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Prof. Dr. Praise Zenenga
AFR 428 - Critical Race Theory
November 30, 2022
Presentation on Module 12 Readings and the Films
Racism is a big problem that takes various forms and can happen anywhere in the world.
Racism includes aspects such as hatred, discrimination and prejudice directed towards a person
or a group of people because of their ethnicity, national origin or skin color. In most cases,
people identify racism through the harassment, abuse or mistreatment of a person, however, that
is not the case because it takes other forms. Racism exists not only in intimidating or violent
ways but also in other forms such as jokes and name-calling. Also, it is disguised in other factors
and systems in the society that leads to the isolation of a group of people or a person from certain
events, activities, policies and other things because of their origin or skill color (Banton, 170).
Therefore, racism can be experienced through the people’s attitudes, behaviors and it can be
reflected in the institutions and systems in a society.
The film “Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years 1954-1956,” explains the
issues of racism in detail in the United States between the three years and the struggles of the
civil rights movements in regard to the issues of racisms. The texts also explain the key aspects
of racism described in detail in this paper. This paper therefore, Identifies and critically examines
all the vital historical, cultural, social, economic and political factors that shaped the nature of
race relations described during the period under discussion in the readings and film. It also
outlines and describes the socio-economic contexts and provides a personal reaction to the
materials main arguments.
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The cultural implications of systemic racism are just as vital as understanding the
resiliency of those communities which have been marginalized. Among other things, racism
isolates groups socially. Banton (212) states that, due to being excluded from the mainstream
society, people who belong to the oppressed groups might become internally stronger and more
actively express their culture. Eyes on the Prize (Vecchione & Fayer, 123) to a large extent,
refers to this resilience by showing the boycotts, church meetings, and grassroots mobilization
that were happening in the different segregated communities. These movements attracted the
support of people who shared similar values, beliefs, and ways of struggle against systemic
oppression which made the movements grow. According to McDougall (2001), culture is very
important as it helps to retain the group’s identity and heritage against erasure. Banton (141)
state that the film, however, portrays the ways the leaders, among other things, used music,
sermons, and public speeches to instill confidence in the community. The same strategies that
were used at that time to resist and protest against the system, promoted the idea of dignity and
helped to unite the people during the difficult times. The cultural heritage of the period is still
having an impact on the movements today which in turn is deeply connected with resilience
advocating for justice and representation. Therefore, it can be said that the civil rights movement
was not only political but also cultural, thus, it was an affirmation of the humanity of the
oppressed communities.
The universal aspect of racism of the civil rights period has to be given the same scope of
attention. McDougall (211) places the context of racial discrimination in the wider global
contexts that underscore the human rights protection encompassed in the wider international
context. This tendency towards segregation in America undermined its democratic legitimacy in
international circles, particularly against strained cold war battles. The paradox of preaching
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democracy in other countries and perpetrating inequality in the country was a subject of
international companionship and censure. Banton (221) explains that the relationship between
any two states and political agendas are carved by race and politics in the world. The internal
racial conflict spilled over into foreign countries and America was urged to act in accordance
with its own stated democratic ideals. Eyes on the Prize (Vecchione and Fayer, 191)
demonstrates how the idea of civil rights activism became known worldwide and heard. The
resistance evoked unity in South Africa and Brazil among others that faced racial oppression.
This interrelationship proves that American civil rights movement was not a national single
story. Instead it was included in an international discourse of dignity, justice and racial equality.
The identification of these global aspects includes civil rights history in the center of global
resistance to systematic inequality. By establishing the local struggles outside of the local
context, the sources make it clear that race is still a key element of politics. The civil rights era
thus shows how racism at local, national and international social structure is at the same time
shaped.
The historical aspects of Racism
Racism in USA, South Africa and Brazil
The issues of the race began long before World War II and its impacts were highly felt
during the periods after the war when the countries were hit by issues of liberation and anti-
slavery. According to Banton (170) the United States, South Africa and Brazil share common
realities in regard to the issue of racism. The three countries are characterized by economic,
political and social racial lines which have divided its people into modern times. Over the years,
especially after the world war II, these countries have become aware of the adverse effects and
the violations that the racism have had on the international law and its victims and therefore, it
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was during these periods that the principles of equality came into being. These principles are still
in place today. Banton, (171) explains that some of the reasons why racism was rampant and its
effects were adverse in the after the WWII was because of the belief that human beings belonged
naturally in races and that it was a determinant that strongly influenced their lives. As a result,
people were mistreated because it was felt that their skin color and origin stipulated their fate in
society.
One point that is really important when talking about racism in the US, South Africa, and
Brazil is how the concept of race has been created and the way it has been changed within the
societies. According to (2022) Mitchell racial multitudes and identity politics have significantly
affected that subject in the three countries identically, but differently at the same time. In the US,
the 'one-drop rule' forcibly assigned mixed-race people to the Black community, hence the
segregationist systems were strengthened. In Brazil, a different model was used, which was a
more flexible one for racial classifications and where being of mixed race was no longer an
issue, but unfortunately, it was still there, only it was just hidden in the background without any
elimination of the structural nature of racism. South Africa, on the other hand, race
institutionalized matters categories rigid apartheid, directly embedded in political and social life
racial divisions. The differences depict that although all the three countries are connected
through their pasts of slavery and colonization, the ways they have defined races have led to
different kinds of problems of racial equality. Among these, Mitchell (2022) points out that all
the three have in common is the hardly eradicated racism that continues to be the major
determinant of people's identity, access to privileges, and the rights as citizens. Therefore, racial
identity is not just a term used to define a person's social group but also a method used to keep
the racial hierarchies intact.
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Moreover, it is also important that racial inequality over the years mingled with spatial
and urban development. Melgaço and Coelho (2022) delve into how urban planning in Brazil
and South Africa is deeply entrenched in racial capitalism, illustrating how the cities turn into the
very nature of the landscapes of inequality. In Brazil, the black and poor were not only pushed
away but also trapped in the favelas where they can hardly get the basic necessities such as
infrastructure, health services, and economic opportunities. Concomitantly, the influence of
apartheid-era spatial planning in South Africa on settlement patterns is still very powerful, and
blacks are still predominantly confined in those segregated townships with limited access to the
transport system. These separations physically characterize the non-inclusion in the systemic and
as a result, the cycle of poverty continues to be kept in different generations. Besides, Hartz
(2021) also points out that such organizing of societies along racial lines has been there for a
very long time and is closely connected to the colonial background of these countries. It is when
they study race and space together that the connection between discrimination and its being not
only a cultural or political aspect but also a material one which stipulates access to housing,
mobility, and economic participation becomes very evident. The urban space is thus at once both
a means and a sign of racial inequality.
The four different cultural narratives are important factors that influence the spread or the
decline of racisms in these countries. According to Gonzalez et al., (2021) the Brazilian culture
being long the mixture of racism and sexism has been the source of numerous problems that
Black women have become victims of, due to the overlapping of different types of
marginalization. It is also pointed out that in Brazil, the media, the popular culture, and the
educational system were the main contributors to the proliferation of racist stereotypes, which
showed Blackness as an inferior feature, at the same time that they consigned black women to
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the sexual domain. The cultural portrayals in the United States were similar, serving the same
purpose of reinforcing the existing social hierarchies, but the civil rights movements were very
active in employing art, music, and literature as their means of struggle. The culture of South
Africa also shows the way in which apartheid had a grip over cultural production through
censorship and control, however, it also reveals how art and music had become forms of
resistance. All of these examples indicate that culture is a battleground where racism, the
dominant ideology, is still implemented through representation, however, at the same time,
resistance is gaining ground through creativity and expression. Gonzalez et al. (2021) suggest
that when racism is dealt with it has to be along with cultural change whereby stereotypes and
myths that perpetuate exclusion have to be eradicated.
Racism's international and geopolitical consequences in these three countries range to the
point that the inequalities revealed at the domestic level are intersected with global politics.
Efstathopoulos (2021) points out that as Southern middle powers, Brazil and South Africa are
two planets which are very far from the model of the global community based on liberal values.
While these countries transform themselves into torchbearers of the equalilty and democracy
discourse in international forums, their domestic racial inequalities still challenge those claims,
and by doing so they weaken or even break the seams linking the different layers of international
rhetoric to local realities. Hartz (2021) sees these paradoxes as the result of the long saga of
settler colonialism and postcolonial struggles around race which, according to the author, has
been the major yardstick for the organization of societies politically and economically. Mitchell
(2022) also points out that the racial/political matters in the U.S. during the late 50s and early 60s
in particular and the whole civil rights era had a great impact on global debates about democracy,
freedom, and justice. Instances like this constitute proof that racism is not a closed chapter in the
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domestic affairs of a country but rather has international imprints, which weigh on the state's
standings in the global arena and its relations with other states. Therefore, to comprehend racism
in the U.S., South Africa, and Brazil it is necessary to chart the trajectories of these local
histories within the wider global frameworks that race is the main reason behind the reshaping of
the political landscape both domestically and internationally.
Formation of human rights treaties
The abuse and discriminations that emerged due to racism after world war II led to the
emergence of the various human rights treaties that are still in place today. Banton (171) states
that there was a dire need to overcome its negative implications through the formulation of
policies that could curb its effects. It also led to the formation of international laws that could
guide and correct racial ideas and problems. The formation the human rights standards also came
as a result of the adverse effects of racism. It was meant to create equality regardless of the
differences in skin color and origin among the people in the world. It guided the governments in
regards to the use of language that reflects the national and international heritage and to regulate
problems that people faced. However, over the years, this has not resolved the problems of race
and it is part of the reason why the problems of race are still evident in society today. The film
also touched on the key issues of race during the 1950s and 1960s second revolution fights on
racism. It provides historical information and the situation of the human race during this period.
It addresses how the issues of race have been addressed and how the “inalienable” human rights
have been secured over the years.
One of the reasons why racism continues to exist despite the establishment of human
rights conventions is that international frameworks often conflict with domestic realities.
According to Gonzalez et al. (21), the main cause of the persistence of cultural practices is the
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existence of systemic hierarchies, especially in the case of Brazil, where life is so tightly
intertwined with the socio-political structures that people are unable to see how they operate; as a
result, they violate the rights to live as equals. On the same note, Efstathopoulos (139) points to
the fact that nations like Brazil and South Africa that are formally committed to human rights
face contradictions between global obligations and internal socio-political structures. In this way,
these middle powers, being members of international institutions that require them to advocate
for equality, at the same time find themselves having trouble with deeply rooted racial inequality
within their own territories. This dissonance illustrates that while treaties and legal frameworks
may be potent in principle, they are not capable of eliminating discrimination unless they
incorporate structural inequities and cultural legacies, which are the main sources of racism.
Human rights laws set up essential standards. However, the extent of their implementation is, to
a large extent, dependent upon political will and cultural changes in each state. Therefore, the
persistence of racial injustice serves as a reminder of the limitations of treaties if they are not
supported by profound reforms that deal with issues of power, culture, and economic disparities
(Gonzalez et al. 373; Efstathopoulos 386).
Political Aspects of Race
The formation of international organizations
The establishment of the United Nations was a result of the various issues that faced the
countries of the world after the WWII. The main reason for its formation was to foster peace and
negotiate for better international relations among warring countries. Among the other issues that
destabilized the world’s economy was the issue of race. Racism was causing instability in the
world due to the tensions between the various races. Therefore, Banton (179) says that the
formation of the UN was for the purposes of ensuring that countries comply with the treaties on
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the human rights such as the ICCPR as well as to scrutinize the adherence of international laws,
its practice and application in the states that were part of the treaties. McDougall (442) states that
over the years, the UN has worked towards ensuring that the nations do not violate the
international laws and that they have adopted policies and resolutions that could reduce the
problem of race. It also placed pressure and sanctions on states that created policies such as the
apartheid policies in South Africa.
In addition to having treaties, the United Nations also was a stage upon which
decolonized states made their own as an international politics in the challenge of racial
stratifications. According to Vitalis (182), the initial study of international relations in America
did not pay much attention to race, but racial inequality was at the forefront of discussions in the
UN. New African and Asian countries illustrating the negative nature of colonialism and racial
control emphasized the role of colonialism as a termination of peace and justice and connected
their own plight to greater human rights issues. Pease (180) stresses that the international
organizations offered the collective platform where the marginalized states could challenge the
world power structures and demand anti-racist solutions. This was particularly so during the
struggle against apartheid where the UN General Assembly accorded the platforms to leaders
that would not have made an impact in international politics. However, Louis and Maertens (20)
observe that the UN usually tried to depoliticize these problems and conceptualized them
according to technicalities or humanitarian concerns and diminished the political intensity of the
racial conflicts. In spite of this tendency, the issue of racial justice discussions remained the
characteristic of global governance, and it is possible to show that the struggle against racism
determined the development of international institutions.
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It was not only the middle powers that had to deal with the strategic interests of
international organizations but these organizations themselves had to figure out what to do with
Brazil and South Africa because of the domestic racial structure of these countries which made
their stance in the international positions somewhat complicated. Efstathopoulos (139) puts
forward the view that these countries not only pledged allegiance to the liberal international
order but were also embroiled in contradictions that were deeply rooted in inequality and racial
stratification. By returning such issues to the global stage through the United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), Brazil was for a time able to brand itself as the
leader of the Global South, although, on the other hand, the country had been very slow to
recognize indigenous peoples’ rights. Pease (18) states that these contradictions reveal the need
for international organizations to consider the political realities of member states while striving
to uphold universal human rights principles. Louis and Maertens (212) argue that through their
practice of depoliticizing, organizations would often find that they had little power left in the
struggle to racial hierarchies. However, the continued presence of race issues in the UN and
other institutions as a result of the race politics drama being played out on the international stage
shows that race still has a stronghold on the matter of justice and legitimacy in global affairs, and
hence it is at the center of all debates.
The UN Interventions
The readings also explain the various ways in which the treaties were enforced in
countries such as the USA, Brazil and South Africa where the issue of racism was intense. The
need for such enforcement was due to the fact that there was a need to protect human rights and
reduce the effects of racism in the world. According to Banton (123), human rights had to be
safeguarded regardless of the size of the nations because the rights applied to every individual
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regardless of their location in the world. He gives examples of nations such as Nauru with a
small population and compares it with China that has a larger population and states that the treaty
had to be enforced in all these countries.
One of the ways in which the UN intervened was through the formation of the treaty on
the elimination of racial discriminations in 1946 Genocide convention which because of one of
the best attempts that countries used to combat the issue of racism. McDougall (440) says that
the US and Brazil applied the concepts and interventions of the convention to eliminated racism
while South Africa had only signed but had not yet ratified it. The other intervention was the
formation of the CERD which fought for the elimination of all restrictions, distinctions,
exclusions, and preferences based on decent, skin color, race, ethnic origin and nationality. This
was one of the attempts to secure human rights as well as the fundamental political, economic,
cultural, social and other aspects of life that had been hampered by racism.
One more important element that substantially shaped the UN interventions was their
focus on understanding how racial discrimination intertwined with the general socio-economic
inequalities, especially the issues of urban development and spatial governance. According to
Melgaço and Coelho (212) point out that in Brazil and South Africa the racially discriminatory
ways of exclusion had a long life through urban planning policies which not only segregated but
also gave easy access to resources the already privileged communities. The UN in its supervising
function, passed it on that offhand scrapping of discrimination in the legal sense was not the
main focus of the Treaties like CERD, which also dealt with structural inequalities that housing,
education, and economic opportunity were influencing. These interventions conveyed the
message that racism was, in most cases, tightly connected with the space issue, as the minority
populations were living in the areas of ghettos where the infrastructure was poor, and they had
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limited political power. By exposing these systemic patterns, UN agencies were able to obtain
reform orders that not only linked human rights treaties but also economic development and
social justice frameworks (Efstathopoulos 391). The transition indicated a move towards the
understanding that fighting racism was a process of tearing down the racial capitalism which was
deeply entrenched in the differentials of inequality over multiple generations and within major
national institutions.
Among others, the UN was a major player in establishing the link between racial
discrimination, gender, and cultural hierarchies, thus, expanding the range of its interventions.
According to Gonzalez et al. (221), in countries such as Brazil, the relationship between racism
and sexism was so tightly intertwined that the two used to cooperatively push women of color
out of the way and have them restricted to positions of low power and influence in the society.
Various UN agencies were quite vocal in the support of their recommendations for member
states to inculcate policies that were in-tune with the reality of discrimination overlaps and in
addressing these issues in a holistic manner. Efstathopoulos (221) supports this further by saying
that these powers in the middle like Brazil and South Africa were subject to these pressures and
had to work through them while at the same time they were asserting themselves in the
international hierarchy, managing domestic inequalities along with their global commitments.
The intersectional approach was a turning point in the UN's interventions as they acknowledged
that the violations of human rights could not be simply put into separate categories, but even the
most different cases had common features which were the interlocking oppressive systems.
According to Mitchell (22), through this, the UN was advocating for more inclusive programs
which tied together race, gender, class, and international politics with the broader struggle
against systemic discrimination.
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The social factors that shaped aspects of racism
Prejudice and discrimination
Discrimination and prejudice are two social factors that available in society and has been
there throughout the human history. Discrimination is the behaviors that are directed towards
another person or group of people while prejudice refers to the irrational and inflexible opinions
and attitudes that are either negative or positive held by an individual or members of a given
group. Banton (172) explains some of the factors that shaped racism. In the drafting of the
human rights standards, the social aspects of the societies had to be considered. The main
concern was how to combat racism by demystifying some of the common stereotypes and
attitudes that people hold against each other. Therefore, human rights were created to ensure that
it provided a moral minimum in the society that guided peoples’ behaviors and attitudes towards
one another.
The film also highlighted some of the common social factors that shaped racism.
Throughout the film, the various interviewees demonstrated diverse behaviors and attitudes
towards the other race. For instance, the young white woman in the film portrays an attitude
towards the black people and when the interviewer asks him “I take it then that you are
advocating negroes in New York to stay out of these national chains stores?” However, this
attitude is a form of prejudice that is not negative because she responds that she thought that
black people should be allowed to sit on the counters where white people were served. This
therefore, proves that prejudice could be both negative and positive sine throughout the film, we
can see different attitudes that black people and white people have towards each other.
The need for peace
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The film, for instance, highlights the key demands and the needs of the people at the
time. Most of them were tired of racism and how people could not co-exist with one another. For
examples, in the film, Martin Luther King JR. says that the main concern of the movement or the
revolution was to see that in the end, peace was achieved and that a society that lives with its
conscience was created. He states that that day could be a day of rejoicing for all men in the
society and not for a white or a black man. This therefore, shows that there was a dire need for
peace among the various races since racism had destabilized it. Banton (173) states that the
enjoyment of equality and human civil and political rights could lead to a peaceful society and
there was a need to eliminate the racial barriers to ensure that peace is fostered and that all
people regardless of skin color and origin enjoy both civil and political rights. McDougall (444)
also explained that the enforcement of the treaties on the elimination of racial discrimination was
geared towards the achievement of peace and stability in the countries such as South Africa, the
US, Brazil and other treaty partners that racism had affected.
The other significant dimension is in respect to the manner racism is disrupting
communities over several socioeconomic generations. Racialized disadvantage is accrued over
childhood, education, employment, housing and health outcomes over time. Distrust generates
resentment, and this obstructs the ability to reconcile, promote social cohesion, and build lasting
peace in the country. The data of the long-term harms of the study conducted by the public health
reveals inequalities at the lifelong levels embedded during the research. These results drive the
need to combat structural racism using policy interventions (Gee et al. S44). The sociological
theory explains the continuity of power in institutions and cultures by racial hierarchies (Golash-
Boza 133). As a result, there must be systemic reforms in reconciliation and not brief policy
changes and even symbolic ones. The global examination indicates that geopolitics tends to
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influence the implementation of the human rights pledging (Vitalis 28). Thus, the only solution
to establishing durable peace is the connection of social justice to real institutional responsibility.
Redistributive policies that address the issue of education, housing, and healthcare inequities
should be designed by the policy makers on a systemic basis. Restorative programs initiated by
communities can restore trust and develop inclusive civic participation within communities.
Injustice can only be changed to sustainable peace in the society upon concerted effort in the
sectors.
One of the first steps towards achieving peace is identifying the interconnectedness of
race and gender, class, and age. Intersectionality depicts how being discriminated against in
various areas of life exposes a person to a higher risk of vulnerability, and at the same time,
decreases social cohesion. In their research, Golash-Boza states that women of color are highly
likely to be both racially and gender-wise marginalized (132). Alongside these compounded
evils, women of color are limited to economic opportunities, have less political voice, and are
hindered in social mobility. Early adolescence is an important developmental period during
which attitudes towards diversity and equality are formed (Kågesten et al. e0157805). An
educational intervention during the adolescent period can be very effective in the elimination of
prejudice and the cultivation of pro-social and inclusive behaviors. Hence, policy frameworks
should embed the gender-responsive and youth-centered reconciliation measures in different
sectors.
An international academic critique of global governance claims that one of the major
drawbacks of the governance model is the disempowerment of the voices of the marginalized in
the peace processes. Vitalis (44) states that the exclusion of such groups leads to a loss of
legitimacy and it becomes impossible to establish lasting agreements with other communities
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that may be nationals. On the other hand, the participation of grassroots leaders and the inclusive
deliberation consolidation of the social infrastructures are the elements that guarantee peace over
the long term. Funding priorities ought to include the support for community education,
restorative justice, and inclusive economic development. One way that international
organizations can provide member states with the motivation to execute such intersectional and
context-sensitive policies efficiently is through the issuance of incentives. Kågesten et al.
(e0157805) says the involvement of monitoring agents, reporting conducted in the open, and the
participation of civil society, among others, help to ensure accountability and progress. The
integration of the themes of youth, gender, and racial justice is the only path leading to the
realization of sustainable peace by societies.
The cultural aspect that Shaped racism
Culture refers to the distinct ways of life and beliefs of a society or group of people that
determine behavior, social norms, lifestyle and other factors. These aspect shapes racism because
it induces beliefs among people about others from other origins and color deemed different from
theirs. In the film, the issue of culture is quite evident because the narrator discusses the issue of
beliefs stating that it is hard to change the beliefs of the American people concerning the
inalienable rights, equal treatment laws, what justice and liberty was among other aspects
because they already had other basic presumptions that nothing like equality existed. In the
readings, Banton (171) contends that the formulation of human rights laws was challenged by
cultural aspects of the society since people have pre-disposed beliefs and thoughts about racism.
McDougall (445) on the other hand explains how the international application of treaties was
hampered by the ways of life, belief systems and customs of the people and explains that the
reason why South Africa government was hesitant on the ratification of the CERFD and other
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treaties was that of the cultural aspect of the African community. Banton (173) additionally
states that cultural changes in contemporary society accompanied by communication technology
have changed the dynamic nature of racism and it has also provided various alternatives to the
various circumstances regarding race.
The economics that shaped racism
During the period between the 1950s and 1960s, racism had impacted negatively on the
economic mobility of the African American people and most of them wanted a change through
the enforcement of equal human rights in the society. Throughout the film, the main concerns of
the black people are a peace that could foster economic equality among all people in America
which seems to stir debates and rage among the white counterparts who do not approve of the
issue of equality. In the text, McDougall (446) asserts that some of the factors that have hindered
the complete adoption and application of human rights through the treaties are the economic
interests that most of the countries such as South Africa were protecting. In the end, suppression
and discrimination continued. Benton, (177), on the other hand, explains how various ethnic
groups and races have fought over resources and group identity which further intensified racial
line in the USA and other parts of the world such as Brazil and South Africa.
The economies of racism in the United States also indicate that capitalism in place
systematically promoted inequality. Koechlin contends that the leading field of economics
tended to believe the issue of racial disparity was non-existent which was tantamount to
whitening capitalism so that the overall economic benefit of racial discrimination could be
hidden under the carpet (Koechlin 564). The white elites ensured the generational wealth gaps by
denying African Americans equal opportunity to access education, housing and occupation
opportunities. Alexis brings out the manner in which the economics of racification influenced all
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issues such as the disparity in wages, employment hierarchy and that they entrenched racism in
the actual structure of the labor markets (Alexis 283). Such discriminatory trends ensured that
African Americans were always on low-paying jobs, insecure jobs, and jobs that require physical
labor and the white workers enjoyed the protection of the institutions. Consequently, racial
disparity was not accidental but was carefully induced into dealings of economic institutions.
Sewell also stresses that racism also naturalized race as it linked racial status to economic
disadvantage creating systematic inequalities extending beyond income to opportunities in health
and life (Sewell 404). The middle of the 20th century in this way shows how racism was not
merely a social or political problem but also an economic issue where practices of capitalism and
marginalization interacted to prevent the movement of African Americans.
Along with restricting access to employment opportunities, racism influenced housing
policies with long-term economic effects. According to Alexis, discriminatory lending policies
and real estate restrictions were aimed at making sure that whites continued living in white
neighborhoods and limiting African Americans to segregated and less resourced communities
(Alexis 295). These policies gave the African American families less chance to own property as
a source of wealth generation and this proved to be a source of inequality. According to
Koechlin, these exclusions by property market are examples of the way that economic systems
established and sustained boundary of race and showed inequality as a natural happening instead
of a socially constructed phenomenon (568). The impact on economy was not limited to wealth,
as it influenced the access to good education, medical services, and security among African
American communities (Koechlin 569). According to Bailey and Moon, systemic racism in
housing and economic exclusion had their long-term consequences, which were reflected in the
crisis later on in the form of racialized vulnerabilities in the face of crisis, including the COVID-
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19 pandemic (Bailey and Moon 941). The housing segregation therefore not only determined the
place in which people resided but also the distribution of the opportunities, strengthening an
economic geography of racism. Considering these dynamics, one can easily note that the racism
of the mid-20th century was institutionalized by means of economic policies that denied mobility
to the members of other races but provided the advantages to dominant races.
The politics of health and labor also give additional testimony to the economic causes of
racism at this time. The African American workers were as well forced in the hazards industries
and exploitation was a normalized race based exploitation. According to Sewell, this process of
reification of racism associated the race with the disadvantageous economic and health
conditions, constructing the inequality that was perceived as the natural outcome of the race
instead of the structural oppression (Sewell 408). Koechlin also highlights that labor economics
did not put much questioning on these inequalities, but instead put forward the results as being
market-based instead of systemic injustices (Koechlin 569). Alexis continues by saying that the
established pattern of excluding African Americans via unions and skilled careers
institutionalized a pattern in which race predetermined income and economic wealth (Alexis
300). This exclusion also prevented the wages of black workers at the same time preserving the
wage benefits of white workers in hedging industries. Structural relationships of labor, race, and
health so developed long term inequality that was passed on to successive generations. The
connection of economic discrimination to physical vulnerability and life expectancy by racism
determined not only economic successes but also biological survival. The two economical and
health aspects of racism in the middle of the 20th century show hence the extent to which
discrimination had been interwoven into the daily lives of the African Americans.
The historical and socio-economic context of 1954-1956.
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The period between 1950 and 1960 was characterized by political unrest in the world due
to the instability caused by the WWII and the need for countries and races to assert themselves in
the world’s spectrum. Banton (170) explains that during this period, Europeans and the North
Americans were using the issue of race do demarcate boundaries between the whites and the
black immigrants as a way of asserting their importance and position in the region’s politics and
the economy. The period was marked by rapid growth of globalization and some of the things
that led to the spread of anti-racism was the abuse race as part of the human social life by Nazi
Germany. It led to the formation of the various human rights treaties as well as organizations to
foster its elimination. McDougall (435) explains that racism was the key determinant of the key
aspects of society during this period. Racism determined the politics of the time, the social life,
as well as the economic aspects especially in South Africa, America and Brazil. As a result,
various institutional mechanisms and norms were developed to ensure that war was waged on the
level of racism that existed in the three countries. In the film, it is clear that the period was
marred with unrest and agitation for freedom and peace. Equality was at the centre of the social
life and politics of the time. People such as Martin Luther King Junior wanted peace and a better
living for the people for races. The revolution brought about social, economic and political
instability.
The middle of the 1950s was also marked by growing socio-political tensions during the
clash of the class relations with the racial inequalities. Bareli and Cohen observe that wage
conflicts that in Israel between 1954 and 1956 placed the economic inequalities side by side with
racialized struggles in other parts of the world, which led to the establishment of a complex of
turmoil around the globe (Bareli and Cohen 112). Economic complaints became mixed along
with the issues of race because the marginalized groups did not share the gains of reconstruction
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after war. On the same note, the segregationist traditions ingrained in the United States city areas
held back the African American race socially and economically. Simultaneously, the institution
of apartheid in South Africa formalized income inequalities and labor bans in accordance with
the race. Those similar struggles demonstrate that racial and economic discrimination supported
each other and encouraged the organized counteractions and the quest to obtain justice. Social
movements did not only define equality in terms of culture, or political arena, but also in terms
of economic security. The fair access to jobs, better wages, and inclusive labor markets could no
longer be detached and divided as the fight for racial equality were enlarged and included. Bareli
and Cohen highlight the fact that the conflicts of global wage-gap appealed to the struggle
against racism, which added to the more general ideological problems with inequality (Bareli and
Cohen 115). Thus, the period between 1954 and 1956 represented a point of departure in which
race and economics were more and more intertwined when it came to political mobilization.
The underlying fears in identity and belonging and social cohesiveness were also
depicted in cultural narratives of race at this time. Townsend discusses the idea of the racial
succession of Irish and Irish American neighborhoods where minority communities relocate to
the previously white space, producing new social conflicts (Townsend 222). This was not only
an Irish phenomenon but reflected greater racialized anxieties in the United States and Brazil.
The fact that the immigrants or minorities have settled in the white majority neighborhoods
tended to created fears about cultural decline. All these fears strengthened exclusionary measures
that aimed at preserving the racial lines via formal and informal segregation. The concept of
racism came to be more pathologized psychologically, according to Thomas and Byrd, the racist
stance was legitimised within psychopathology modalities during the colorblind period. Thomas
and Byrd (183) state that this view demonstrates how people tried to depoliticize racism and
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make it an issue of personal illness, instead of a social problem of inequality. Nevertheless, racial
fears were structural to the extent that they were integrated in housing, employment and political
representation. The conflict between changing stories of inclusion and longstanding traditions of
exclusion therefore emerged in the mid-1950s. In the analysis, Townsend demonstrates that even
changes in the demographics of the neighborhoods turned into symbolic places of struggle over
bigger issues of race and belonging. According to Townsend (224), these dynamics explain the
role that cultural, social, and psychological dynamics played in supporting the overall politics of
the period.
Personal thoughts and Conclusion
In conclusion, the reading materials and the films provided more insight into the issue of
race and its evolution in the world. The three countries cited in the readings and referred to in the
film provided key examples that vividly created the picture of how the society was during the
second revolution. I also believe that the readings explained clearly some of the reasons for the
establishment of the various norms and institutional mechanisms that ensured that racism is
eliminated in society. Some of the prominent interventions explained in the readings is the
formation of the United Nations organization that has fought for the application and checked the
misuse and abuse of international laws on racism.
I believe that despite the various shortcomings that faced the organization, it has achieved
a lot in eliminating racism in most of the member countries. One of the countries where the
United Nations has successfully eliminated the issue of apartheid is South Africa. The readings
also touched on the various factors that shaped racism. Some of them include economic,
political, cultural and social aspects. Finally, what stood out for me is the issue of culture. In the
film, it was clear that the culture of the white and the black people were the main cause of
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differences. In the readings culture was coined as the key aspect in the formulation and the
enforcement of the various interventions and treaties on racism. Despite the various interventions
on racism, its aspects are still evident in society and more stun methods could be applied to
completely eliminate it.
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