Mutans, Sentinels, and Cerebro
Technological innovation has advanced the ability to communicate and calculate in
significant ways. Technology has become both an instrument of advancement and addiction.
More accurately, Postman (1991), in his book Technopoly, defines this as the incongruous
relationship between the good technology can do and the bad technology is capable of. To go
further, he refers to technology as both a friend and an enemy. Society is often unaware of the
power all technology holds. But on the other hand, technology has also proved to be a great
“friend” to humanity by enabling further progress to occur. It is Postman’s reference to tools
as instruments that will be the reason this essay refers to technology such as AI, radiation, and
weapons as instrumental technology.
Entertainment, such as television, film, and social media, can have a powerful influence.
While the primary focus of this research will discuss instrumental technology and not
entertainment, this kind of technology is still important to discuss. Adam Alter (2017)
acknowledges that technology isn’t set to be good or bad because it is not programmed to carry
its own morals. However, when combined with today’s media culture and binge behavior, apps
and platforms can be designed to addict or to promote connection within a society (p. 8). Mass
consumption and readily available technology used for entertainment make its nature very
addicting because it is presented as entertaining (Postman, 2005). With consumers’ need and
desire for entertainment, technology used to host entertaining content has evolved into a more
addictive and immersive content. Postman said, “The problem is not that television presents us
with entertaining subject matter but that all subject is presented as entertaining” (2005, p. 87).
Ultimately, the influence of entertainment platforms is ever-present in today’s society and
should be handled with careful intention because, while they add value, they also include many
drawbacks. Moving forward, this literature review will assess the effects of instrumental
technology, specifically radiation, weapons, and artificial intelligence.
Radioactive Technology
Radiation can generally be defined by the action of emitting energy as waves or particles
in the form of sound, heat, or light (Mirion Technologies, 2015). Radiation interacts with
molecules to create energy. Classifying radiation as ionizing or non-ionizing is determined by
whether electrons are knocked off of atoms due to the interaction with the radiation. Ionizing
radiation is more of a health threat to humans and takes more energy, while non-ionizing
radiation has little effect on humans and takes little energy. Non-ionizing radiation is used for
things such as radio and microwaves; however, there are still risks involved (Mirion
Technologies, 2015). Radiation is found in places from power lines to ultraviolet light to
gamma rays and is used throughout the world daily. Like other forms of technology, radiation
can be seen as both a “friend” and “enemy” in society. Hospitals use radiation for good in a
variety of ways, including but not limited to X-ray, CT, and PET machines, to inform doctors
about the human body and also to perform radioactive treatments. In addition to modern
medicine, helpful radiation elements are used in society daily throughout the world. These
technologies include smoke detectors, radiography, and food sterilization (Mirion
Technologies, 2015). Additionally, radiation is used in and is a byproduct of nuclear power and
nuclear weaponry.
Nuclear weaponry began developing during World War II under the Manhattan Project,
which was led by the United States. This project led to the development of atomic bombs,
including the bombs used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After these attacks, many studies
surveyed the long-term effects of the high exposure to radiation. The memory of these tragic
events resulted in fear of lethal radiation technology (Kraft, 2009, p. 175). After the bombing,
people became afraid to work in areas exposed to radiation hazards and that the repercussions
of the event would have a lasting effect for generations.
Radiation poses a threat because it is invisible to the human eye but can cause fatal
disease and genetic changes (Kraft, 2009). Biological research on ionizing radiation has found
that radiation has the most profound effects on tissue in the blood system (Kraft, 2009, p. 177).
With concentrated effort in evaluating the genetic effects from World War II, biologists were
able to establish that radiation damage can result in “failure to replenish the natural loss of
erythrocytes, granulocytes, and platelets from the blood, leading to infection, hemorrhage, and
anemia, referred to as radiation sickness or bone-marrow syndrome, and led ultimately to
death” (Kraft, 2009, p. 177). The world is still seeing the effects of postwar radiation today,
with the aforementioned health inconsistencies, risk of cancer, and genetic mutations.
Research involving the direct correlation of genetic mutations and radiation is unclear,
but it is important to keep studying the possibility of mutation from radiation so standards for
radiation exposure can be set for the general population (National Research Council, 2015).
The genetic effects of radiation are hard to fully understand because radiation effects people
differently due to the degree of radiation exposure and diverse genetics. It is also deemed
inhumane to test radiation on humans if they do not need it for medical reasons. Therefore,
genetic mutation research is often performed on other organisms (National Research Council,
2015). Overall, radiation technology can be used as a threat and should be handled carefully
and with set boundaries. While there is much use for radiation for the good of mankind, there
are several factors that make it a danger to the world.
Artificial Intelligence
While technology has both positive and negative consequences, society often fears
technological advancement. Artificial intelligence is one example of a technological
advancement that has been helpful to society in countless ways, but also has the potential of
much danger to human perception and interaction. Technology is more than just an instrument.
It is equipped with its own potential for social change determined by algorithms that are
programmed to work in a way similar to the human brain. Society cannot be ignorant about the
way technology works or else people will see the same execution of dangerous technology as
seen in X-Men; this is arguably a warning against the power of technology in the realm of
science fiction and in reality as well (Postman, 2005, p. 157). Artificial intelligence technology
introduces an entirely new set of dangers to society, as the potential for harm can be much more
than physical.
The human brain sets us apart in the ecosystem. Mumford (1967) argues there is a close
relationship between technology and biology. In addition, humankind did not invent the idea
of toolmaking or survival. In this way people cannot distinctly set themselves apart from other
organisms. However, people have taken this ability to function creatively further. As Mumford
(1967) explains, “There was nothing uniquely human in toolmaking until it was modified by
linguistic symbols, esthetic designs, and socially transmitted knowledge” (p. 5). Society has
used technology to advance in many ways that have contributed to the growth of both the
physical environment and now the online environment, making the world more connected than
ever.
Artificial intelligence technology becomes more prominent in culture every day (Liu,
2020). For context, artificial intelligence is a communication science where machines can
simulate human characteristics through calculated interactions that are considered intelligent
(Gunkel, 2020). As artificial intelligence technology advances, people are separated from
“good old-fashioned AI,” known as GOFAI, and have transitioned into machine learning.
GOFAI is a system of programmed algorithms that are capable of only what humans tell them
to do. Machine learning algorithms utilize artificial neural networks similar to the human brain
that have been developed to function with data that is not necessarily controlled by the human
developers that created the intelligence (Gunkel, 2020).
The ability of machines to mimic human beings makes machines both dangerous and
useful to society. In Darowski’s compilation of essays on the ages of X-Men (2014), he includes
Clancy Smith’s essay where he discusses these two opposing ideas in describing sentinels in
XMen, saying,
On the one hand it is seen as a means of emancipation from toil and the eradication of
scarcity to bring about a free, flourishing future for mankind. On the other, it has been seen as
the realm wherein mankind was not meant to venture far, invariably leading to enslavement or
annihilation. (Darowski & Smith, 2014, p. 74)
Mumford further explains the relationships between machines and human organisms.
Ultimately machines have been developed to constitute their own environments, not just take
part of the environment. They are sophisticated and are more than just objects within reality
(Mumford, 1944). Mumford continues to point out that man is always interacting with his
environment. Just as in natural environments, in technical environments people are confronted
with danger and seek nourishment in regard to survival.
The very notion that machines are capable of performing tasks that human beings
perform makes artificial intelligence dangerous, not only because people rely on it but because
it has the power of both destruction and construction. Technology holds significant power to
create mass chaos in culture, much like technology that is portrayed in science fiction films.
So, while it is efficient and accommodates human needs, technology also holds the capacity to
cause destruction and diminish human potential.
Weapons Technology
Weapons are derived from technological innovation. Holding both the power for good
and evil, weapons play an important role in society as they are used to protect and to harm.
Weapons technology, whether used positively or negatively, is a necessity because of its very
existence. Weapons play an important role in defense for the military. Nuclear bombs, in
addition to causing mass radiation energy, were designed to be powerful, lethal weapons used
to warn off enemies during World War II. Society was worried about what this radiation
exposure would do to them (Berger, 1976). Likewise, similar fates of fear and destruction are
decided in science fiction films. Weapons are often used as solutions to problems. In dystopian
movies, this eventually turns into nuclear annihilation.
Technology can be seen in two ways in culture: There are technological determinists and
technological instrumentalists. Technological determinism is a philosophy where technology
“can drive human behavior and culture in directions that are often unplanned and unforeseen,”
while technological instrumentalism believes technology is a tool that is motivated and
developed by people for specific use (Newport, 2020, p. 49). As technological instrumentalism
becomes more popular, society is affected by powerful technology.
Technological determinism implies that military tactics and techniques are determined
by technological change (Echeverría Rey, 2010). Weapons are used to determine what actions
people will take in battle. Weapons innovation in war has turned into a competition where
newer technological advancements—very dangerous technology—are necessary to be ahead.
Weapon technology has caused a great deal of devastation in the world. The potential for
destruction from weapons has been portrayed throughout many media platforms, specifically
in movies, television, and video games. While weapons are beneficial and necessary to creating
a powerful army, there is great potential for unnecessary destruction. Mumford (1967)
discusses the power of machines and their role in society. He challenges the common view of
technology that it is limited to tangible inventions. As mentioned previously, he seeks to dispel
the myth that primitive man was predominantly a tool-making species. Rather, language is what
sets man apart. In his book Technics and Civilization, Mumford (1934) argues that as memory
became more tangible and allowed for things that had been learned to be passed on to others,
symbol-creation set man apart even further. Dreams were very important to the beginning of
language because people were able to distinguish things they had dreamt about and
communicate them with others. They developed a large potential for good and evil by being
able to vocalize and express their views. In describing the outcome of this, Mumford said that
if a man had not dreamed about dragons and hippogriffs, he might never have thought of the
atom (1934). The dream inspired many things, myths being one. Terrible nightmares inspired
many to develop new technologies that held immense power. Mumford references heavy
machinery and metal tools, such as the loom and plow, that helped to develop society. However,
Mumford argued that the “megamachine” was the biggest motivator because it was what he
called the new social structure. Mythical ideas, such as deities in the sky, spawned from
Mumford’s idea because they inspired fear and obedience to large populations. These ideas
were built off people’s fear of heavy machinery and the power it had in society, both physically
and socially (Mumford, 1967). Overall, Mumford’s metaphor of the machine shows how
society has taken the fear of machinery, including weaponry, and built stories from it to lighten
the burden of its potential. Machines, not just weaponry, are continuously advancing in society.
What is a Myth?
First it is important to note the definition of a myth. The dictionary defines a myth as “a
traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining some
natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events” (Fowler,
1949). Roland Barthes (1972), in Mythologies, focuses on mythological connections to history
and how myths function to transform history into nature (p. 129). However, he goes on to say
that “myth is not defined by the object of its message, but by the way in which it utters this
message: there are formal limits to myth, there are no ‘substantial ones’” (Barthes, 1972). In
accordance with McLuhan, the medium in which the myth is being told is the message.
Therefore, Myth Today argues that myth both points out and informs about something. It
teaches society an idea and then encourages society to accept its teachings (Barthes, 1972).
Janice Hocker Rushing and Thomas Frentz define myth as “the historical text that unites
singular public expressions into a narrative” (1989, p. 64). Mythical stories are metaphors for
human affairs and their connection to different environments.
Technology’s Effect on Human Affairs
Technology affects human affairs in many ways—connection to a physical environment,
potential for creation and free-thinking, distraction from reality, potential for destruction, and
more. A willingness to accept technology into society without recognizing its potential for harm
has the greatest effect on human affairs. In response to artificial intelligence technology,
Rushkoff (2019) says, “We must not accept any technology as the default solution to our
problems” (p. 125). Rushkoff acknowledges that with this kind of technology, people try to
find a way to belong to a technological environment rather than finding a place for technology
to fit into the world. The idea that technology can and should take over human intelligence has
been accepted simply because society has allowed for this type of technology to exist. When
machines start working outside of the sphere in which society allows them to work, their
potential is dangerous because it is authentic. Society is becoming more comfortable revolving
around what technology does for us rather than on human instinct (Postman, 1990, p. 34).
In terms of media ecology and the impact technology has on human capability, Rushkoff
(2019) discusses how society needs human intervention, not technology, to control technology
in order to maintain a value system that defines decisions. People make accommodations for
technology that society built to accommodate the needs of society. Examples of this are getting
out of the way of a moving vehicle or creating algorithms for artificial intelligence (Rushkoff,
2019, p. 126). Rushkoff (2019) also explains that human creation is being diminished by the
perfect appearance of technology production. He states, “Our mechanomorphic culture is
embracing a digital aesthetic that irons out anything uniquely human” (p. 90). Society has
become accustomed to perfection and has forgotten about the reality of human creation.
Society’s craving for machine products has increased, taking away the need for human ideas,
but people will always be part of the equation. Ellul (1990) says:
We are not subjects in the midst of objects concerning which we may freely decide how
to act. We are closely implicated in this technical universe. We are conditioned by it. We cannot
put human beings on the one side and equipment on the other. We have to set human beings,
too, in the technical universe. (p. 37)
This combined effort will help humans control technology rather than the other way
around. Technology takes up space in its environment and people must interact with it
responsibly, both as an instrument and for entertainment.
Entertainment
Film and television are not developed for the sole purpose of entertaining (Johnson,
2016). Film allows for society to communicate messages via images, not just words (Postman,
2005, p. 7). Within the entertainment industry, science fiction tends to create an exchange
between viewer and creator to frame attitudes (Rushing & Frentz, 1989) toward “the machine”
that reflects “both an invitation and a warning; it is simultaneously fascinating and threatening,
both superior to and somehow inferior to the punier humans who build operate and sometimes
are subjugated by it” (Porush, 1985, p. 7). This idea is shown in multiple media examples as
the science fiction world creates both utopian and dystopian films (Rushing & Frentz, 1989).
According to Winner (1997), the portrayal of Utopian views tends to sway toward the side that
new technology will offer greater wealth and freedom, idealized politics, fulfilling
communities, and personal fulfillment (p. 1001). This idea elicits hope that technology will
elevate the human experience and create an idealistic society. Dystopian views are “a uniquely
modern form of fiction whose emergence parallels, reflects, and warns against the growing
potentialities of modern technology” (Beauchamp,1986, p. 53). In dystopias, according to
Beauchamp, there are two sorts of fears: one is that the machine will control man, and the other
is that man will be changed into a machine (p. 59).
The Portrayal of Technology in Entertainment
Portrayals of technology in the media are often dramatized for effect. Dystopian novels
often use technology in a way that completely alters society as they know it. Like X-Men,
dystopian novels and films are a response to societal tragedy, playing on the fear of world
destruction by technology (Scholes & Ostenson, 2013, p. 11). There is an increased risk when
using technology. If people are not using technology responsibly, it is capable of creating very
dangerous situations. People are all susceptible to the framing of media and the power of
technology. The story of X-Men began long before the days of Wolverine and Deadpool as a
science fiction comic that heroically portrayed technological dysfunctions in society through
stories of young, atypical superheroes. X-Men explores the implications of pertinent
contemporary technological developments by implementing fictional ideas that derive from
real-life tragedy. After the bombing of Hiroshima, science fiction became historically important
in American culture because Americans were more familiar with nuclear energy and have lived
in fear based on experience (Berger, 1976). This made X-Men even more appealing, as it started
with human offspring that were exposed to a large amount of radiation caused by the Manhattan
Project. Likewise, many other movies incorporated real-life experiences to show cultural
development through science fiction.
The presence of cultural reflection in movies has been portrayed throughout the history
of media. According to Kirby (2014), in the early 1900s, mad scientists and inventors were
continuously being depicted in media, one example being Frankenstein. The Manhattan Project
in the 1950s led to more than just X-Men, but also films like Frogs (1972). The emergence of
computer science in the 1980s led to films such as The Terminator (1984) and Robocop (1987).
Scientific discoveries with machines and machine learning in the 2000s led to films such as
Wall-E (2008) and Avatar (2009). Other Marvel movies have involved biomedical research
such as Captain America (2011) (Kirby, 2014). Incorporating cultural experiences into film has
been prominent throughout the history of media. As X-Men developed and transformed
through the years, Stan Lee encouraged cultural reflection within his plots. As technology was
advancing in the world, the problems the X-Men faced reflected technological development in
the real world.
With great actors and the extension of a new class of superheroes, X-Men took off in
popularity with the first movie in the year 2000. Two years after the creation of Google, people
were just starting to get comfortable with the internet and had little understanding of what
technology was coming. The first-generation movies, starring Patrick Stewart and Ian
McKellen, include more traditional technology with a focus of high-tech shuttles and battle
suits, as well as some less traditional, such as a hoverchair and secret base made with alien
technology. Moving into the more recent movies such as X-Men: Days of Future Past and X-
Men: Apocalypse, technology shifted into high-tech weaponry, human enhancement, and
artificial intelligence. However, the most prominent technology in X-Men was the intelligent
Cerebro machine, radiation, and weaponry. The following analysis will argue that media,
specifically X-Men, portrays technology through an exaggerated lens to create an outlet to
fictionally address pertinent issues in a way that diffuses the politicization of the discussion of
technology’s capabilities. This will show both that technology has both a positive and negative
effect on culture and that this effect is portrayed historically throughout the science fiction
series X-Men.
Collective Participation in Entertainment
Media portrays the advancements of modern technology in different ways, alluding to
the idea that society has an ambivalent relationship with modern technology; however, it is still
an essential part of society, and while it can be seen negatively, it will remain an important and
growing field. Langdon Winner (1997), a political theorist focused on technological change,
explains this ambivalence, saying,
Whether taken in optimistic or pessimistic variants, there was something of an agreement
that modern technology had certain essential qualities, among which one could list a particular
kind of rationality—instrumental rationality, the relentless search for efficiency and a kind of
historical momentum with indelible features that rendered other kinds of social and cultural
influences upon the character of social life far less potent. (p. 997)
The entire world is interconnected because of media technology (McLuhan, 1962).
Media scholar McLuhan (1964) invites this idea, calling it a “global village.”
The introduction of new technologies extends the reach of both body and mind in ways
that would irreversibly alter an individual’s interaction with both the environment and the rest
of the global village (McLuhan, 1964). This results in the creation of a vastly complex and
sophisticated universal neural system that can be accessed by anybody with the desire and the
necessary technology. In accordance with the idea of a global village, McLuhan (1964) goes
on to explain that, as a society,
we live mythically and integrally. . . . In the electric age, when the central nervous system
is technologically extended to involve the whole of mankind and to incorporate the the whole
of mankind in us, we necessarily participate . . . in the consequences of our every action. (p. 4)
The concept of the global village makes technology a necessity, but that does not negate
the fact that it will have positive or negative implications.
Like McLuhan’s theory of the “global village,” Carl Jung (1973) believed that the world
is connected through similar views and experiences. Jungian theory introduces the idea of the
“collective unconscious.” Jung (1973) explains how dreams communicate, saying that dreams
convey “many different things: concrete imagery, thoughts, judgments, views, directives,
tendencies which were unconscious either because of repression or mere lack of realization”
(p. 24). Dreams are made up of a combination of personal and universal experiences; they are
the representation of an individual’s personality merged with the phenomenon that is the
“collective unconscious” (DeLaszlo, 1959). Universal experiences are interwoven throughout
the collective unconscious through common images and shared knowledge. Jungian scholar
Mary Ann Mattoon (2020) further expounds on how dreams can be used to increase
consciousness and reveal the hidden part of the human psyche. She furthers her idea, saying,
“Simply paying attention to dreams and working through the interpretation process increases
consciousness a great deal more” (p. 132).
Jung plays off of the ideas of his mentor, Sigmund Freud, expanding on Freud’s
personality structure. His personality structure displays the development of human behavior
and the complex dynamic of the preconscious, conscious, and unconscious mind. Within this
structure, repressed memories exist in the unconscious mind; the preconscious mind stores
memories or ideas that are hidden or undeveloped inside the mind that have the opportunity to
become conscious; and the conscious mind is the mental process by which an individual can
understand and think rationally (Freud, 1935). The ego is a guiding factor that governs instincts
and protects the mind as a mediator between a person’s conscious and unconscious (Freud,
1962, p. 15). Carl Jung refers to the processes of the conscious and unconscious as the psyche.
That which a person does not want to acknowledge about themselves is repressed into the
unconscious where it lives an active life outside of the ego's restraints, emerging into
consciousness through processes such as dreams. Jung calls the repressed part of the
personality the shadow. “The shadow” is suppressed by the self, or ego, to shield others from
its own perceived oddness toward them or from the possible discomfort it may cause others
(Mattoon, 2020).
Like the collective unconscious, Jung argues that there is a “cultural shadow” (page
number?) Similar to how the shadow presents itself through dreams and the unconscious, the
“cultural shadow” presents itself through cinema (Jung, 1966). Since the shadow is a limitation
to a person’s consciousness, the shadow that defines a cultural point of view would be the fear
that mankind may be replaced by technology (Rushing & Frentz, 1989). According to Jung,
film is one of the most important venues for exposing shadow culture, since it “enables us to
experience without danger to ourselves all the excitements, passions, and fantasies which have
to be repressed in a humanistic age” (1971, p. 479; Rushing & Frentz, 1989). A cultural psyche
is a self-regulating system that strives to create balance, much like a personal psyche strives to
create balance. Jean Gebser (1997) identifies several “structures of consciousness,” one of
these designated structures being mythic (p. 82). Jung offers that each “structure” of
consciousness is a part of one’s overall psyche (Johnson, 2016).
Mythical Criticism
Myths are examples of cultural shadows, as they are “best understood as a repressed but
evolving myth” (Rushing and Frentz, 1989, p. 64). Myth is able to become the “center of mass
consciousness” because electronic mediums allow for the ideas to reach people globally
(Johnson, 2016, p. 4). This analysis will use the myth of Prometheus. The myth of Prometheus
tells the story of how mankind came into possession of fire, enabling man to form civilization.
Prometheus stole the eternal flame on Mount Olympus and gave it to man. Zeus punished
Prometheus by chaining him to a mountain and having an eagle peck out his liver each night.
The myth of Prometheus teaches there are consequences for every action. Additionally, once
humans were given fire, it could not be taken away. The fire inspired people to imagine, create,
challenge, and more. It gave them freedom, but also great suffering (Haque, 2016). The study
of Prometheanism is the study of the advancement of modern technology.
