K172 Mid Term

Wu 1

Zifeng Wu

Korean 172

Professor Oak

4 November 2020

1. The process of invention of Hanănim as a “new term” for God in Korean Protestantism.

Traditionally, Koreans have believed in Hananim, who is one God in heaven. The word Hananim was used by conservative Christians in Korea, while Roman Catholics and liberalists used Haneunim. Hananim equivalent in China is the heavenly emperor. Cheonje is above emperor, and Sangje is heaven lord. Before 1876, Korean traditional religions had been established before the western world religious influence was introduced (Clark, 1986). Initially,in the prehistoric period, shamanism and Hananim faith were most popular. Later, during the fifth to the fourteenth century, Buddhism was popular. After the fourteenth century, the Korean people were exposed to Confucianism. Finally, after the nineteenth century, Christianity became the most dominant religion across all divides of life in Korea. It is Koreans' religiosity in a shamanistic and syncretistic religious climate that created the way for the establishment of Korean Protestantism.

The concept of Hananim as a new term for God in Korean Protestantism can be explained in three views. One, Hunanim, was the original faith in heavenly God by many Koreans from an ethnocultural and religious perspective (Buswell et al., 2007). The second view is that Hananim is the highest God of shamanism from a socio-religious perspective. In the third view, the historians argued that hananim is a heliolatry of primitive Korean animism. Missionaries such as Homer Hulbert affirmed that the Koreans possess the belief in Hananim other than worshipping other crude cults. Missionary Gale further affirmed Hananim is the Great one and the great ruler and a God who cannot be compared to anything else in the world. Rudolf, a religious scholar, asserts that the belief in Hananim gives a clear link to Koreans way of thinking and how Christians view God.

Shamanism was another prototype of the Korean primitive religion. It was more popular with older people and especially among contemporary Korean grass-roots. Shamanism is a pan-cosmic phenomenon, although it was very popular with north Asian people (Kim, 2001). It was more attached to Jahweh worship and a large number of deities ranging from sundry evil spirits to the heavenly God. Shamanism preaches about a good God who blesses and drives away misfortunes caused by evil spirits. The only difference between shamanism and Hananim is that they did not have God's idea and the concept of God's kingdom (Kim, 2001). However, shamanism is gaining popularity due to the changes of values in today's Korea, and people are even calling society to make it a cultural phenomenon. The Chinese-Korean shamanism is said to have come from the Siberian shamanism through ecstasy, trance, and possession. Shamanism occurs in three main types of shaman rituals. One is Chibyeong-je , which is responsible for casting out demons and healing the sick. The second is Gibok-Je, which was responsible for peace, long life, and property. The third ritual is Songnyeong, responsible for appeasing the spirits of the dead.

The roman catholic church in china, also called Tanzhu Jiao, has a long history. They worship the lord of heaven and have existed in China in various forms since the Tang Dynasty[footnoteRef:1] in the 8th century AD. After the communist party of China took over, the Roman Catholics, Orthodox, and protestants were expelled on the basis that these religions were a sign of western imperialism. In the 13th century, Latin catholic church Latin priests entered China. In the 12th century, Franciscan priest John arrived in Beijing and started translating the new testament and the psalms and later built a church there. The climax of the roman catholic in China was during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. Missionary efforts on Catholic Reformation in Asia were frustrated by the widespread of Buddhism. However, people hoped that the government does not discriminate between Catholicism and Protestantism. Clergy who continued with the Holy See concept of worshipping were tortured, for instance, Cardinal Kung. [footnoteRef:2] [1: This is not Roman Catholicism, but Nestorian Christianity from Syria] [2: redundnat]

Christians contributed massively in inventing a new term Hananim. Protestants and Catholics worship harmoniously in Korea to promote the new term Hananim. Due to migrations in the 14th century in the northern provinces, there was the creation of mixed backgrounds and without well set religious institutions (Oak et al., 2003). Catholics and protestants missionaries went there to preach the gospel of Hananim through bringing the western knowledge and establishing schools, hospitals, and churches. Catholics later started adopting Hangul as its main script. A Scottish Presbyterian missionary, John Ross, translated the new testament to Korean. Bishop Simeon Berneux suggested that every child should be taught how to read Hangul. The Methodist Paichai and Ewha school was established in 1885 to help in teaching Haninim ideologies and participate in the mass distribution of new testament materials. Many Korean Christians were adored because of their social behavior towards women and children. Christians have created the right image of Hananim in Korea. However, Christians have encountered the challenge of Buddhists and other traditional faiths across Asia. Confucian and Buddhist customs do not believe in the existence of Hananim in South Korea, which is advocated by Catholics and protestants.

Insufficient logical or chronological explanation of making Hanănim as a new Christian term for God

Some redundant and awkward information; typos

8/10

2. Consequences of the first encounters between Protestantism and shamanism in Korea.

Shamanism religion was the most dominant in Korea. However, the protestants are establishing their ideology through missionaries across Korea. Shamanism is anti-biblical and does not believe in a heavenly God and life after death. It is associated with evil influences that lie deep in the Korean people (Kim et al., 2004). Korean is religious man, and that is why they adopted shamanism from the Manchurian and Mongolian areas in China. When Nestorian first introduced Christianity in Korea, it met a hostile group of people who had been fully fed with shamanism principles. James Gale, one of the missionaries, asserted that shamanism was part of Korean society's Korean fabric. When the Sorae church was founded in Korea, the Suh brothers preached that God should be the center of everything, and all other gods should be disregarded. The suggestions brought a strong wave of resistance from the people. Later, people started progressing towards Christianity. After some time, the Sorae church had managed to uproot shamanism from the whole village. Missionaries managed to defeat superstition and evil spirits and thus proved shamanism wrong.

The protestants were well assured of defiance and resistance from shamanism followers. Thomas Memorial Evangelist group focused on rooting out superstition. The protestants opened a new church and burnt down shamans practice houses (Oak et al., 2003). However, the locals threatened the missionaries that the spirits of the mountains would punish them. Incidences of fighting were witnessed between the locals and the protestants, but they remained steadfast to preach the true God's gospel. Finally, the protestants were successful in eliminating idols and superstitions in fishing villages and rural regions. It was regarded as a culture shock by Prof. Shin Kwan of Hankook Theology university.

The western religions and modernization defeated Buddhism and Confucianism in what came to be known as the second culture shock. Buddhism was very popular across Korea and Asia at large and was successfully replaced by the Western Impact. However, there was a clash between foreign and traditional elements within the Korean culture. There was an acrimonious confrontation between the two sides, with more than10000 followers killed in the skirmishes while Catholics continued to be persecuted. On the other hand, protestants learned from the Catholics approach and used better methods to avoid conflicts.

Overcoming shamanism culture was an obstacle to realize God's dreams. After japan's unification in 1945, the Korean republic was formed. People were given a chance to enjoy religion's freedom without any kind of discrimination, unlike in the previous constitution. Koot was allowed together with the homage of the spirits of the mountains. Buddhists, Confucianists, and Christians were meant to harmoniously worship their gods (Oak et al., 2003). Shamans have formed Moodang association with more than 70000 paying members headquartered at Samkak mountain. In rural areas, fishing boats are put in operations after koot. Even intellectual people seek Moodang to inquire about their luck, success, and failure of their businesses and whether their kids will make it to universities. Also, shamans were required to pay tribute to their ancestors so that they can be lucky in life. The ancestral rituals made Moodang lose their importance.

Christian missionaries had an easy time to teach Koreans about God because they had existed knowing Hananim through shamanism. Koreans believed in Hananim as the lord in the sky, controlling everything (Davies et al., 1994). Protestants understood that Koreans had some background to worship God of Christianity. Koreans are mainly monotheists, and they give their God all honors and power, which was similar to Jehovah that foreign protestants were preaching about. Shamans traditionally worshipped Hananim as the supreme God and creator of heaven and earth, whom they believed had the power to give them rain and good harvests. Because Hananim could not provide answers to all issues, they had smaller gods. Missionaries used this comparison between Korean shamanism and Christianity to preach in Manchuria in japan. Many churches promised people would get wealth, prestige, and good health as a strategy to win many hearts. Additionally, Koreans had strong desires for good luck and blessings, and that is why they joined Christianity because they were promised that if they continue playing.

The missionaries described Jesus as a powerful munding. According to the Korean shamans, a mudang provides blessings of any kind and invokes evil spirits in the invisible world. Protestants compared Jesus with a powerful munding to convince Koreans that if they accepted Jesus in their hearts, they could be blessed with anything they prayed for. Mudang-shaman was a link between the world of the living and the world of the spirits. People could pay tribute to their ancestors to appease them through rituals. However, Koreans were assured that instead of all that, Jesus could heal them and remove all superstitions. Koreans were advised to do away with their gods and worship the real Gods. Mudang religion was the ideal source of hope for all Koreans. But with the advent of Christianity in Korea, Jesus was positioned as a powerful Mudang so that people can adapt quickly to the new religion.

No discussion on missionary conversion to continuationism and missionary Orientalism

No discussion of Bible women and cross-over mudang, their Christian exorcism

Read the book chapter carefully

6/10

3. Ancestral veneration for Korean Christians and modernization in the 1890s-1910s

The author discusses about the modernization of societies. The last quarter of the 19th century was characterized by new religions replacing traditional worship methods like shamanism in Korea and the wider Asian region. Modernity was associated with an increased number of ideological changes brought through the western impact. Although Korea's transition was chaotic, which involved conflicts between westerners and Koreans, modernization bore the sweet fruits of industrialization, capitalism, and urbanization (Kim, 1995). The normative view of modernity became popular with leaders and intellectuals borrowing customs, ideas, and institutions from the west. However, even with modernization, Korea continued to use Neo-Confucian as its ruling ideology. It was encrypted in traditions while implementing all these reforms, which slowed social, political, and economic development. The rise of capitalism threatened the use of neo-Confucian practices in governance. The author stresses the need to change from what is to what it should be. Teachings of new religions seemed similar to the old religions in the sense that both were founded on the basis of a charismatic person and syncretistic. New religions facilitated the circulation of sentiments, knowledge, information, and desires from different people. Koreans who adopted new religions became civilized and developed networks of intimacy that helped them deliver change in their societies through beliefs embodied in their religion.[footnoteRef:3] [3: Discuss the topic directly]

One of the new religions was Tonghak, which was the eastern learning. It became very effective in the modernization and sharing of ideas. Tongkak had originated in 1864 from a group of people led by Ch’oe Che-u. Choe was confused because of many community problems and the threat of westerners who wanted to spread Christianity. Confucianism and shamanism could not help him solve his problems, which made him seek the help of Sangje, who gave him a symbol of the "elixir of life" to cure his illness. Choe started explaining to people the foundations of his new religion, especially the roles of Chigi and Sangje. He finally named his religion Tongkak, which he suggested that it will help his people achieve "ultimate Reality". He borrowed most of his ideas about God from the Roman Catholics. Tongkak continued to grow and even caught the attention of the government because of its popularity. The religion was organized with established rituals, doctrines, and a comprehensive governance structure. The followers had to attend seminars and abstain from drinking and smoking.[footnoteRef:4] [4: redundant]

Later in 1884, protestant Christianity arrived in the area through Dr. Allen, who was a Presbyterian missionary who gave Koreans a new and better religion to practice. It became more popular than Tongkak because the Choson state supported it. With the arrival of the Methodist North church in 1885, king Kojong welcomed them on condition that they will help civilize Korea by introducing technology, western medicine, and education (Grayson, 1985). Contemporary protestant Christians attribute a quick spread of Christianity to a period of spiritual, religious influence in Korea. Christianity grew fast because it builds mechanisms of spreading the gospel and fostering networks through schools and churches. However, the P’yongyang Revival in 1907 became the transformation point of protestant Christian activities in Korea. Missionaries erected big tents for prayers and Christian meetings in P’yongyang, which was considered as the epicenter of Christianity in Korea. In the first few meetings, the turnout was not very promising, but later, many people attended night long fellowships, and many people got transformed and confessed their sins. People confessed against hating others, misuse of church funds, adultery, murder, pride, and other sins. Missionary continued bringing more souls to God and urged them to stay away from sins. The P’yongyang Revival became a defining moment for protestants because it shows all Koreans the value of Christianity. By 1905, there were 321 churches in Korea, which was a remarkable achievement because of the traditionalists' fierce resistance. [footnoteRef:5] [5: redundant]

Protestant groups continued with modernization missions through constructing new health facilities and learning centers. Western medicine and technology were also introduced in Korea. Methodist Missionaries, Young Men's Christian Association, and Presbyterian groups build technical schools and introduced an elaborate education system (Kim, 2001). Men were taught vocations like machinery, while women were taught occupational skills. Industrial Educations Departments taught young Koreans how to manufacture commodities, running businesses, and marketing their products. They also taught people to conceptualize Korean society into a working economic system to produce and sell goods and services for a profit. All these activities were meant to strengthen Korea economically, political and social structures. Yun Ch’i-ho (1865-1945) attributed the need for Christians-based social and educational reforms to make Korea great(Palmer, 1967).

Christianity has been valued as the machinery for transforming Korea from a traditional emerging country to a modernized and robust economy. Korean Christians and western missionaries condemned Japanese imperialism and vowed to continue cultivating their relationship with God. The author shows the relationship between religion and social processes can serve as a vehicle to civilization and modernity, which will answer human problems. Christianity today remains a powerful social institution that influences social, economic, and political structures in Korea. Koreans value religion as a tool for negotiating modernity through people's growth, hard work, unity, and discipline.

You did not say anything about the issues of the question

2/10

Total 16/30

References

Buswell, R. E., & Lee, T. S. (Eds.). (, 2007). Christianity in Korea. University of Hawaii Press.

Clark, D. N. (1986). Christianity in modern Korea. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Davies, D. M. (1994). The Impact of Christianity upon Korea, 1884–1910: Six Key American and Korean Figures. Journal of Church and State, 36(4), 795-820.

Grayson, J. H. (1985). Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea: a study in the implantation of religion (Vol. 47). Brill.

Kim, A. E. (1995). A history of Christianity in Korea: From its troubled beginning to its contemporary success. Korea Journal, 35(2), 34-53.

Kim, A. E. (2001). Political insecurity, social chaos, religious void, and the rise of Protestantism in late nineteenth-century Korea. Social History, 26(3), 267-281.

Kim, J. H. (2004). Christianity and Korean culture: The reasons for the success of Christianity in Korea. Exchange, 33(2), 132-152.

Oak, S. (2003). The indigenization of Christianity in Korea: North American missionaries' attitudes towards Korean religions, 1884--1910.

Palmer, S. J. (1967). Korea and Christianity: the problem of identification with tradition. Monograph series.