveling by airplane.
In this regard, Snowden firmly stated that it was not globalization that caused the spread of
Covid-19 from a city in China to all corners of the world. Globalization is closely related to
the spread of Covid-19, but it is not the cause. In today's globalized world, borders between
countries have become very blurred and all regions of the world are interconnected.
However, many world leaders negate this connection and continue to uphold national
boundaries. This can be seen from the emergence of world leaders who accuse other
countries of being the cause of the emergence and spread of Covid-19 without wanting to
cooperate international in finding a solution to this disease outbreak. It is the leaders of such
countries that cause the spread of Covid-19 to become increasingly uncontrolled. In fact,
Covid-19 does not recognize national borders and blaming one country will not produce a
solution in handling this disease outbreak.
Snowden also hopes that today's modern society will not be trapped in the same negativity
that occurred during the emergence of disease outbreaks in the past. These negatives include
division, xenophobia, blaming and attacking others, and the like. It is recognized that the
outbreak of this disease will cause great anxiety. This anxiety eventually leads to a variety of
unusual responses among the community. It would be better if people respond to this disease
outbreak not with excessive anxiety and fear, but by using a healthy mind to find a way out
together. On the way to finding a way out of this disease outbreak, there are certainly many
problems and obstacles faced. The community must be strong to face all these obstacles.
Because, in the end, when all members of society can find a way out of this disease
outbreak, a better society will be created than now.
Furthermore, Snowden gave an example of a positive attitude in the face of disease that led
to a change for the better, namely the Sanitation Revolution that occurred in the 19th century
in Europe, as mentioned earlier. The Cholera epidemic that attacked Europe at that time
claimed many human lives. However, doctors then thought of a solution by not only looking
at the symptoms of the disease that plagued the community, but also paying attention to the
environmental conditions where people who contracted the disease lived. The observations
led to the conclusion that Cholera arose because the environment where people lived was
very slum, disorganized, and too crowded. Based on that conclusion, it was then decided
that there was a need for a social movement to improve these conditions, as well as
continuing efforts to find a cure for Cholera. This social movement then led to public
awareness of a clean living environment to avoid various types of diseases.
At the end of the interview, Snowden gave his opinion on what modern society needs to do
at this time in dealing with the Covid-19 outbreak. What is needed at this time is collective
thinking from all elements of society to find the best way out of this outbreak. This
collective thinking must be based on the pattern of our relationship with the environment in
which we live and we must rethink the myth that we have always believed, namely that
humans must continue to reproduce and develop economically. That myth is the beginning
of the imbalance in the pattern of human relations with the surrounding environment. We
need to rethink that before it's too late and all that's left of the earth is the small space we
live in and the dirty smoke we breathe.
Conclusion
In Epidemics and Society, Snowden provides a complete description of the various disease
outbreaks that have occurred in the world in the past. This description is not only about the
origin and development of the disease outbreak, but also includes the socio-cultural effects
of each disease outbreak on human life. We can use this as a reference in dealing with the
Covid-19 outbreak that is currently sweeping the world.
Additional explanations derived from Snowden's interviews related to Covid-19 that I have
included here also provide important insights for readers. This book was published at the
right time when the world was hit by a disease outbreak and became one of the references
that is also important for people to read. In addition, there are several books that raise similar
topics to this book and can add to the list.
