sociology essay
Clearing the Path for FirstGeneration College Students
Qualitative and Intersectional Studies of Educational Mobility
Edited by Ashley C. Rondini, Bedelia Nicola Richards, and Nicolas P. Simon
Afterword by Jenny Stuber
LEXINGTON BOOKS
Lanham � Boulder � New York � London
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Demystifying Influences on Persistence for Native American FirstGeneration College Students Natalie Rose Youngbull and Robin Minthorn
Native American college students are entering and graduating postsecondaiy education institutions at increasingly higher rates (Brayboy et al 2012 DeVoe and DarlingChurchill 2008; NCES 2005). With increasing numbers of Native American college students, there is an increasingly urgent need for higher education institutions, including both nonNative colleges and universities (NNCUs) and tribal colleges and universities (TCUs), to understand how to support them—not only in their first year as firstgeneration students, but also throughout their higher education journey. Numerous factors affect the pathway to college and persistence of Native American firstgeneration \ students. Some key areas of consideration are the impact of historical trauma over time from US federal policies as well as the impact of these policies on the socioeconomic status, living standards, and mental, emotional, and physical wellness of these students and their families and communities. It is also important to note that, in spite of the historical trauma Native American students and families face, there is also immense strength and resilience in the culture, language, and values that Native American first generation college students bring with them in their educational journey. In an effort to understand these lived realities and stories, this chapter begins with a detailed examination of the current literature on Native students and an overview of the student support structures found to promote Native student persistence. Subsequently, we present our study, which specifically examined fifteen American Indian Gates Millennium Scholars who did not persist to graduation; after describing the research design, methods, and reporting our findings, we turn to a discussion of specific recommendations for institutions of higher education to consider implementing to better support firstgeneration Native American college students. There is increasing representation of Native American college students in higher education. However, there are still many students, particularly firstgeneration college students, who slip through the cracks despite having full financial assistance, cariying the hopes and prayers of their ancestors and families with them. We hope this chapter helps to strengthen the understanding ot the journey
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of Native American firstgeneration college students so that more can persist and find pathways to graduation.
LITERATURE REVIEW: NATIVE AMERICAN STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Native students are becoming more visible in higher education and receiving more bachelor's and graduate degrees than ever before (Brayboy et al. 2012; DeVoe and DarlingChurchill 2008). Yet increased student services and incorporation of Native perspectives are also needed for the opposite reason: because despite the relatively higher numbers of Native students attending and graduating from college, Native students continue to face obstacles to collegegoing and persistence once in college. If the theories of social networks, social reproduction, and concepts of capital, both cultural and social, can be applied to certain areas of college access and success for Native American students, they neglect to address Native American students' low levels of college persistence through a culturally sensitive and strengthbased lens. The following sections provide a better understanding of the current literature surrounding Native American students in higher education. Native Americans are plagued by high attrition rates that begin in high
i school and continue throughout college. In 2005, data gathered by the Na tional Center for Education Statistics revealed that less than 50 percent of Native American high school students graduate. Historically, Native Ameri cans high school students have been plagued with high dropout rates and low graduation rates (Faircloth and Tippeconnic 2010; Freeman and Fox 2005). As a result, those Native Americans that make it through high school and continue on to college find that they are few and far between. Although the latest report from the US Department of Education (2005) shows that enrollment for Native American college students has more than doubled over the past twentyfive years, Native Americans remain underrepresented in higher education. Shotton, Oosahwe, and Cintron (2007) observed that Na tive Americans between the ages of 18 and 24 are less likely to be enrolled in college than their White, Asian/Pacific Islander, and African American counterparts; only 18 percent of Native Americans in that age group were in college (Freeman and Fox 2005). Overall, Native Americans comprise about 1 percent of the total population of college students, while students of all mi nority backgrounds combined comprise nearly 28 percent of college students; thus, the percentage of Native American college students is very low even in reference to the overall minority college student population (Snyder, Tan, and Hoffman 2004; Pavel et al. 1998).
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Educational achievement ,s another staggering p,„b|em for American Indians. DeVoe and DarhngChurchill (2008) reported that 9 percent of Na tive Americans have attained a bachelor's degree, while 19 percent of the general population has attained the same. Even with the increased number of Native Americans attending college, there is a disconnect between students matriculating at college and those students going g,aduate. A major issue in the higher education arena ,s the persistence rates of American Indians Data reveal that the sixyear graduation rate for Native Americans is 36 2 percent, while the general population's rate is 54.4 percent (US Department of Education 2005). The picture that is painted by these statistics is that of the small population of Native Americans that go on to attend college only a third are persisting to graduation. In sum, Native Americans are matriculating in college at a higher rate than ever before, yet still lagging behind the general population in terms of college completion rates.
Transitional Factors for Native American Students
There are both positive and negative factors affecting Native American students' transition to college. Positive factors include having a strona cultural identity, high selfesteem, and support on campus, while neaative factors include poor academic preparation, feelings of isolation on campus, and personal financial difficulties (Benjamin, Chambers, and Reiterman 1993; Gloria and Kurpius 2001; Guillory and Wolverton 2008; Lin, LaCounte, and Eder 1988). Solorzano (1992) found a host of factors that affected the low percentages of American Indians, along with African Americans and Latinos, who meet eligibility requirements for admission; these factors include inadequate preparation, negative teacher expectations, and the disproportionate tracking of students of color into nonacademic and vocational courses. Researchers also assert that cultural discontinuity contributes to the high dropout rates, low academic achievement, and poor selfesteem of Native students (Deyhle and Swisher 1997; Fann 2002; Pavel etal. 1998; Peshkin 1997). Conversely, the opportunity to maintain traditional values and have a positive Native identity has been identified as a factor that helps Native American students to have higher grades, lower dropout rates, and higher selfesteem (Coggins, Williams, and Radin 1997; Dehyle 1992; Fann 2002: Ledlow 1992). Similarly, Terenzini et al. (1994) found that students from disadvantaged
socioeconomic and educational backgrounds experience a considerably different transition to college—academically, socially, and culturally—as compared to their traditional peers. The academic factors that can hinder Na tive American students who matriculate at college are inadequate academic
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preparation for college, poor study skills, and insufficient guidance from high school counselors (Brown and Kurpius 1997; Hoover and Jacobs 1992; Swanson and Tokar 1991; Wells 1997). Other factors that researchers have found to play a role in the nonpersistence of Native American students at college can be related to the social and cultural aspects of the transition that Terenzini et al. (1994) describe. Some examples are adjustment to the college environment, feelings of isolation on campus, and feelings that the campus is not accommodating to Native American students' backgrounds (Benja min, Chambers, and Reiterman 1993; Jackson, Smith, and Hill 2003; Lin, LaCounte. and Eder 1988; Swanson and Tokar 1991; Wells 1997). Jackson, Smith, and Hill (2003) highlight literature that focuses on personal factors influencing the transition to college for Native American students, including students' academic aspirations, confidence in ability to succeed academi cally, personal financial difficulties, and personal/family problems (Brown and Kurpius 1997; Kerbo 1981; Mclnerney and Swisher 1995; Swanson and Tokar 1991; Wells 1997). The majority of research studies addressing Native American students in
higher education reflect the deficit approach, with the findings yielding nega tive statistics and factors that play into students' nonpersistence. In response to the appalling statistics and the many factors that play a role in the nonper sistence of Native American students, researchers have made recommenda tions as to what could be beneficial in addressing these issues. Some research suggests that students would benefit from finding a mentor and/or a support group on campus (Braithwaite 1997; Brown and Kurpius 1997; Hoover and Jacobs 1992). Other researchers insist that social integration into campus life through active participation in Native American clubs/organizations or build ing a strong social network could be linked to positive academic performance and persistence of Native American students (Jackson, Smith, and Hill 2003; McClellan 2005; Williams 2012). Some colleges responded to American Indians inadequate preparation for college and poor adjustment to the col lege environment by creating peer mentoring programs (Shotton, Oosahwe, and Cintron 2007), organized tutoring programs, precollege orientation, and academic bridge programs (Wells 1997).
Academic Persistence
Multiple studies have examined factors that contribute to the success and academic persistence of Native American students in higher education. These factors include confidence and selfperception as possible predictors of academic persistence among Native American students (Brown and Kurpius 1997). Jackson, Smith, and Hill (2003) find that confidence and
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selfefficacy are related to academic persistence. Other studies find that self efficacy is cntica or he 1^8 students to overcome obstacles (Coffman and Gilligan 2002; Kalsner 1992), Consequently, as Native students transition from high school to college, nurturing confidence and selfperception is important. Additional factors identified by studies as important for Native student academic persistence include precollege academic preparation family support, faculty involvement and support, institutional commitment'
t0 students and community on campus, financial support, and institutional and individual support for students to stay connected to home communities while at college (Astin 1982; Barnhardt 1994; Brown 1995 Falk and Aitken 1984; Tachine and FrancisBegay 2013). Generally, if Native students who aspire to attend college are supported and prepared for college while in high school, they are more likely to persist academically (Benjamin, Chambers and Reiterman 1993; Brayboy et al. 2012).
As previously mentioned, both Native and nonNative faculty play a critical role in Native student academic persistence, particularly when faculty seek to understand the concerns and issues that Native students face and demonstrate their support for and connection with Native students (Brown and Kurpius 1997). Studies consistently indicate that positive interactions between faculty members and Native American students are critical for fostering persistence and academic achievement (Jackson, Smith, and Hill 2003). Positive faculty and staff interaction, coupled with demonstration of institutional commitment to supporting Native American students through services and providing an inclusive campus climate, also increase academic persistence (Larimore 1997). Similarly, persistence is promoted by assisting incoming and returning college students with information regarding financial resources, scholarships, and financial management (Aitken 1984; Almeida 1999; Brayboy et al. 2012; Dodd et al. 1995; Reyhnerand Dodd 1995). These studies show that American Indian students perceive the campus climate to be inclusive when the institution provides adequate resources in the form of financial assistance, cultural support, and Native faculty representation. Families and support networks are also critical. Many students draw their
strength and motivation to persist from families; this includes the desire to make life better for their families and even the goal to not let their families down (Guillory and Wolverton 2008). The home or tribal community ot Na tive college students helps them persist because they receive emotional, spiri tual, and financial support that encourages them to achieve their higher edu cation goals (Bowker 1992; HeavyRunner and DeCelles 2002). As NNCUs acknowledge the important roles that family, community, and support net works play with regard to academic persistence, they increase the likelihood
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that Native students will maintain cultural ties to their community and benefit from a social support system while away (Guillory and Wolverton 2008).
Current Support Structures and Programs to Support Native American FirstGeneration College Students
There are various pathways that Native American youth may take during high school, between high school and college, and while in college that can help them navigate the journey to their bachelor s degree as a firstgeneration student. In the current study, described in more detail below, five American Indian Gates Millennium Scholars (AIGMS) attended collegeprep summer programs while in high school to help them prepare for college. The programs they attended. Upward Bound and bridge programs, provided an introduction to college and campus life and fostered smaller, inclusive environments that helped the AIGMS participants feel a sense of belonging once they arrived on campus. In this section, we review these and other programs and opportunities that Native American students might participate in to help them prepare and transition into college. Described in order of progression from secondary educationbased support programs to collegebased ones, each is important in helping Native American firstgeneration college students find connections, see themselves belonging on campus, and navigate the completion of their bachelor's degree.
Upward Bound
Part of the TRIO Programs, Upward Bound is a federally funded program that emerged as a result of the War on Poverty during the Johnson administration. Its mission is to help prepare students for college entrance and strengthen their coursework during high school (US Department of Education 2016a). Upward Bound specifically serves students who are low in socioeconomic status or firstgeneration (i.e., neither parent has a bachelor's degree). The program is housed on university campuses; youth reside on campus for five to six weeks, take classes that strengthen their academics, and become familiar with living away from home and on a university campus. Students also receive followups and checkins from Upward Bound staff throughout their academic years as long as they are associated with the program. There are a number of Upward Bound programs that help support and prepare Native American college students. One example, at the University of Colorado Boulder, has been in existence for over thirty years and specifically serves students from geographically isolated and reservationbased communities. Others that intentionally and directly serve Native American students are
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at Ft. Lewis College, Arizona State University, and the University of North Dakota.
GEAR UP
GEAR UP is another federally funded TRIO program that was founded to help lowincome middle and high schools that prepare youth for college in order to raise the number of students who attend college and improve their persistence rates (US Department of Education 2016b). GEAR UP facilitates preparation for college through activities such as taking groups of students on college visits and providing specific kinds of collegeoriented knowledge and information, including information about the FAFSA and steps in the college choice process. There are a number of GEAR UP programs that serve Native American youth, especially at schools where there are high numbers in addition to high proportions of lowincome students.
Early College High School Initiatives
Early College High School Initiatives was created by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation in 2002 to increase the number of postsecondary credentials awarded to underrepresented students. To date, there have been 240 Early Colleges started in the United States. In each case, they partner with a university or community college so that upon high school graduation students leave with a high school diploma and an associate's degree or two years of college credits that can be applied toward a bachelor's degree (American Institutes for Research 2016). The Early College High School initiative began with a partnership between the Gates Foundation and Antioch University in the Center for Native Education, where they were able to start fifteen schools, in seven states, that specifically targeted Native students. Of these schools, five achieved graduation rates between 69 and 100 percent and attendance rates between 83 and 94 percent (Akweks et al. 2010). This initiative demonstrates the important role these types of programs can have on Native American students when they are intentional about working with Indigenous peoples (Campbell, Egawa, and Wortman 2003).
Bridge Programs
Bridge programs are a type of program that, as the name suggests, are intended to help students bridge a transition, whether from high school to college or from undergraduate to graduate or professional degree programs. Bridge programs may serve various demographics, including firstgeneration students, lowincome students, and so forth, and there are a number of summer bridge programs that are or have been offered to incoming Native
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American freshmen the summer before they formally matriculate to college. They are grouped with a cohort of students living in the dorms for four to eight weeks, during which they earn collegelevel credit and are encouraged to foster connections to the university campus and with other Native American students on campus. Oftentimes, the purpose of these programs is to help Native American students transition emotionally, physically, and mentally, and to find their social and structural places like home on campus in ways that honor their culture and spiritual ways of being. Colleges and universities with bridge programs include the University of New Mexico, Black Hills State University, the Institute of American Indian Ails, Bacone College, and others.
FirstYear Scholars Programs and LivingLearning Communities
Once Native American college students matriculate at their respective institution of higher education, they may be greeted by a firstyear scholars program that offers themebased communities built around common attributes or interests. Particularly if they are attending an institution with relatively high Native American enrollment, or one that has an intentional mission or makes intentional efforts to serve Native students, they may have access to Nativespecific living and learning communities (Tachine and FrancisBegay 2013). Firstyear scholars programs for Native American students often group participating students into a cohort model where they are enrolled in common courses and offered programming specifically intended to help them transition into the university setting. Living and learning communities are also often themebased and usually involve students living together in a section of student housing, such as one wing of a dorm, which provides students a more communityoriented residential experience that can feel like a home away from home. The structure itself may be helpful for Native American students, and these benefits may be enhanced when the community is focused specifically on Native American students and/or includes intentional efforts to offer programming, meetings, and events to support these Native American students while they are away from family and community.
Peer Mentoring Programs
An important part of supporting persistence among Native American students, firstgeneration or not, is supporting relationships with their peers. Native American student support services often include a peer mentoring program or component in which firstyear or early college students are mentored by upperclassmen college students (Minthorn and Shotton 2014). The intention of the peer mentoring programs is to pair students who have
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American freshmen the summer before they formally matriculate to college. Thev are grouped with a cohort of students living in the dorms for four to eight weeks, during which they earn collegelevel credit and are encouraged to" foster connections to the university campus and with other Native American students on campus. Oftentimes, the purpose of these programs is to help Native American students transition emotionally, physically, and mentally, and to find their social and structural places like home on campus in ways that honor their culture and spiritual ways of being. Colleges and universities with bridge programs include the University of New Mexico, Black Hills State University, the Institute of American Indian Arts, Bacone College, and others.
FirstYear Scholars Programs and LivingLearning Communities
Once Native American college students matriculate at their respective institution of higher education, they may be greeted by a firstyear scholars program that offers themebased communities built around common attributes or interests. Particularly if they are attending an institution with relatively high Native American enrollment, or one that has an intentional mission or makes intentional efforts to serve Native students, they may have access to Nativespecific living and learning communities (Tachine and FrancisBegay 2013). Firstyear scholars programs for Native American students often group participating students into a cohort model where they are enrolled in common courses and offered programming specifically intended to help them transition into the university setting. Living and learning communities are also often themebased and usually involve students living together in a section of student housing, such as one wing of a dorm, which provides students a more communityoriented residential experience that can feel like a home away from home. The structure itself may be helpful for Native American students, and these benefits may be enhanced when the community is focused specifically on Native American students and/or includes intentional efforts to offer programming, meetings, and events to support these Native American students while they are away from family and community.
Peer Mentoring Programs
An important part of supporting persistence among Native American students, firstgeneration or not, is supporting relationships with their peers. Native American student support services often include a peer mentoring program or component in which firstyear or early college students are mentored by upperclassmen college students (Minthorn and Shotton 2014). The intention of the peer mentoring programs is to pair students who have
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persisted to junior or senioryear status with newly minted freshmen whom they mentor and guide on issues such as how to navigate the college campus system and how to balance going home and finding home on campus Firsttime Native American students are often paired with a fellow Native American student and both are encouraged to attend oncampus programs and events throughout the academic year. These peer mentoring programs seek to provide guidance and support in the areas that will enable Native American college students to persist and graduate (Jackson, Smith, and Hill 2003; Shotton, Oosahwe, and Cintron 2007).
Native Student Organizations/Building Community on Campus
Native Student Organizations (NSOs) come in a variety of forms. Some are general when other are more specialized. For example, the American Indian Science and Engineering Society is oriented toward academic interests. Other are more social or more service oriented like historically Native American fraternities and sororities. NSOs help Native American students to build shared community on campus through common interests, activities, and events. They fulfil the mission of the organization, promote leadership, and help to develop other skills for Native students (Minthom 2014; Minthom and Shotton 2014). NSOs also often work collaboratively with other NSO organizations (and other student organizations as well). For Native college students, the experience of being involved and connected to a NSO offers a deeper sense of community on campus and finding place where it otherwise might not be found.
METHODS
This phenomenological qualitative research study examined the experiences of twenty American Indian Gates Millennium Scholars (AIGMS) who enrolled in but then left institutions of higher education. The Gates Millennium Scholarship Program (GMSP) is a national scholarship program that serves racial minority students from across the nation. Annually, one thousand incoming college freshmen receive awards through the scholarship program. To be eligible, students must fall into at least one ot four racial/ethnic categories: African American, American Indian/Alaska Natives, Asian and Pacific Islander American, and Hispanic American. One hundred and fifty Native American incoming freshmen are awarded the scholarship annually. Though GMSP boasts exceptional overall graduation rates among its scholarship recipients, the Native American cohort possesses the lowest persistence to graduation rate of all cohorts (S. Abbott, personal
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communication. Fall 2009). To date, over 2,000 Native American incoming freshmen have been awarded the Gates Millennium Scholarship since its inception in 1999. For the current study, the sample was drawn from the AIGMS who departed from college. Participants had left college, were labeled as Gates Millennium Scholars alums, and were no longer eligible to receive from GMS. They were identified through informal networks. Studying this particular group of Native American students contributes
to the existing literature by exploring factors beyond financial assistance that impact persistence for Native students navigating higher education in stitutions. AIGMS are considered among the top academically meritorious incoming Native American college students. The majority of the participants were in the top 510 percent of their graduating classes, and some earned top honors such as salutatorian and valedictorian. The fifteen female and five male participants represented over twenty tribes/nations from several regions across the nation, including the Northwest, Northern Plains, Southern Plains, Southwest, and Great Lakes. Half of the participants were the first in their families to attend college, and six participants had one parent who at tained an associate's degree. Demographically, ten participants grew up on a reservation and nine came from rural areas or small towns. Over half could understand their Native language and a few could speak it fluently. They were highly involved in their communities and served as examples of hope and possibility to their families and community members. They described themselves as carrying a great deal of responsibility, optimism, and potential with them to college. AIGMS participants were recruited through purposeful sampling and inter
viewed oneonone using a semistructured interview protocol. All interviews were conducted in 2013 (but participants had left their respective colleges or universities in other years and at varying times in their undergraduate ca reers). Because the students were living across the nation, fifteen participants were interviewed over the phone and five were interviewed in person. Prior to the interview, participants filled out a participant questionnaire form that collected basic demographic information and asked them about the values that they considered important. Oneonone interviews ranged between forty five minutes and two hours in length and were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Each participant received a transcribed copy of their interview, for the purpose of acknowledging that their stories and experiences belong to them and not the researcher. Having a transcribed copy of their interview also allowed participants to review it and follow up with researchers or clarify any vague information from the interview.
Demystifying Influences on Persistence
FINDINGS
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During AIGMS' transitions to their respective institutions, they encountered issues on both institutional and individual levels. On the institutional level AIGMS spoke of their institutions and GMSP as not being reflective of Native students. Structures were not in place to serve Native students and participants acknowledged the significance of relationships—and the absence of relationships on campus and with the American Indian Graduate Center (AIGC), the organization that administered the scholarship, support, and resources to the American Indian cohort of the Gates Millennium Scholarship Program (GMSP). On the personal level, AIGMS felt a lack of support from institutional agents such as their financial aid officers and academic advisors.
Institutions and GMSP Not Reflective of Native Students
The majority of AIGMS interviewed chose to attend midtolarge four year NNCUs. These institutions had small Native student populations and multicultural or Native cultural centers, yet some AIGMS felt a lack of connection on campus. Existing structures on these NNCUs were not reflective of Native students' identities and needs, nor were they equipped to serve Native students holistically. Specifically, AIGMS were seeking places to practice their spirituality on campus as well as space within their courses to incorporate that aspect of their backgrounds. AIGMS sought support structures on campus and with the GMSP and the AIGC. In particular, relationships were of central importance for AIGMS to be successful. Though they were disappointed with the lack of connection on campus, they were more frustrated with the absence of relationshipbuilding with the GMSP and AIGC staff.
Structures Not in Place to Serve Native Students
On campus, AIGMS felt there were structures missing on campus that would have made them feel more connected and involved. For Jacob, structures on campus conflicted with his home environment and he struggled to preserve his identity. Jacob explained, "um, at home I was more humble, more settled, more like, grandparents. I was more like that... but when I was in college, I was going crazy." There was no place on campus for Jacob to practice the traditional spiritual ways that helped him maintain balance and connection. Dana similarly described a lack of space—and time on campus tor her to
represent her spirituality and traditional teachings:
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I didn't really feel like there was a place for my spiritual beliefs in the class room, my cultural beliefs, especially in like all the prereq classes. 1 mean the prerequisites like English 101, Math. But 1 took a class, it was a Southwest studies and 1 felt like me being in that class as a Native person, I contributed in the discussion, you know, my perspective as a Native person. And I felt like it was valued. Especially in the New Mexico history part. I think it was, I felt like my experience and my cultural teachings were valued when it came to, when it came time for, when it was needed, like if it was specifically related or a discussion or if it was celebrating the Indigenous Peoples Day, you know. But other than that, I didn't really feel like there was time . . . time for that to be recognized.
Though Dana did experience her cultural background being acknowledged and appreciated, that recognition occurred in very circumscribed contexts— within the curriculum of one course, or at particular moments and times when "it was needed" or "specifically related," such as Indigenous Peoples' Day. Dana realized this and recognized the limited avenues for incorporating Native perspectives in her overall coursework. David attended an institution that was located in one of his tribal communi
ties. He had expected to see more Native representation on campus and was disappointed when he did not see or experience any interaction with other Native students. He said, "I had so much ambition and I was so ready, but after I kept going, there was just, there was nothing in the school to keep me there. There was nobody, kind of like saying, there was no support." Beyond the lack of representation on campus, David was disheartened at the lack of connection between his institution and GMSP:
The only thing that I knew from the scholarship was 1 got money. I kind of remember them saying that someone would keep in touch with me from the scholarship. Um, and so I, I . .. that's all I remember. 1 used to get the emails, and actually I still do get the emails every now and again. [Laughs.] But I thought there was more of a contact with the actual scholarship people. And I just thought there was a little more to it. And there's no one on campus of course who knew anything about the Gates Millennium Scholarship. The advisor didn't even know, because I had to actually ask them for more money to get all my books because it didn't cover, for some reason they didn't request the right amount. And then I did ask for more money to get a laptop and the advisor said I couldn't do it. And there was just no communication and there was no real knowledge of what I had, what I had received from Gates basically.
David also thought carrying the title "scholar" would be acknowledged by his faculty at the very least. When it went unacknowledged, he concluded that what he brought from home was not valued on campus.
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AIGMS spoke of missing structures on campus that represented both their Native and Gates scholar identities. According to TribalCrit, education poli cies geared toward Native Americans are historically rooted in assimilationist frameworks (Brayboy 2005). Consequently, current mainstream campuses typically are not reflective of Native histories, perspectives, or experiences Not only did many AIGMS experience feelings of disconnection due to the size and impersonal nature of their institutions, they also experienced feel ings of disconnection between their cultural ways of knowing—that is, their teachings and values—and institutional norms. In addition, institutions were not knowledgeable about the resources available to the recipients from the GMSP, such as budget reevaluations and funding specifically for computers. Because of this lack of knowledge, AIGMS were not fully financially sup ported within the structures on their campuses.
Significance of Relationships for AIGMS
Relationships—or the lack thereof—with their institutions and AIGC/ GMSP emerged as a key factor for AIGMS. One AIGMS, Kate, offered an explanation to help institutions and organizations like AIGC/GMSP understand the importance of relationships within the American Indian community:
The one thing that I really think that AIGC and people who work with Native Americans is they really need to understand that relationships with Native Americans are so essential to be efficient. And I say this because of just any thing with my students, I have to build relationships with them before they can trust me to say "ok, you're going to need help with this, let me sit down and help you." It's building those relationships, you know, "what's your favorite color, what's your home like," then I can properly serve them because they're not afraid to ask. They're not afraid to say that "I need help" or "I can't do this" or "Ms. Hamilton, soandso's picking on me" or "this is the way I feel about myself." I really can't be effective in what I do if not for relationships and then you look back on the relationships with your parents, building those relationships, they're not going to trust you if they don't respect you or there's no relationship there.
Kate's explanation speaks to the significance of relationships among Na tive people. In particular, relationships played a central role in the identity of the AIGMS participants. Relationships with family, community, GMSP, AIGC, faculty, and staff were all discussed by AIGMS as being important to their success—and, conversely, the absence or inadequacy of these relation ships adversely affected their experiences of college. Many acknowledged the roles within their families and communities that are important to them:
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granddaughter/grandson, daughter/son, older sister/brother, auntie/uncle, mother and father. Those roles remained important to them in their transi tion to college, and they expected to cultivate similar relationships with their peers, faculty, and staff, and especially with AIGC and GMSP. Sahara did not have trouble making friends on campus, but she was unable to make con nections with classmates in her courses to study with and share notes. She felt lonely for someone with whom to plan courses to take together in the fu ture. Coming from a small school. Dana struggled with the impersonal, large classes she found in college. She noted, "In my class 1 graduated from a class of six, and so going to [my university] and being in class of 150, even 500 and not having that personal connection with the professor, that was really hard for me to deal with as well." A1GMS students saw this lack of opportunity to build relationships within classroom environments as a gap in structured institutional supports. There was also an expectation that the AIGC staff would understand the
importance of relationships for Native students. Several AIGMS mentioned attending the National Leadership Conference hosted by GMSP as freshmen. The conference was meant to provide a comprehensive understanding of the scholarship program for all Gates Scholarship recipients while also introduc ing them to the staff who would be working with the students. AIGMS en joyed the conference, but they returned to their respective campuses without establishing any meaningful relationships. Rachel elaborated on this topic and discussed the kind of relationship she thought would have been helpful:
I don't remember them advocating or saying how important it is to make those networking relationships with people. Because then that could be a support system, because you guys are both going through it together. I didn't realize that, again, at the time, how important those networking things are during the whole conference and why they do it. All 1 knew was that 1 was going to Los Angeles to this big conference because of the Gates scholarship. And then hav ing someone sit there and say this is important because... . i think when you're that young 18, 19, 17—fresh out of high school, that's what you need. You need somebody there not to do everything for you, but to tell you how important it is and to help you along. Someone you could turn to for help that's not like, oh you should already know this" type of mentality, attitude. Someone's who really there for you as a support system, as a support person, and encouraging in a positive way.
Many expectations that AIGMS had for the Gates Millennium Scholar ship Program were unmet. Rachel underscores the lack of AIGC and GMSP staff encouragement to build support networks and relationships at their re spective institutions. This particular type of support, building relationships,
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would have significantly improved Rachel and other AIGMS' experienc on campus. es
Lack of Institutional Support
The GMSP is a national scholarship and recipients can attend any accredited institution across the nation. When AIGMS transitioned to their respective campuses, some sought assistance from institutional agents for academic advising, financial aid, and other kinds of support. In seeking guidance and advice from these institutional agents AIGMS put their trust in them. While building trust is important for all college students and particularly those from minoritized communities, it is particularly significant for Native students because even though education is viewed as a valuable commodity in tribal communities, distrust of educational institutions still exists among some students (Fryberg and Markus 2007).
One particular situation in which trust was breached involved the director of the Multicultural Center, a position designed to assist underrepresented students on campus. This individual informed Nadine that she could purchase a computer and that the total cost would be covered by the Gates scholarship, but toward the end of the semester Nadine was told by that same individual that she owed for the computer:
I really didn't understand the goingson of the financial part. You know, they told me, "alright, don't worry about it. You're set. Just go ahead and goto class. Pick your classes and those are the classes that you're going to." Yeah, and I didn't really know about anything else, other than classes were paid for. You know, I was just like, "ok, well I'm just going to go to class and do what I have to." And that was about it, until this one year. It was the beginning of the semes ter, I think, spring semester. Anyways, they said I was supposed to be getting a computer from the Gates Millennium scholarship. And then, like toward the end of the semester, they told me that I needed to pay for the computer because the Gates didn't cover it. And so that really confused me because 1 was like, "well I thought the Gates covered everything?" And you know, I got the computer from the school. I was like, "urn, so what's really going on? That s toward the end is when I went back and started asking questions because 1 was like, oh, ok, now 1 have to pay for this computer. Where am I going to find the resources right now," because I didn't really take on a job like I wanted to because I had my evenings free. And yeah, so that kind of contused me towards the end, so 1 was just like, "ok, well, I'll pay for it. Don't worry about it, I'll figure it out."
Nadine also mentioned that she had little correspondence with the AIGC staff and that she was unaware that the GMSP covered costs tor expenses such as a computer and travel home. When she asked the director for a \ ice
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she was told not to "worry about it, just go to class." She went to the finan cial aid office for help in figuring out the financial situation, and she ended up having to take out a loan to pay off her bursar's account so she did not owe the institution. With little explanation provided by the director of the Multicultural Center, A1GC staff, or the financial aid office, and no effort to help her resolve the situation, Nadine was confused and frustrated from this experience.
Financial Aid Officers
The financial aid office plays a fundamental role in the transition and persistence of AIGMS on campus because they have to work with the students on their financial need analysis and their financial status throughout the time they are students. The majority of AIGMS interviewed understood that Gates provided substantial financial aid toward their cost of attendance, but like Nadine, most did not know that they could ask for additional funding or exactly what expenses the scholarship covered. After speaking with another Gates scholar, Dana learned that they were using funding for purposes other than college expenses and they were able to get the extra funding through working with a financial aid officer. Yet when Dana met with her financial aid officer to gain a better understanding of what the scholarship could cover, she remembers being treated negatively:
Well, I guess I didn't really know the extent of the scholarship because after my school year had started I heard about other Gates scholars talking about how they got computers and they got this and they got that. And one Gates scholar actually said "yeah, I keep enough money out so I can invest some." And I'm like "how do you do that?" And they're like "well you just have to like convince your financial aid advisor." And 1 just... I just didn't understand that I guess. I didn't know. 1 just thought it was covering the basics. And I didn't have that good of a financial aid advisor to teach me this, I don't think. And when 1 asked questions, it was like kind of like "you're just an Indian," you know? I just kind of got that weird vibe, like "oh you're just another kid here and you don't know what you have, so let's give you what's the bare minimum." And I think that person knew what the Gates scholarship was and what it was capable of paying for. And I didn't really know and I just took advantage of it to the extent that I knew was for funding for my books, my room and board, and tuition. And I did get some school supplies and stuff, but that's really about it.
Dana did not feel supported by her financial aid officer; rather she felt the officer treated her as though she was ignorant due to her Native American background. Thus, she felt the officer did not advocate for additional funding
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for her even though Dana believed the officer knew exactly what the GMSP offered to its recipients. ^ 1,3r
In general, the scholarship is intended to cover a student's cost of at tendance (COA) The financial aid office submits documents declaring this amount and the GMSP sends the funding to the institutions on behalf of the recipients. Some expenses, such as tuition and oncampus room and board are exact amounts, while others are estimates—books and supplies food and utilities, to name a few. Scholarship recipients have the option do a budget reevaluation with a financial aid officer if they are in need of more funding to cover their cost of attendance. This important piece of information was not well understood among AIGMS. Penny did not know she could ask for a budget reevaluation. In her freshman year, Gates covered all her expenses and she received workstudy funding. Then, in her sophomore year, the scholar ship only covered a small portion of her expenses, so she had to take loans out to pay for the remainder. When asked if she could remember why the funding drastically decreased, she could not pinpoint the reason:
I couldn't remember if they had said that they had had an increase maybe in applicants that year or awards. And so then therefore the money was disbursed a little bit less. I, honestly, I can't remember. But I remember that because the > first year, I remember I got it and 1 was so excited. And 1 remember going to the seminar in, not the seminar, but the convention in California. I remember going and I was just so super excited. But then it was like the next year, I went to do my financial aid again and my advisor was like "hey, your scholarship will pay for this much, so for the rest you're going to have to do financial aid." And I was like "ok." And it was funny because at the time I thought, well I wonder if it's just the financial aid advisor wanting me to do student loans.
Because GMSP awards the same number of scholarships each year, Penny's explanation could not have been the reason for her funding decrease. Because she attended a small instate institution where she was likely the only Gates Millennium Scholar on campus, a more likely explanation is that the financial aid officer may not have been familiar with the GMSP and its fund ing process. Nevertheless, the cost of attendance should not have radically changed from the prior year, when Penny had received more than enough funding. Additionally, since it was Penny's sophomore year, the financial aid officer should have been familiar with the process. Due to this lack ot support from the financial aid officer. Penny's actions seemed to snowball toward leaving the institution. To support herself, she pursued an otfcampus job, working the night shift and eventually drifting away from campus. She expressed feeling "burnt out" at that time and decided to take a break from school to focus on work. These examples reveal a troubling disconnect be
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tween the GMSP, the institution, and the AIGMS. In this particular case, the financial aid office did not advocate on behalf of the AIGMS to the Gates Millennium Scholarship Program in regard to the scholar's funding. For Penny, ultimately, this lack of support directly impacted her progress and her ability to persist through college.
Academic Advisors
Academic advisors play pivotal roles for students, providing guidance on progress through coursework and degree requirements. Michael attended a large public institution and had difficulty getting in to meet with his advisor. Without academic advising, Michael ended up taking too many electives and not taking the necessary courses toward his degree program:
1 guess I was just taking a lot more electives than 1 should've been. I should've been taking maybe one or two electives a semester, and then two courses that pertain to the degree that I was taking. However, that wasn't the case. I just kept taking electives. And then from there 1 had caught up with all the main electives and I think there were just a few that 1 had left to take. I didn't really concentrate on the courses that I needed for my degree. So that's the reason why I was, I had to, urn, the advisor advised that maybe taking a semester off and going to a community college to work on those prerequisites. That way I could come back to the [institution] and start taking the courses.
When he did finally meet with his advisor, Michael's advisor encouraged him to do dual enrollment at the university and a community college, but he did not want to do that because it would mean taking even more credits per semester. Eventually Michael had to take a break from the university because he had exhausted all his elective courses and could not enroll in the required courses for his degree. Though he did not lay blame on his advisor, he might never have had to take a break from the university had he been able to get into the courses required for his major. The advisor could have stressed the impor tance of building off the prerequisite courses towards upperdivision courses. For another AIGMS, David, his experiences at his institution did not meet
his expectations, and the absence of support or communication from his academic advisor was a major influence in his departure. Fie expressed there not being any support for him at his institution, which took him by surprise because the institution was located in one of his tribal communities and not far from his hometown. He knew the advisor and her family, as she was a tribal member too. Still, that did not make a difference. David felt ignored by his advisor. He recalled, "The advisors they give you had no want for me. And had no emails for forever given to me by my advisor. I never ... I only spoke
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t0 her one time." He shared a defining moment for him on campus where he reached out for counsel and support from his advisor and was never contacted:
, felt like I needed more help but didn't know how to get it and I was afraid to ask a little. But also, I didn t know who to ask. I didn't, there was not I didn't know if I could ask the advisor. And there was a day that I remember I was sit ting at the school, on the campus and I decided to go ahead and call the advisor I got on the phone and I called the advisor and it went to voicemail or message machine, whatever. And I called it and 1 left her a message. 1 said "can you call me before the end of the day? I got a decision." I was like "I don't think 1 want to be here anymore, I don't know what to do." And I never got a call back and here it is twelve years later... I think it's twelve years, and I still ain't got a call back. [Laughs.] And it's just, I just... when I never got a call back I was just like, 1 said "you know what? I guess it's not meant to be." Because obviously. I didn't think the school cared.
It took a lot for David to reach out to his academic advisor because he was a shy young Native college student. In this respect, he viewed himself as typi cal of many Native American students who matriculate at college. As David put it, "a lot of Indian kids that graduate high school and go to college, they're a shy Indian when they walk onto campus. They don't have that strength to ask a question. They feel embarrassed. And that's how I was." He related this to his traditional upbringing and pointed out that maybe his advisor, and other institutional agents, on campus were unaware of how to support Native American students because they lacked the necessary cultural knowledge and understanding.
Maybe the research hadn't been done. Maybe the knowledge of the advisor wasn't up to code for my race. Maybe they didn't understand, and you know, it took me a lot of years to figure it out because I was pretty upset with [my institu tion] because I felt like they didn't give me enough as a student to participate.
An academic advisor's role as a guide is critical to a student s progress, and conversely, their absence can be a key factor in students lack ot persistence in college, as was the case for both Michael and David. For Michael, the dif ficulty of meeting with his advisor led him to take too many electives and not enough required classes, and the resulting bottleneck forced him to take a break from his institution. David's experience demonstrates the importance of touching base with students, especially it they have reached out on their own. David was looking for someone to connect with on campus, and thought that it would have been his academic advisor. Unfortunately, David s experi ence of disconnection is not unusual and reflects the feelings of many Native American students toward academic advisors and other institutional agents.
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Though the GMSP is a national scholarship program that afforded AIGMS the opportunity to attend the institution of their choice, AIGMS experienced an overall lack of support structures within institutions of higher educa tion. Participants expected cultural representation and interpersonal support beyond financial and academic assistance. Potentially, AIGMS anticipated more from GMSP than their own institutions because not only did GMSP provide substantial funding for AIGMS' educations, but the scholarship program also expressly touted the idea that AIGMS would belong to the GMSP family. HeavyRunner and DeCelles (2002) emphasize that sustaining a familial environment positively impacts Native students' academic persis tence. AIGMS sought this environment through GMSP and AIGC more than through their respective institutions because they thought GMSP and AIGC understood the importance of relationships and the role of families among Native students. Experiences with certain institutional agents—namely the multicultural director, financial aid officer, and academic advisor—fell short of AIGMS' expectations in regards to receiving guidance and assistance to successfully navigating their institutions. AIGMS' experiences led to feelings of disconnect among institutional agents and within their institutions overall.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO SUPPORT NATIVE AMERICAN FIRSTGENERATION COLLEGE STUDENTS
Below we offer a list of recommended support structures and initiatives to promote success for Native American firstgeneration college students. The list consists of existing, current programming at certain nonNative colleges and universities as well as recommendations based upon the authors' research and professional experiences on Native student success. These recommendations are in addition to the list of current support structures and programs provided in the prior section. If a combination of the programs and structures listed earlier with those listed below could be implemented, the result would create a strong bridge between secondary and postsecondary education for Native American firstgeneration college students.
Native American Student Orientations and Blessing Ceremonies
Existing programming to welcome Native American firstgeneration college students includes hosting a Native American student orientation and/or traditional blessing before or at the beginning of the academic year. For example, the University of Oklahoma's (OU) American Indian Student Association, in collaboration with OU's American Indian Student Services,
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hosts a Native American new student orientation to introduce incomine students to current Native students, clubs and organizations, faculty and staff. Another example comes from the University of Arizona (UA) where a Sunrise Ceremony is held at the beginning of the new academic vear A traditional blessing is offered and the tribal liaison offers a welcome and always acknowledges that the land the institution is located on is the traditional land of the Tohono O'odham Nation. These are just two examples of efforts from large NNCUs; there are many more examples of welcoming events at a wide range of schools, from institutions similar to OU and UA to smaller regional institutions as well as tribal colleges and universities New student orientations and traditional blessings for Native American first generation students are important because they assist in their transition to college and campus life as well as connect them to existing support structures and involvement opportunities at the very beginning of their college careers.
Relationships and Connections to Home
Relationships are significant for Native students, especially maintaining those relationships from home, with family and home communities. Although many institutions may have an understanding of this connection, relatively few have > established specific measures to assist Native students in maintaining their ties to home while also achieving academic success. Guillory and Wolverton (2008) found that maintaining ties to family and communities promoted persistence among Native American students, writing that "The connection for these Indian students to their families, whether nuclear or extended, was so strong that they were willing to overcome many difficult situations, such as an unwelcoming environment, lack of academic preparation, and inadequate financial support" (64). Institutions could emphasize the connection rather than the disconnection between home and college by creating and strengthening opportunities for Native students to return home and give back to their communities through service learning or promoting college knowledge, as well as to foster an inclusive environment for families to feel welcomed on campuses (Minthorn 2014; Minthorn and Shotton 2014).
Culturally Competent Mental Health Services
Mental health issues played into the divergence of AIGMS from institutions of higher education. It was often difficult for them to seek help from the non Native staff and/or faculty on campus, because these issues were connected back to and entangled with their home communities and families. These
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Native students were in need of a trained counselor to help them learn how to cope and take care of their mental health. When they sought counseling services from the campus health centers on their campuses, they often had unpleasant interactions with the available counselors. AIGMS recommended creating a position for a Native counselor within campus health centers—or, at the very least, to require all counselors on campus, particularly nonNative counselors, to have cultural competency training focused specifically on working with Native college students.
Policy Implications
Some of the recommendations emerging from AIGMS's input are related to campus policies that could help foster environments that would be more inclusive of firstgeneration Native American students. They center on ways to honor and acknowledge the culture of Native American students and the values they bring with them.
Family Involvement on Campus
A first step is to look at ways in which existing policies impact family involvement and inclusion. Are there any policies that prevent family from being involved in the admission, orientation, and enrollment processes? The fact that many Native American students are firstgeneration means that some families will have limited understanding of college and university climate and structures. In order to gamer support from family, they need to feel comfortable and included as part of their student's higher education journey. For Native American college students, moreover, the concept offamily does not fit within the conventional nuclear definition and often extends to grandmas, grandpas, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Therefore, it is important to reimagine how higher education institutions define family so that it fits all populations of students. As these observations suggest, a comprehensive review and modification of existing policies on family involvement is in order.
Transfer Policies and Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs)
Another area in which college and university policies should be reviewed are current transfer policies. A significant proportion of the Native American college student population begins their college experience at community colleges and especially tribal colleges and universities prior to attend a four year college or university. Particularly for firstgeneration Native students for whom college as a whole is an unfamiliar experience, the overall process of transferring schools adds another layer of complexity. These could take the
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form of intentional efforts to build partnership and transition programs via MOU's between 4year institutions and local or nearby TCUs and community colleges, simplifying the process and rendering I, more transparent and enabling Native American firstgeneration students to better understand the process of transferring and the university setting.
Enrollment Gap Policies
A final category ot policies that may impact firstgeneration Native American college students is the amount of time allowed for gaps in students' enrollment between terms. It is well established, both in academic studies and in the knowledge base among Native American student affairs professionals, that a significant portion of the Native American college student population ends up "stopping out" so that they can return home to fulfill family responsibilities, take care of family issues or needs, and/or work full time in order to be a financial contributor. Taking this into consideration may encourage administrators and policymakers at the university level to reexamine current policies on allowance of gap years and time for credit hour allowances. Extending the timeline would enable at least some of those students who have stopped out to return back to the institution to finish their degree, whether after a period of one year or five years. \
It is important for university administrators and policymakers to take time to better understand the needs of Native American firstgeneration college students so that their policies reflect the lived realities of this student population. When Native American students see themselves honored in services and policies, they are able to find place on campus, which in turn increases their chances of success and persistence.
CONCLUSION
This chapter examined the experiences of Native American firstgeneration college students in an effort to provide a better understanding ot the realities they face. First, it highlighted literature on the experiences ot Native American students in higher education, and it described current support structures and programs for Native American students beginning in high school, continuing through their transitions from high school to college via bridge programs, and ending with the support mechanisms they find when they arrive at college to begin their higher education journey. Then, a description of the AIGMS study analyzed the reasons why these scholars discontinued or stopped out from their higher education journey, despite having a scholarship that at least in principle should have addressed their financial needs while in college. The study
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highlights the voices of twenty Native American students who experienced isolation, unsupportive staff, and needing to negotiate the unique spaces between family and home life to search for community on campus. Finally, we offered some practical and policy recommendations for staff, administrators, and faculty to consider when exploring ways to support Native American first generation college students. Native American firstgeneration college students are umbilically—meaning spiritually and generationally—connected to their families and home communities, yet they desire to find a pathway to complete their higher education degree. It takes everyone to help create the spaces and climate that welcomes, honors, and enables Native American firstgeneration students to achieve their academic goals.
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