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Lecture Slides

Robert Tignor • Jeremy Adelman • Stephen Aron • Peter Brown • Benjamin Elman • Stephen Kotkin • Xinru Liu • Suzanne Marchand • Holly Pittman • Gyan Prakash • Brent Shaw • Michael Tsin

Lecture Slides

Chapter 3

NOMADS, CHARIOTS, TERRITORIAL STATES, AND MICROSOCIETIES, 2000-1200 BCE

Introduction

Big river-basin states collapsed around 2200 BCE

Radical changes in climate

Most of Afro-Eurasia suffered from food shortages

Transhumant herders raided fixed settlements for resources

Brought the horse-drawn chariot, which transformed warfare

Some assimilation of newcomers

Urban centers faced political crisis

Smaller territorial states and microsocieties formed in other parts of the world

Pacific Islanders

Aegean Basin

Americas

Radical changes in climate. Warming and drying trend affected all of Afro-Eurasia.

Nomadic Movement, Climate Change, and the Emergence of Territorial States

Climate change led to the collapse of royal power and challenges to ruling elites throughout central and western Afro-Eurasia

Walled cities could not defend hinterlands

Trade routes lay open to predators

Equestrian clans of pastoral nomads from the inner Eurasian steppes attacked settled communities

Transhumant herders from the borderlands of Iranian plateau and Arabian desert raided settled communities for food and resources

Nomadic Migrations in Afro-Eurasia, 2000–1000 BCE

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Map 3.1 | Nomadic Migrations in Afro-Eurasia, 2000–1000 BCE

Nomads were on the move during this period, moving into many of the settled regions.

• According to this map, what parts of the world did pastoral peoples migrate from?

• What areas did they move into?

• What regions did they bring into closer connection?

• How did nomadic pastoral migrations affect settled, agriculture-based societies?

Adaptation to Climate Change

Environmental conditions forced humans throughout Afro-Eurasia to adapt

Use of chariots; new forms of warfare

Changes in state-building and governance allowed humans to rebuild communities and flourish in a changed climate

Climate and landscape affected both nomads and transhumants

Many migrated to the highland plateaus that border inner Eurasian steppe lands

Continued to more densely populated river valleys and competed with farming communities for space and resources

Nomadic people spread out across much of Afro-Eurasia

Environmental conditions provided historic catalyst for the rise of new, larger, expansionist territorial states: Pharaonic Egypt, Mesopotamia, Vedic South Asia, and Shang China. Pastoral nomads and transhumant herders adjusted more quickly to dry conditions. Environmental conditions provided historic catalyst for the rise of new, larger, expansionist territorial states.

Climate and landscape affected both nomads and transhumants. Drought affected nomads and transhumant migrants. Groups searched for water and pastures for livestock.

Transhumants continued to more densely populated river valleys and competed with farming communities for space and resources. Amorites moved to southern Mesopotamia from Syrian desert. Indo-European–speaking steppe peoples migrated into Anatolia and eastern Europe.

Nomadic people spread out across much of Afro-Eurasia. Brought horses and technologies such as chariots to wage war, and religious practices and language. New pressure on local resources.

Nomadic and Transhumant Migrations

New peoples settled in agrarian lands of Indus River valley, highlands of Anatolia, Iran, China, and Europe

Nomads linked disparate cities and towns of South Asia and China

Used force to control trade and maintain peace

Literate elites described the nomads as “barbaric” and inhuman

“Barbarian” label applied but is not historically accurate

Nomads and transhumant herders brought inventions and ideas adapted by settled peoples

Horses, Chariots, and Warfare, Part 1

Horse first domesticated in late fourth millennium BCE in steppes of Caucasus Mountains

Headgear developed for controlling horse’s speed and direction as a form of transportation in late third millennium BCE

Around 2000 BCE, a one-axle, two-wheel vehicle was developed

Pastoral people lightened chariots enough to be pulled by horses

Headgear developed for controlling horse’s speed and direction as a form of transportation in late third millennium BCE. Tombs of nomads reveal evolution of horse headgear. Wood, bone, bronze, and iron harnesses.

Pastoral people lightened chariots enough to be pulled by horses. Movable parts made of bronze and later iron. Iron preferred because of hardness and flexibility. Spoke wheels required special wood and carpentry skills. Wheel covers, axles, and bearings were produced by settled people. Movable parts made of bronze and later iron. Iron preferred because of hardness and flexibility.

Horse-drawn chariots combined ideas and skills of both nomadic and agrarian peoples. Horse-drawn chariot shortened time between capitals and changed warfare. Infantry gave way to battalions of faster chariots. Each chariot carried a driver and an archer.

Elites copied nomads’ chariots. Tutankhamen (r. c. 1336–1327 BCE) buried with chariot. Horse-drawn chariots found in tombs of Shang kings in China.

With the advent of cheaper armor after 1000 BCE in China, foot soldiers regained their importance.

Horses, Chariots, and Warfare, Part 2

Horse-drawn chariot shortened time between capitals and changed warfare

Mobility, accuracy, and shooting power of warriors, more powerful than large-state armies

For 600 years, chariot warfare dominated from Greece to China

Development of cavalry units of horse-mounted warriors

Elites copied nomads’ chariots

Elites copied nomads’ chariots. Tutankhamen (r. c. 1336–1327 BCE) buried with chariot. Horse-drawn chariots found in tombs of Shang kings in China.

With the advent of cheaper armor after 1000 BCE in China, foot soldiers regained their importance.

The Emergence of Territorial States

The main political innovation of the time expanded power from cities to distant hinterlands

New territorial states gained authority in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China

New political models replaced competition and coexistence with drive to conquer and expand

Ecological and demographic upheavals contributed to creation of new territorial states

South Pacific and the Aegean Sea and Europe did not experience development at the same rate

High-density states led to constant conquest and larger territorial states

The main political innovation of the time expanded power from cities to distant hinterlands. Great centralized kingdoms organized around charismatic rulers. Established clear pattern of leadership change for stability. People felt allegiance to their territories, rulers, language, and ethnic group. Identifiable borders led to sense of shared identity.

New territorial states gained authority in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Divinity of monarchs, large and widely dispersed bureaucracies with an elaborate and widely administered legal code. Large territorial expanses with definable borders and plans for continuous expansion.

South Pacific and the Aegean Sea and Europe did not experience development at the same rate. Fewer emerging states meant less rivalry and lower population density. High-density states led to constant conquest and larger territorial states. Political map showed specific areas tied to different sovereign authorities.

Second millennium BCE divided into two phases. Five great territorial states of Southwest Asia and North Africa- Egyptians: eastern Mediterranean and Palestine, Hittites; Anatolia, Mitanni; Syria and northern Mesopotamia, Kassites; southern Mesopotamia, and Middle Elamites; southwestern Iranian plateau.

Territorial States and Trade Routes in Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1500–1350 BCE

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Map 3.2 | Territorial States and Trade Routes in Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1500–1350 BCE

Trade in many commodities brought the societies of the Mediterranean Sea and Southwest Asia into increasingly closer contact.

• What were the major trade routes and the major trading states in Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean during this time?

• What were the major trade goods?

• Did trade enhance peaceful interactions among the territorial states?

The Territorial State in Egypt

Egypt

Drought destabilized the Old Kingdom

Harvests withered

Pharaohs lost legitimacy, conflicts among rivals for royal power

Regional power replaced centralized state

Middle Kingdom Egypt (2055–1650 BCE)

Nile floodwaters returned to normal; agriculture flourished again

Rulers in Thebes consolidated power

Tamed rivals and co-opted pretenders

New phase of stability

Religion in Middle Kingdom Egypt

Gods and kings

Twelfth dynasty (1985–1795 BCE) dominated Middle Kingdom

Amenemhet I (1985–195 BCE) elevated the god Amun

Believers embraced Amun because attributes were largely hidden

Cult of Amun helped unify kingdom

Amun eclipsed all other gods of Thebes

Cult of Amun-Re had a strong spiritual impact on pharaoh and society

Divine and royal power are intertwined; enhances authority and legitimacy of ruler

Amenemhet I (1985–195 BCE) elevated the god Amun. Amun means “hidden.”

Amun eclipsed all other gods of Thebes. He became known as Amun-Re, the king of gods.

Royal Splendor in Egypt

Royal splendor and royal care

Built largest and longest-lasting public works

For 2,000 years, slaves and captives built a massive temple complex at Thebes to Amun-Re

Pharaohs reasserted power over lost regions

Cult of the pharaoh as good shepherd

Instituted charities

Offered homage to gods at palace to ensure annual flooding

Performed ritual ceremonies

Cult of Amun-Re became a tool of political power and spiritual meaning

Merchants and Expanding Trade

Rising urban class of merchants and professionals

Not dependent on kings for benefits

Outfitted their own tombs with material goods

Trade networks expanded

Wood, especially cedar from Byblos

Precious metals, ivory, livestock, slaves, exotic animals, and gems

Built forts to protect trade

Colonized Nubia to extend trade routes

Hyksos Invaders and New Foundations

Hyksos destabilized and then assimilated into Egyptian society between 1640 and 1550 BCE

Ahmosis in the south overthrew Hyksos around 1550 BCE, having mastered Hyksos weaponry

Ahmosis established a new dynasty; period known as ”New Kingdom”

Rulers learned to be cautious of borders and use diplomacy to dominate eastern Mediterranean world

Migrants and invaders introduced new ideas and techniques

New weapons transformed Egyptian army from a standing infantry to a high-speed mobile one

Hyksos invaders and new foundations opened Egypt to migration and foreign invasion. Commercial success attracted pastoral nomads seeking work. Hyksos were great warriors who mastered the chariot and had superior weapons including composite bow.

Migrants and invaders introduced new ideas and techniques: bronze work, improved potter’s wheel, vertical loom, new animals and foods, and weapons of war.

New weapons transformed Egyptian army from a standing infantry to a high-speed mobile one. Egyptian armies expanded the kingdom.

New Kingdom Egypt (1550–1069 BCE)

Interests were projected outward

Female ruler Hatshepsut expanded Egypt during her reign

Hatshepsut served as regent for her son Thutmosis III

Expanded trade to Levant, Mediterranean, and Nubia

Thutmosis III (r. 1479–1425 BCE) continued expansion

Battle of Megiddo (1469 BCE), the first recorded chariot battle

Defeated vassals of Mitanni

Egypt’s strength as a territorial state sets the stage for it to engage in commercial, political, and cultural exchange with other powers in the region.

Territorial States in Southwest Asia

New states led by pastoral people emerged

Drought damaged Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau at the end of the third millennium BCE

Harvests were small

The price of basic goods rose

Social order broke down

Towns in southern Mesopotamia invaded by transhumant peoples from the Zagros Mountains and Syrian Desert

New states led by pastoral people emerged: Old Assyria, Mitanni, Middle Assyria, Old Babylonia, Kassite, and Middle Babylonia.

Environmental Changes in Mesopotamia

Changes altered the human landscape; there was damage from

A millennium of intense cultivation

Periods of severe drought

Depletion of nutrients from once-rich soil

Salt water from Persian Gulf, which contaminated water table

Branch of Euphrates River shifted to west, which overtook arable land

Environmental changes pushed the political and economic centers north

Nomadic and Transhumant Migration to Mesopotamian Cities

Urbanites called the transhumant herders from the Arabian Desert Amorites

“Amorites” comes from Amurru, the Akkadian word for “west”

Amorites is the generic name for all transhumant groups from the western desert

City dwellers looked down on these new migrants

Amorites considered foreigners even though they were familiar with the culture

Scarcity of resources because of drought led the Elamites and Amorites to conquer the city of Ur and set up a new order

During winters the herders had lived by the cities and the rivers to water their animals. Traded wool, leather, bones, and tendons with urban artisans for finished goods. Paid taxes, served as warriors and laborers on public-works projects.

Mesopotamia Under Amorite Rule

Amorite rule restored order and culture

Restored order and prosperity enabled new kings to support intellectual and creative activities

The court supported skilled artisans and schools for scribes

Drew on earlier Mesopotamian achievements

Narratives about ancient founders gave legitimacy to new rulers

Great poems written in the Babylonian dialect of the Semitic Akkadian language

Amorite rule drew on earlier Mesopotamian achievements and studied the oral tales and written records of Sumerians and Akkadians. Scribes transcribed the ancient texts and preserved tradition. Royal hymns portrayed the king as a legendary hero.

Great poems written in the Babylonian dialect of the Semitic Akkadian language. First epic narratives of human achievement. Identified the history of a people with the king. Stories circulated widely and unified the kingdom. Most famous was the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Trade and the Rise of a Private Economy

Economy became more private, entrepreneurially based

Mesopotamia was a crossroads for overland caravans traveling east and west

Sea routes were used for trade with people of the Indus Valley

Doing business in Mesopotamia was profitable but risky

To reduce risk, merchant households devised new techniques

Economy became more private, entrepreneurially based. Private entrepreneurs collected taxes in commodities. Commodities were turned into silver and shared between collector and state. Gain in private and state wealth.

Mesopotamia was a crossroads for overland caravans traveling east and west. Peace helped trade flourish. Merchants and entrepreneurs gained a privileged position in society.

Sea routes were used for trade with people of the Indus Valley. Many of the waterways were charted by 2000 BCE. Shipbuilders designed larger ships. Shipbuilding materials came from all over the region. Reliance on imported materials was part of a growth of regional economic specialization.

Doing business in Mesopotamia was profitable but risky. Poor harvests led to reduced taxes and debts. Caravans could be lost to hostile peoples. Taxes, duties, and bribes had to be paid to ensure safe passage.

To reduce risk, merchant households devised new techniques. Formalized commercial rules and established early insurance schemes. Extended kinship networks and formed strong ties to political authorities.

Mesopotamian Kingdoms and Kingship, Part 1

Amorites used tribal and clan traditions to support ruling territorial states

New model of statecraft

Rulers continued to expand territories

Weapons and war techniques necessary to gain dominance but needed a charismatic leader as well

Mesopotamian kingdoms’ power ebbed and flowed depending on the ruler’s strength

New model of statecraft. Chieftains became kings. Mesopotamian kings turned authority to an alliance with merchants for revenue and support. Royal state became hereditary.

Rulers continued to expand territories and creation of vassal states.

Most famous Mesopotamian ruler was Hammurapi (r. 1792–1750 BCE). Modeled his image after the Egyptian pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom—shepherd and patriarch of his people. After his death, his descendants ruled for another 155 years before Babylon fell to the Hittite king Hattusilis I in 1595 BCE.

Hammurabi created Hammurapi’s Code, a compilation of 300 edicts that described crimes and punishments. Offered rules for how the “family” should operate. Code divided inhabitants into three classes: freemen, dependent men, and slaves. Code pacified the region and stratified society.

Mesopotamian Kingdoms and Kingship, Part 2

Most famous Mesopotamian ruler was Hammurapi (r. 1792–1750 BCE)

Sought to centralize state authority and create a new legal order

Made Babylon his capital

Created Hammurapi’s Code

New model of statecraft. Chieftains became kings. Mesopotamian kings turned authority to an alliance with merchants for revenue and support. Royal state became hereditary.

Rulers continued to expand territories and creation of vassal states.

The Golden Age of Kassite Rule

Kassite rule

Origins are obscure; likely came from Zagros Mountains and across Iranian plateau to Babylon c. 2000 BCE

Over time, integrated themselves into Babylonian society as bureaucrats

Filled power vacuum when Hittites destroyed Babylon

By 1475 BCE, Kassites reestablished order and ruled for 350 years; interested in preservation of the past and transmission of its legacies

Focus on trade rather than warfare

Scribes preserved ancient Sumerian texts; translated them into Akkadian

Preserved a Babylonian creation myth called Enuma Elish. Desire to assimilate and embrace Babylonian culture led to preservation of important historical literatures and cultural practices. Kassites served as a crucial link between Egypt, Anatolia, and southwestern Iran. Scribes preserved ancient Sumerian texts; translated them into Akkadian. Preserved a Babylonian creation myth called Enuma Elish. Desire to assimilate and embrace Babylonian culture led to preservation of important historical literature and cultural practices. Kassites served as a crucial link between Egypt, Anatolia, and southwestern Iran.

The Rise of the Hittites

Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) served as an overland crossroads between Black and Mediterranean seas

Home to many large herding societies and clans

Societies were a combination of pastoralism, settled agriculture, and urban commercial centers

Newcomers from the steppe lands north and west of Black Sea began to move in around 2000 BCE

Old and New Hittite Kingdoms

Chariot aristocracies thrived on commercial activity

Great territorial state

Hattusilis I united chariot aristocracies

Hittites eventually controlled much of middle ground between Mesopotamia and the Nile

Hittites lived in fortified settlements and engaged in regional warfare. Borrowed cultural development from Southwest Asian urban cultures.

During the Old and new Hittite kingdoms, Hittites plundered and conquered neighbors and taxed and collected tribute. Hattusilis I united chariot aristocracies and campaigned throughout Anatolia and defeated resistance. Sacked Babylon in 1595 BCE. Fought Egyptians in 1274 BCE at Qadesh (modern Syria); largest and best-documented chariot battle of antiquity. Hittite rulers crucial in maintaining the region’s balance of power and sets the stage for development of tools of diplomacy to resolve conflicts.

The Community of Major Powers (1400–1200 BCE)

Five great territorial states established an interregional system based on balance of power

Learned to settle differences through diplomacy and treaties

Dependent on constant communication

Recognition of relative equality among rulers of major territorial states

International system of diplomacy created

Letter cache found at Tell el‘Amârna reveals how diplomacy was carried out

Treaties, marriages, exchange of specialized personnel, and gifts all played roles

State still dependent on the commoners for tax money and people to serve in its armies.

Climate Change and the Collapse of River-Basin Societies

Climate change a major factor in collapse of three major river-basin societies: Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Indus Valley

Other factors were political, economic, and social

200-year-long drought had political, economic, and social consequences

Varieties of evidence used to arrive at conclusions

Drought hit Indus River valley

Population decline in old Harappan heartland

Vedic people migrated around 1500 BCE to Indus River valley

Brought domesticated animals, especially horses

Deeply religious

Did not immediately establish large territorial states

Varieties of evidence used to arrive at conclusions: climatological, archeological, and literary

Vedic people migrated around 1500 BCE to Indus River valley. Called themselves Aryans, or “respected ones.”

Brought domesticated animals, especially horses. Horse-drawn chariots gave Vedic peoples superior military capabilities.

Deeply religious. Brought elaborate rituals for worshipping gods.

Indo-European Migrations, Second Millennium BCE

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Map 3.3 | Indo-European Migrations, Second Millennium BCE

One of the most important developments of the second millennium was the movement of Indo-European peoples.

• Where did the Indo-European migrations originate?

• Where did Indo-European migrations spread to during this time?

• How did widespread drought push or draw the migrants into more settled agricultural regions, such as the Indus Valley?

Exchanges between Vedic Newcomers and Indigenous Peoples

Vedic peoples and indigenous peoples exchanged language and customs

Vedic peoples migrated from Indus Valley

Each wave of occupation was accompanied by violence

Adapted farming skills and knowledge of seasonal weather

Moved into huts constructed from mud, bamboo, and reeds

Refined production of carnelian stone beads

Devised standard weights for trade

Planted wheat, rye, and rice

Mastered the use of plows with iron blades

Vedic peoples and indigenous peoples exchanged language and customs. Vedic peoples introduced Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the source for all European languages: Greek, Latin, English, French, and German.

Turn to settled agriculture from pastoralism. Combined traits from the steppe lands with established indigenous ways.

The Shang Territorial State and State Formation

Shang territorial state emerged around 1600 BCE

Combined features of Longshan culture with new technologies and religious practices

Foundation myths (“Bamboo Annals”) contained references to climate change

Shang developed foundation myths to unify state

Shang state was not clearly defined geographically as were territorial kingdoms of Southwest Asia

Shang state grew out of the small agricultural and river-basin village cultures of the Longshan people, who had introduced elements of a state, urban life, and a cohesive culture

Shang developed foundation myths to unify state. Stories collected in the “Bamboo Annals.” King “Tang,” first ruler of the Shang dynasty, defeated Xia king. Tang ruled justly and morally, united his people, offered to sacrifice himself to end drought.

Shang state was not clearly defined geographically as were territorial kingdoms of Southwest Asia. No other territorial state encroached on its peripheries. Capital moved as territory expanded. Relative security allowed kings to rule in a highly personal way. Created a formal ruling lineage.

Shang state grew out of the small agricultural and river-basin village cultures of the Longshan people, who had introduced elements of a state, urban life, and a cohesive culture. Elements from Longshan culture contributed to the formation of the Shang state. Metal industry based on copper. Pottery making, standardized architectural forms, and walled towns. Divination using animal bones, “oracle bones.”

Elements of Shang Rule

State formation

Shang dynasty added other elements

A lineage of hereditary rulers whose power was based on ancestors and gods

Written records

Tribute

Elaborate rituals that enabled them to commune with ancestors and foretell the future

Centralized forms of control

Need to expand and protect borders

Used horses and chariots

Horses and chariots came by way of nomadic contacts. Shang improved on harnesses. Chariot-based aristocracy emerged (nonmilitary uses of chariot).

Rise of Other States in East Asia

Several other states developed between 1500 and 1300 BCE in East Asia

Shang traded with the “Fang” states (non-Shang)

Shang state never as centralized as Egypt or Babylon

Shang’s golden-age capital at Yin, dynasty peaked around 1200 BCE

Close to metal resources for making bronze

Erected massive palaces, royal neighborhoods, and bronze foundries

State supported artisan workshops

State collected tribute from surrounding farmlands

Promoted writing by scribes and production by common artisans

Agriculture and Tribute under the Shang

Metalworking, agriculture, and tribute

Small-scale metalworking first happened in northwestern China

Both copper and tin readily available, so only short-distance trade needed

Shang used their access to metals—copper, lead, and tin—to control neighbors

Made weapons, fittings for chariots, and ritual vessels

Used hollow clay molds

Cast parts and assembled huge objects

Shang cast parts and assembled huge objects. Anyang tombs held vessels weighing 1,925 lbs (873 kg), some over 3,500 lbs (1,588 kg).

Society and Ritual Practice under the Shang

Advances in metalworking and agriculture provide resources necessary to create and sustain a complex society

Bronze culture emerged in second millennium BCE

Shang kings stopped rivals from forging bronze weapons

Control of bronze led to stronger military

Royal feats depicted on bronze vessels

Complex social structure emerged

Organizing principle was a patrilineal ideal

Property held in common

Male family elders took precedence

Women married into husband’s family

Death rituals reflected social hierarchy

Bronze culture emerged in second millennium BCE. Mining, efficient casting, and reproducible artistic style. Artists valued; miners treated as tribute laborers.

Royal feats depicted on bronze vessels: battles, weddings, births of heirs, and divine acts.

Organizing principle was a patrilineal ideal. Descent was traced back to common male ancestor. Women married into husband’s family and they won honor for bearing sons.

Death rituals reflected social hierarchy. Humans sacrificed to accompany elites to afterlife. Inclusion of slaves and servants showed that hierarchy expected an afterlife. Economy not slave-based but based on tribute labor of commoners.

Agriculture and Power in the Shang State

Agriculture also important in maintaining power

Rulers controlled their own farms for food for royal family

New technologies led to rise in food production

Wealth and power of rulers depended on tribute from elites and allies

Elites supplied warriors, laborers, horses, and cattle

Allies sent valuable goods and assisted king

Commoners sent tribute to the elite, who held land from king as fiefs

Tortoise shells and shoulder bones of cattle used as tribute and in religious rituals

Records indicate concerns about weather and family well-being

New technologies led to rise in food production. Opened up more land by draining low-lying fields or removing forests. Farm tools such as stone plows, spades, and sickles. Cultivated silkworms and other animals. Tracked growing seasons. Shang developed twelve-month calendar.

Patrimony and Theocracy under Shang Rule

Shang state patrimonial theocracy

Ruler gained authority through ancestors and gods

Needed a way to communicate with ancestors

Shang writing began as a dramatic ritual performance

Shang ruler head of a unified clergy since he embodied political and religious power

No independent priesthood as in Egypt or Mesopotamia

Diviners and scribes subservient to ruler

Ancestor worship sanctified Shang control and legitimized the lineage of rulers

Shang needed a way to communicate with ancestors. Divined through cracks in burned animal bones. Cracks were interpreted and scribes inscribed queries on the bones.

Shang Society and Beliefs

Shang gods were ancestral deities

Shang rulers were deified when they died

Primary Shang deity was Di, the High God (Shangdi), founder of Shang dynasty

Shang ruler who became a god was closer to the world of humans than Egyptian or Mesopotamian gods

Shang ruler united living world with the dead world

The development of writing in China

Shang scholars perfected writing

Oracle bones primary evidence for Chinese early writing

Other forms of writing may not have survived

Accidents of preservation may be why China and Southwest Asia differ in types of ancient texts

Writing and Power in Shang China

The development of writing in China

Oracle bones and bronzes show Shang surpassed other states in ability to leave records

Shang kings used writing to reinforce position at the top of royal hierarchy

Priests used writings to address the “other world” and predict the future

Many rituals and bureaucratic routines depended on writing

Archaic script evolved into a preclassical script, which was a precursor to the formal character-based system used in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

Oracle bones and bronzes show Shang surpassed other states in ability to leave records. Did not extend to the writing of literature.

Priests used writings to address the “other world” and predict the future. Divinations were used most for predicting rainfall.

Microsocieties: The South Pacific (2500 BCE–400 CE)

People migrated from the mainland of East Asia for opportunities and refuge

Languages in Taiwan, the Philippines, and Indonesia had origins in South China

Several waves of migration

By 2000 BCE, migrants had replaced the Negritos, the earlier inhabitants

Seafaring skills

Used double-outrigger canoes, 60 to 100 feet long, with triangular sails, to cross Taiwan Straits

By 400 CE, migrants had reached most of the South Pacific

Sailing skills enabled the Austronesians to monopolize trade

Negritos left Asian continent around 28,000 BCE when the Pacific Islands were still connected.

They used double-outrigger canoes, 60 to 100 feet long, with triangular sails, to cross Taiwan Straits. Vessels were a major advance over dugout canoes. They could travel 120 miles in a day. They used a stabilization device for deep-sea sailing.

Sailing skills enabled the Austronesians to monopolize trade. Specialized craft workers included potters from the Lapita culture who made Lapita pottery. Canoe-building people were interisland traders.

Environment and Culture in the South Pacific

Pottery, stone tools, and domesticated crops and pigs characterized Austronesian settlements

Cultural markers spread throughout Pacific Islands

On some islands, the migrants failed to reach the interior and indigenous Negritos survived

South Pacific Islands’ climate and soil provided good places to raise crops

Austronesians successfully raised crops

Other islands such as Indonesia provided maritime resources

Island-hopping led to new food sources

Shellfish and fish primary food source

Austronesians successfully raised crops: dry crops (yams and sweet potatoes), irrigated crops (yams), and tree crops (breadfruit, bananas, coconuts).

A Common Culture in Polynesia

Environment and culture

Polynesians, “belonging to many islands,” shared a common culture, language, and technology, as well as domesticated plants and animals

Crop surpluses allowed for larger populated communities

Larger communities supported craft specialists and soldiers

Almost every settlement created ceremonial buildings to promote unity

Politically, Polynesian communities ranged from tribes to multi-island alliances

In 200 CE, Austronesians reached the Marquesas Islands in Central Pacific

Migrated from there to Easter Island and Hawaii, later to Madagascar

Brought bananas to East Africa

Austronesians migrated from there to Easter Island and Hawaii, later to Madagascar. On Easter Island, they built 30-ton stone structures.

Even with trade, the archipelagos remained apart from mainland culture. Societies remained fragmented and isolated.

The Aegean World

No central government emerged, probably because of region’s geography, which resembled that of the South Pacific

No large regime subject to collapse during second millennium droughts

Enjoyed gradual development during second millennium BCE

Absorbed influences through trade from Southwest Asia, Africa, and Europe

Seaborne trade and communication

Many influences came by water from Southwest Asia, following the sea currents

Crete active trade hub in the Mediterranean

Around 2000 BCE, many large palace centers emerged at Knossos and elsewhere

Many migrants from the north moved into the area—some peaceable, some violent. One group named the Mycenaeans, after the palace at Mycenae, migrated into the area. Looked to sea for resources and interactions with neighbors.

Trade was the main bearer of eastern influences. Trade centered on exchanges of tin and copper. Cyprus, the largest island in the eastern Mediterranean, became the center of trade. Had large reserves of copper ore shipped to Crete, Mali, and Egypt. English word “copper” derived from “Cyprus.”

Crete active trade hub in the Mediterranean. Around 2000 BCE, many large palace centers emerged at Knossos and elsewhere. People named Minoans, after legendary King Minos. Traded and colonized around Aegean. Minoans’ wealth led to takeover by Mycenaeans in 1400 BCE.

Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean World

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Map 3.6 | Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean World

Greece, Egypt, and Cyprus were trade hubs in the eastern Mediterranean.

• What were the major commodities that were traded in the eastern Mediterranean?

• Why did trade originally move from east to west?

• What role did geography play in the Mycenaeans’ defeat of the Minoans?

Minoan Culture in the Aegean World

Minoan peoples developed small-scale monumental architecture that echoed Southwest Asian examples

Palace complexes built between 1900 and 1600 BCE

Religion differed from those of other mainland cultures

Island worship focused on a female deity, “the Lady”

No large-scale temple complexes

No priestly class

Debate over whether there were full-time scribes

Complex development on some islands

Thera had large private houses with bathrooms

Palaces in Crete were light and airy; open to surrounding landscapes suggesting little concern with defense

Palace complexes built between 1900 and 1600 BCE. Knossos most impressive example.

Complex development on some islands. Thera had large private houses with bathrooms: toilets, running water, and exotic wall paintings.

Mycenaean Culture

Associated with people who migrated from central Europe to Greece between 1850 and 1600 BCE

Brought Indo-European language, horse-drawn chariots, and metalworking skills

Came to dominate the indigenous population

Mycenaean population centers oriented toward war and conflict

Mycenaeans amassed great wealth

Social and political hierarchies in Mycenaean society

Mycenaean expansion spread, uniting the dispersed cultures around the Aegean Sea

Mycenaean culture came to dominate the indigenous population. Used chariots to dominate. Chariot stories described in epic poetry.

Mycenaean population centers oriented toward war and conflict. Less refined material culture than Minoan. Cultural representations emphasized displays of weaponry, portraits of armed soldiers, and illustrations of violent conflict. Tiryns and Mycenae were huge fortresses of warlords.

Mycenaeans amassed great wealth. Leaders were buried with their vast wealth. Social and political hierarchies in Mycenaean society: ruler (wanax), bureaucratic hierarchy. Scribes at center of palace life used Linear A and Linear B script.

At end of the second millennium BCE, large-scale internal and external conflicts ended the heyday of microsocieties. Violent migrations. New social order began to emerge with Greek-speaking people dominating the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Europe: The Northern Frontier

Settled agriculture and domestication of animals developed more gradually

Frontier settlements remained sparsely populated

Used techniques of plant and animal domestication to establish self-sufficient communities, not large-scale, hierarchical societies

Two significant changes in the northern frontier zone

Constant struggle between European agriculturalists and nomadic horse riders created a strong warrior ethos

Europe remained a place of war-making and small chieftaincies

Frontier settlements remained sparsely populated. Unstable and too weak to instigate or sustain long-distance trade.

Two significant changes in the northern frontier zone: domestication of the horse and emergence of wheeled chariots and wagons. Both became instruments of war.

Constant struggle between European agriculturalists and nomadic horse riders created a strong warrior ethos. Male smoking and drinking rituals developed. Best example is that of the Scythian people.

Early States in the Americas

Lack of domesticated animals limited trade to luxuries and symbolic trade goods

Hunting and gathering remained a main life-way

Some evidence from Central Andes of early state systems that were confederations of towns

Diverse ecology led to different types of trading goods in different regions

What is known about trade comes from items found in burials

Aspero site reveals local community evolution to chiefship with more complex society

Cerro Sechín reveals large plaza for defense

Some evidence from Central Andes of early state systems that were confederations of towns. Not as well integrated as the territorial states of Southwest Asia, Indus Valley, and China.

Diverse ecology led to different types of trading goods in different regions. Dried fish along coast. Crops such as manioc and chili peppers raised along rivers of Andes Mountains. Wool from llamas and alpacas found in mountains.

What is known about trade comes from items found in burials. Painted gourds, pottery, textiles show contact among societies. Marriage could strengthen a pact or confederation.

Cerro Sechín reveals large plaza for defense. Massive stone tablets show warriors, battles, prisoners, and executions.

Conclusion

Long-distance trade by sea and land linked societies

Trade and a need for more centralized government led to the establishment of territorial states

Shang dynasty emerged in East Asia without challenges from rivals

In the Pacific, Aegean, Northern Europe, and Americas, smaller microstates still involved with trade—some long distance, some local

Technology, language, goods, and migrants spread throughout this time

Rhythms of state formation contingent on multiple factors such as climate, geography, technology

Isolation and fragmentation had varying effects

Second millennium BCE was unprecedented time of migration, warfare, and the building of territorial kingdoms. Droughts triggered large-scale migrations across Afro-Eurasia. Transhumant herders looked to river-basin societies for water and resources. Changed the social and political fabric of those communities. Horse-riding nomads conquered and settled in the agrarian states, bringing many technological innovations. Nomads and transhumant herders exchanged beliefs and customs with those they conquered.

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