finish the homework

Stepping In

Course Pack for WRTG 101

By Melinda Dewsbury, Additions by Jocelyn Maleniza

Trinity Western University

Spring Fall 2021

FOUNDATIONS OF ACADEMIC WRITING

How does an academic discipline affect writing choices?

Academic Writing Conventions

Your professor expects to read formal, scholarly, professional writing. To make your writing formal, follow the “Do” and “Don’t” Lists below.

DO

· Pay attention to format. You may have to change your settings to fit Canadian style.

· 8 ½ by 11 paper

· Double spaced

· 12 pt. Times New Roman or Calibri font

· One inch (2.54 cm) margins

· Title page (usually)

· Page numbering (according to documentation style)

· Indent paragraphs (and do not add extra lines)

· Use a meaningful title. Don’t just call your essay “Paper #1” or “WRTG 101 Essay.” Your title should be interesting and show the topic or your essay.

· Use formal grammar: complete sentences, no slang, no contractions (such as “can’t” or “isn’t”).

· Use spell-check to make sure you don’t have careless errors

· Avoid using “you” in academic writing because it is chatty and informal.

· Use “I” only for personal response essays and essays about yourself. Do not use “I” in research papers and formal reports.

· Use simple present tense (usually)

· Spend a lot of time to edit your spelling, sentence structure, grammar, and documentation. Keep your sentence structure straightforward so that your grammar is clear. Fancy grammar is not necessary.

· Show that you are a good scholar by using a lot of research and a lot of citations.

· Use the style your professor asks for. See the syllabus or ask your professor.

· Pay attention to details, such as capital letters and punctuation.

· Give citations for ideas, theories, stories, examples, facts, special terms, and sentences that you read and borrow. This shows your professor that you have read a lot and gives respect to the scholars you read. A citation is like a small note of where you got the information.

· Use quotation marks to identify copied words, phrases, sentences. Quotation marks are code for “not my words.” Using quotation marks is very scholarly.

· Include a page of references in correct style, and in alphabetical order. This page appears at the end of your essay.

DON’T

· Don’t forget to read your syllabus for the professor’s instructions. Follow the assignment instructions carefully and ask the professor if you are unsure.

· Don’t misspell your professor’s name. Check the syllabus for the spelling.

· Don’t borrow ideas, theories, stories, examples, facts, structures, terminology, or sentences without giving a citation.

· Don’t copy and paste from websites.

· Don’t copy words, phrases, or sentences without using “quotation marks.”

· Don’t forget a page of references or ignore the details for how to document them.

· Don’t include references of sources you did not cite in the essay.

· Don’t hand in a paper that you have not edited carefully. The professor expects it to be perfect.

· Don’t use different fonts.

APA Citations

*You need to give citations for ALL types of information and research. This includes:

· Direct quotations (words, phrases, sentences)

· Paraphrases (even if they are all your own words)

· Summaries

· Theories and concepts

· Facts

· Background information

· Statistics and data

· Stories

· Current events/news

· Movies, films, novels

· Lectures and PowerPoints from your profs

Basic Rules

1. Place the citation at the end of the sentence or phrase to show where you found that information.

2. Use parentheses, like this (Author, year).

3. Include the AUTHOR (last name), the year, and the page number (if there is one).

4. Many websites and digital documents do not have page numbers. Some professors want you to provide the paragraph number instead.

5. Some articles and websites do not include author names. In this case, you have two choices:

a. Use the article title or webpage title.

b. Use the corporation, if it is a corporate author (such as a government website or a business). Do not use the URL (web address) in your citation.

6. Sometimes no date is available. Use the initials n.d. (which means “no date”).

In your paragraphs, you have two options:

1. Use the name of the author in your sentence.

According to Smith (2011), “_______________________.”

2. Do not use the name of the author in your sentence.

In addition, the fact is that “_______________________” (Smith, 2011).

Five Common Sources

Type of Source	Citation	Reference
Book	(Author, year, p. #)	Author, First, Initial. (Year). Title of the book: Subtitle of the book. City: Publishing Company.
Academic Article	(Author, year, p. #)	Author, First, Initial. (Year). Title of the article: Subtitle of the article. Title of the Journal, Volume(Issue), pages. Doi: number OR URL. Note: Many academic sources have a Doi number. If not, use the link.
Online Article (news, magazine, web journal)	(Author, year)	Author, First, Initial. (Year, Month Day). Title of the article: Subtitle of the article. Title of the Newspaper or Online Publication. URL
Website	(Author, year) OR (Author, n.d.) if there is no date OR If there is no author: (Title of webpage/article, year) OR (Name of Organization, year)	Author, First, Initial. (Year, Month Day). Title of the webpage or online article [Format if applicable]. URL Title of Webpage/Article. (Year, Month Day). Retrieved from URL Name of Organization. (n.d.). Title of page. URL
Dictionary or Encyclopedia with author	(Word you searched, year)	Author, Initial. Year. (Entry). Title. In Name of Encyclopedia or dictionary. The full date when you copied the URL, from URL

Why do I need to paraphrase and how do I do it?

Para = beside + Phrase = explanation

When you read or hear something that you want to share with someone else, you usually paraphrase it. In other words, you explain it to them in your own way. This is also true in academic studies. You might want to explain an idea that you read in your textbook. Rather than repeat the exact words, you explain it in a way that makes sense to you or to your reader.

Why?

Most of your readings will include a lot of explanation and detail. You don’t need all of this for your essay. Therefore, you choose to explain the main idea or the ideas that you want to use in your own way.

Paraphrase also lets you use your own voice and style.

Direct quotations are very important, too. However, you should save direct quotations for using words that are really powerful and clear. The rest of the time, use paraphrase and summary. (Summary is similar to paraphrase. The difference is that you take an idea that is long and complex and re-tell it in a much shorter way).

How?

Many people try to paraphrase by finding replacement words. It becomes like a word-by-word translation. This is not effective, as it is very slow and often loses the bigger meaning.

Instead, read the idea. Read it several times. Then do not look at the words but try to explain the idea yourself. If you forget some parts, you can go back to the reading and remind yourself.

Here is a paragraph from “I have a dream” (King, 1963):

We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. They have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. We cannot walk alone.

I can paraphrase like this:

King (1963) calls his people to maintain their “dignity and discipline” through avoiding violence and through respecting the white people who have allied with them. He urges the black people in his audience to accept the support of the white people in their joint pursuit of freedom.

You will notice that some words are in quotation marks. This shows that these words are in the original and I have kept them because they are important and powerful. It is important to use quotation marks for any special words or phrases from the original.

You will notice that I have included the citation for this. The citation gives credit to the author and shows that my level of scholarship. If you miss the citation, it is PLAGIARISM

Evidence

Whenever we say something, we need to have a REASON (explanation) and we need to have PROOF. Without these two things, whatever we say is biased and weak.

When you write a sentence, ask yourself how you know that. Then provide your evidence.

Good academic argument draws on many different sources and kinds of evidence. If you try to prove everything from just one or two sources, your argument is weak.

Therefore, in every paragraph, consider these steps:

1. Make an assertion – state your opinion, response, or analysis. Use KEY WORDS to connect to your thesis.

2. Give a REASON for this idea – this is your explanation

3. Give PROOF or EVIDENCE for this idea. How do you know this? Remember your citation!

4. Explain what your evidence shows you. How does it prove your point? You must make this explicit to your reader.

KINDS OF EVIDENCE

· Primary source (literature, sacred texts, letters, diaries, photos, artifacts)

· Observation

· Interviews and surveys

· Historical events or documents

· Current events or documents

· Statistics/data/numbers

· Research results from a study

· Eyewitness testimony (exact words of someone who was there)

· Expert discussion (high authority)

· Agreement from others (use of several people who say the same thing)

· Forensic or scientific evidence

· Personal stories and experiences (called “lived experience”) from newspapers, magazines, blogs, social media, books

CHOOSING EVIDENCE

· The evidence must fit the essay. Some kinds of essays require specific kinds of evidence.

· The evidence must fit the discipline and topic.

· The evidence must be authoritative and credible.

· The evidence must suit the scholarly environment.

· The evidence should be balanced – various kinds of evidence organized from general to specific

The Deductive Pattern

A=B GENERAL – theory, background, definition, foundation

B=C SPECIFIC – add new, more specific idea, usually your specific topic

Key Words

Think about the A, B, and C as your most important words or ideas. These words (or synonyms, different forms, or antonyms) should appear throughout your paragraph and essay. They are the “glue” that holds it all together.

As you write, sentence to sentence, and paragraph to paragraph, you should keep an old key word and add a new key word. This is called the “Given-New Rule.”

The Ladder of Abstraction

General/Abstract

Specific/Concrete

Example

Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous speech, “I have a dream.”

A=B provides the background and does not mention his specific topic.

Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.

B=C builds on the historical background and adds his main topic: freedom today. Note how the “old” key word begins the next. He then goes on to explain the details: poverty and bad living conditions.

But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free . One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.

King then goes on to use an analogy.

A=B connects the analogy to the historical context.

In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check . When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

B=C states that the current situation fails. It applies the analogy to the problem. Notice the repetition of the key word (B) and then the new word (C): justice.

It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So we have come to cash this check — a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice . We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quick sands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.

King, M.L,K. (1963). I have a dream. Government Archives. Retrieved from https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf

Note: This speech is in public domain.

Integrating Evidence:

A Paragraph Pattern

Begin with your assertion, which should include your thesis key words and your paragraph key word. Explain this assertion in further detail in another one to two sentences. Introduce general evidence, “Give your quote or paraphrase or evidence” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion of the evidence and connect to your key words. Introduce more specific evidence, “Give your quote or statistics or factual details” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion and connect to your key words. Introduce your very specific evidence, “Give your quote or specific details of the case or story” (Citation, Year). Transition. Give your discussion and connect to your key words. At the end, you may or may not want to add a concluding statement in your own words.

Introducing Evidence

You have three options. You can also combine all three.

1. Use the author’s name/title and a reporting verb. Choose a verb that suits the author’s meaning. Here are some ideas:

[As] ____________

(name)

____________ + the idea that

(name)

2. Use a transition word or phrase. Choose a transition that shows how you are moving from one idea to the next. Here are some common transitions: furthermore, therefore, however, on the one hand/on the other hand, due to, in addition… After your transition word, provide your evidence and then the citation (Author, year).

3. Mix the quotation into your own sentence. Here is an example:

It is still true that many minorities in the United States live in a “lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity” (King, 1963).

Discussing Evidence

After you provide your EVIDENCE, you need to explain what it means to you and how it fits your argument.

1. Use a transition. This is a SIGNAL that you are making a new move. Here are some common transitions:

· This [research/data/theory] means/ shows/ reveals/ highlights /indicates/ suggests/implies that…

· In other words,

· It is clear that

· Clearly, then,

· For this reason,

· To this end,

· With this in mind,

· An important aspect of this is…

· Indeed,

· Certainly,

· In fact,

NOTE: Do not talk about your own writing directly. Do not say “This quotation shows” or “As I explained on page one.”

2. Then draw out the key words:

· from the quotation

· your own key words

3. Explain how they fit together. This helps you to focus on the meaning and purpose of the evidence.

Sample Paragraph:

Look for the deductive pattern and the layers of evidence. Look for the introductions, transitions, and discussions.

Canadian history, particularly the World War history, is shadowed by acts of racism. Although Canada is now known as a peaceful nation, welcoming all people, following the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the government made decisions that created a kind of social hysteria or mob mentality among the Canadian population. Mob mentality occurs when a community or group of people “conform in such a way that leads to dysfunctional or irrational behavior” (Lee, 2018). In the context of a war in which Japan was the enemy, the Canadian government fueled hatred and violence against the Japanese Canadians even though this was irrational (Marsh, 2016). In other words, the government led white Canadians to intense racist actions. Ian MacKenzie, representing the federal government in British Columbia, declared, “Let our slogan be for British Columbia: ‘No Japs from the Rockies to the seas’” (“Japanese internment,” 2001). With such strong messages from leadership, it is no wonder that the people responded with increasing anger and racism. As an example, one young Japanese Canadian woman, Muriel Kitagawa, recorded her fears in a letter to her brother. She described “overt acts of unthinking hoodlumism like throwing flaming torches into rooming houses and bricks through plate glass” (“Japanese internment,” 2001). These acts of “hoodlumism” reveal that during a time of world conflict, Canadians were far from peaceful. The internment of all Japanese Canadians became an infamous act of racism, and the memory of these actions reminds Canadians that we, like all countries, have made mistakes that have been dark times in our history.

PERSONAL RESPONSE

What do primary sources show us?

Nova Scotia Archives. (2019). Gone but never forgotten: Bob Brooks’ photographic portrait of Africville in the 1960s. Retrieved from https://novascotia.ca/archives/africville/default.asp

What is a primary source?

Primary = “first”

Primary source = first or original source of information

Image that your friends went to a party, but you missed it. You want to find out what the party was like. Who would you ask? You would not get very reliable information from a friend who heard about it from another friend. You would want to find out from someone who was actually at the party.

Primary sources give you information from people who experienced what happened or who lived during that time. For example, if you want to know about World War II, you could read reports, letters, or diaries written by soldiers and officers or by civilians who lived through the war. You could look at photos taken during the war. You could examine artifacts in a museum.

If another person is telling you about the primary document, that is a secondary source. If a professor or scholar is analyzing or theorizing or interpreting information, that is a secondary source. This means that other people’s opinions, perspectives, and biases are involved.

Photographs, speeches, and propaganda posters are all examples of primary sources.

Note: These images are all in the public domain and available from the Library of Congress .

Responding to a Primary Source

Step One:

Study the prompt (article, archive, photos, video, etc. as assigned by your professor). Take notes as you go along. If something you see or read gives you an idea, or an emotional reaction, or a comparison to something in your experience, write it down.

Step Two:

To push yourself to go deeper in your response, ask the WH questions:

WHO is involved?

· Do they have any biases? Do YOU have any biases about them?

· What do you respect about the people involved?

· Are they heroes? Villains? Ordinary people?

· Do you have any experience with people like this?

WHAT happened and WHY?

· What were the causes? How do you feel about the causes? Do you think the problems could have been prevented? Do you think they were inevitable?

· Have you had any similar experiences?

· Has your culture had any similar experiences?

· Does your first language have any unique words or proverbs to describe this kind of situation?

· How would theories you have been learning explain what happened?

· Are there other philosophies, perspectives, or reasons for the problem or situation?

WHEN and WHERE did it happen?

· Have we learned from history?

· What cultural factors could help us understand the situation?

· What historical or situational factors could help us understand the situation?

HOW did the situation end?

· Is there a solution?

· Do you think there will be further problems?

· Is the ending positive, negative, or neutral?

Step Three:

What are your top 3-5 responses? In other words, choose the most significant ideas, scenes, characters, or features. How many you choose depends on the length of your assignment. Your responses might be in any or all of these categories:

· Emotional (such as a sense of anger or sorrow or hope)

· Intellectual (such as a new perspective, a connection to a theory, a concept, an interesting observation)

· Comparative (such as relating to another situation, another country, culture, or language)

· Personal (such as relating to something that happened to you or your family)

Step Four:

How are your responses connected with one another? Think of a key word that brings together your overall response. (For example, in response to the Abraham Lincoln photograph above, perhaps your overall response is respect. This gives you a key word to begin your essay). Then you are ready to write your thesis sentence.

Writing the Personal Response

Thesis:

The thesis statement should include:

1. the name of the prompt (author, article, movie, etc)

2. your key word (focus for your response)

3. your main response

You can add a list of your paragraph topics if you like. This can be in a separate sentence. It is optional.

A thesis pattern:

Key word [noun] + shown/seen/portrayed/highlighted/revealed in “name of primary source” + reaction + roadmap.

To indicate your reaction, you can use phrases such as:

· Reminds me of ____ [noun]

· Reinforces my understanding of ____ [noun]

· Draws my attention to ____ [noun]

· Makes me wonder/think/consider about ____ [noun]

· Makes me question how/why + full sentence

· Contributes to my thoughts about ____ [noun]

· Awakens my sense of ____ [noun]

· Inspires me to ____ [verb – an action]

Here are two examples:

Primary source: Gone but Never Forgotten: Bob Brooks' Photographic Portrait of Africville in the 1960s

The environmental racism revealed in the archived images of “Gone but never forgotten: Bob Brooks’ photographic portrait of Africville in the 1960s” inspires me to be more attentive to similar injustices in current Canada through the following: paragraph key word 1, paragraph key word 2, and paragraph key word 3.

The simple lifestyle portrayed in the archived images of “Gone but never forgotten: Bob Brooks’ photographic portrait of Africville in the 1960s” reminds me that humanizing historical events creates dignity through the following aspects: paragraphe key word 1, paragraph key word 2, and paragraph key word 3.

Structure:

Introduction:

Keep this paragraph very short (approximately 3-4 sentences). Do not provide any details or background information. Focus on preparing the reader for your thesis.

Sample introduction:

Studying primary sources provides a widening view of any story. We can gain a window into the lived experience of a time now gone, such as the story of the residents of Canada’s Africville in the 1960s. This story has been captured in photographs by photojournalist Bob Brooks. The simple lifestyle portrayed in the archived images of “Gone but never forgotten: Bob Brooks’ photographic portrait of Africville in the 1960s” reminds me that humanizing historical events creates dignity.

Summary/Background Paragraph:

Provide your reader with the background information about your prompt. You may need to look around to find the information. In some cases, you might do a little background research to find out about the historical context. Be sure to include your citations. Your final sentence of this paragraph should transition into your discussion. To do this, use your key words.

Sample summary paragraph:

Bob Brooks was an American who moved to Nova Scotia, Canada, and became a photographer in the 1950s. He contributed to many national and international newspapers and magazines (Nova Scotia Archives, 2019). The collection of his Africville photos was taken in the final years of Africville’s existence, from 1962-65, when Brooks recorded daily life in the community as well as the arrival of city officials, the boarding up of homes, and the beginning of destruction. As the Nova Scotia Archives (2019) explain, Africville was an area of Halifax that was settled by black refugees and displaced persons who built a community that was mainly segregated from the main city. Over time, the city located all of the undesirable facilities, such as the rail, factories, and sewage pits in Africville. The city of Halifax did not provide any facilities to the community. As time passed, the city wanted the land, so they removed all of the homes and forced the people out. The story that Brooks tells through his photographs captures the dignity and beauty of the people who once lived there.

The Personal Response Body Paragraph

1. Write your assertion which includes your thesis key words and your paragraph key word. This sentence should not be a fact.

2. Explain a few details from the PROMPT. If you are responding to an article, it is a good idea to give a quotation from the article. If you are responding to photos, describe the details you see in the photo. Your reader needs to understand these details in order to understand your ideas.

3. Then use a transition to show that you are going to respond. Here are some examples:

· I think

· In my opinion

· In my culture

· In my experience

· I agree

· I disagree

· I cannot accept

· This ( ) makes me ________

· Use the verb “seems” or “appears’

You could also signal that you are giving your opinion by using strong, evaluative words:

· This is an intriguing idea.

· This story alarms me.

· The statistics are surprising.

· This photo is powerful.

4. Give your response. Be specific. Make sure you are still focused on the prompt, but that you explain your own thoughts, feelings, or experiences.

5. Write a concluding sentence. (optional)

Sample Paragraph:

All of the images of clean laundry drying outside reinforce the value of the simple everyday life of the residents of Africville. One of the photos is called “Africville backyard scene, featuring a boy with his bicycle and a full clothesline of laundry behind him” (Brooks, 1965). This image depicts a black boy on his bicycle in his yard, just like any other boy his age. There is a lot of laundry that has been hung on the clothesline with precision, as seen in the evenly spaced pegs. It seems that although the house appears to be in poor condition, the family lives an ordinary life there. They play, they come and go, and they take care of their daily needs. This makes me respect the Africville people. In another image called “Two Africville houses” (Brooks, 1965) there is a clothesline of white sheets and white aprons, and a dog rests in the shade of the house. Even though the homes appear run-down, the people make the best of their lives and seem to have a peaceful place to live. When I continue to view the photographs in the collection, I see how the city developers began to come to houses like this one with plans to demolish it and make the family leave. I am saddened that the officials did not seem to value the families who had made this a home and a community. The collection of archived photos reveal to me the dignity of these residents who lived simple family lives and reinforce the injustice done to them.

Concluding paragraph

The conclusion should be brief, approximately 3 sentences. It is a simple summary of your essay. Do not make any recommendations or talk about the future. Focus on how the prompt helped you gain new understanding. You do not need any research or quotations.

Sample concluding paragraph:

Examining Brooks’ collection of photos of Africville has led me to understand the story more and to honour the people who fled from slavery but continued to live in a racist society. The photos humanize their situation. Even though they did not have clean water and lived in poor conditions, they enjoyed vibrant daily lives, such as visiting with friends, chatting in the kitchen, riding their bikes, and hanging their laundry to dry. I can see that they had true community, and I am grieved that the city at that time could not see the dignity of their lives.

Additional Considerations

Tone: Personal but Academic:

This assignment is about your own thoughts and reactions. You can also explain your experiences and comparisons to other things you have read or seen. This paper is not objective. You need to show your responses clearly, but you should also maintain an academic tone.

· You can and should use personal pronouns like “I” and “my.”

· However, avoid using “you.”

· Also, avoid using slang, idioms, contractions, and “chatty” language.

Use of Evidence:

· All of the evidence for your personal response comes from the prompt. Do NOT use additional research. This is not a research paper.

· Use a lot of direct quotation (or description of details) from the primary source. Be sure to use “quotation marks” for copied words, phrases and sentences.

· Use citations when you refer to the information from the prompt.

· If you need to find the background information about the prompt, be sure to include your citation. In the example we have been using, you will see citations to the photographs (Brooks, 1965) and citations to the archive that hold the collection (Nova Scotia Archives, 2019).

· Include the full bibliographic information in your References page. Ask your professor for help on how to write the references if you are not sure.

CASE STUDY/

INTEGRATION PAPER

How does a specific social theory interpret a case?

Kagle, K. (2018, August 22). Rethinking millennials and generations beyond. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/2018/08/22/rethinking-millennials-and-generations-beyond/#5f5a7fa71893

Ryback, R. (2016, February 22). From Baby Boomers to Generation Z: The generational gaps and their roles in society. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-truisms-wellness/201602/baby-boomers-generation-z

What is social theory and what is “case?”

Theory = a way to interpret or explain something in the real world

Theories are usually considered secondary sources. Similar words include framework, paradigm, construct.

Social theory = a way of understanding or interpreting a social problem, situation, or trend

For this module, we will examine “Strauss-Howe Generational Theory:”

“In 1991, authors and sociologists William Strauss and Niel Howe published Generations (updated in 1997 with The Fourth Turning) where they argued the idea of Generational Theory - the notion that there were distinct cohorts throughout history that shared characteristics and values. These cohorts, going through different phases of their life, determined turnings that identified pivotal periods in history, with cohorts having a cycle of 18-20 years, and turnings taking place over an 80 year cycle” (Cagle, 2018).

We will use the categories as described by Ryback (2016). Click here for the article.

Case = a situation or story (real or fiction) that shows one specific event or one person’s experience

Your professor will provide the case or cases to examine.

Preparing your assignment

Fact from the Case	Theory that Explains it	Quote or Details from the Case	Quote from the Theory

Writing the Integration/Case Study Paper

Thesis

The thesis of this kind of paper is usually a kind of announcement or statement. You do not need to figure out what you are going to argue as that is not the focus of this essay. You just need to state the name of the theory, the name/title of the case, and that you are going to analyze/interpret the meaning. Here are a few common ways of writing this sentence:

[Name of theory] is an effective framework for analyzing [name of case].

a useful concept for understanding

a valuable tool for explaining

By applying [theory], I will explain the causes/problems/conflicts in [case].

this paper will discuss

The issues in [case] become clear through applying [theory].

Introduction

The introductory paragraph is usually brief (3-4 sentences). Simply introduce the theory or concepts in a general way. Include the theory and/or theorist’s name and write a one-sentence summary of it. You might include when it was developed if this is relevant, and you might list the parts or categories. Be sure to include citations for any background information you use. End your introduction with your thesis statement.

Sample introduction

Maslow’s hierarchy of need, originated by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943, attempts to explain the complexity of the human condition by identifying different types of needs and placing those needs in levels (Citation). He explains that if one level is not met, the higher levels cannot be met. The lower needs include physiological and safety, followed by belongingness and esteem, and then by the need to know and understand, and the need for aesthetics. The highest levels are self-actualization and transcendence. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs framework effectively explains the state of trauma of refugees around the world in [name of case/movie] through the following …

Summary/Background Paragraph

Write one fairly short paragraph to summarize the case or situation. The purpose of the summary is to provide the reader with background. You don’t need to include details, and you don’t need information that is not relevant to your analysis. If you are analyzing a movie, you do not need to give the names of the director and producer and actors, and you don’t need to tell the entire plot. Simply introduce the situation and the context (where and when the story happens) and highlight the names of the main people involved. You do not need quotations or evidence in this paragraph because you are not proving anything.

Organization

Organize either by case (each paragraph focuses on one scene/person/situation from the case) or by theory (each paragraph focuses on one category/concept from the theory). Be consistent.

If you want to organize by case, one option is to use time order from the story (choose to analyze the conflict at the beginning, middle, and end of the story).

Body Paragraphs

Start with an assertion that provides the key word for the paragraph. If you are organizing by case, this sentence should highlight a key word/name/situation from the case. If you are organizing by theory, this sentence should provide the specific term that you will apply. Explain in one or two more sentences, using “a specific quotation if possible in order to give you more specific terms.” TRANSITION to piece 2, and provide some specific details or “quotations to keep your analysis concrete.” This section should be a similar length to the first section of the paragraph. However, it depends on the complexity of the information. Next, integrate the two pieces by focusing on the meaning of the case. Explain how the specific theoretical terms help you explain the problem or issue in the case. Give details and draw out the key words from both theory and case. Add a concluding sentence if you feel that you need one.

Common transitions:

· This concept sheds light on…

· The theory of ___ highlights why …

· This notion explains why…

· This theory justifies…

· X explains this situation with his idea of…

· According to X, the reason is…

· In the case of X,

· In my own life,

· In the movie/story “____”,

· In ____’s case,

Conclusion

The concluding paragraph is brief (3-4 sentences). Just restate your thesis (in a new, fresh way) and any conclusions you have drawn. Do not make any recommendations or add any new pieces.

Other Considerations:

Other names for this assignment:

There is not one common name for this kind of assignment. On your syllabi for your other courses, look for assignments such as:

· Application Paper

· Personal Analysis Paper

· Movie Analysis

Instructions will often say something like:

· “Analyze _____ by referring to concepts from our course.”

· “Using X theory, explain the problem of ____.”

· “Take a look at your personal goals by reflecting on X theory.”

· “Examine your own life using concepts from our course.”

Kinds of evidence for this paper:

Sometimes you might write a research paper that is also an integration paper. In other words, you might have to research various sources on the theory, and you might have to examine many sources about your case.

However, in most assignments, the evidence you use will be:

· Quotes and details from the theory and/or your course textbook or lectures

· Quotes and details from the case

Tone:

This is usually a formal academic paper, so your tone should be formal. This includes:

· No use of I/me/my

· No use of you/your

· No contractions, slang, idioms, or chatty style

· Use of quotation marks and citations

· Use of all normal academic conventions (see Module 1)

If the assignment asks you to examine your own life, then of course you will use I/me/my. Otherwise, your essay should follow all the other formal requirements.

THE DEFINITION ESSAY

How can different perspectives and premises lead to different definitions?

What does definition mean and how can I write a 1000-word definition?

Definition = Oxford dictionary states: “An exact statement or description of the nature, scope, or meaning of something”

Nature of something = what it is like and what it is not like

Scope of something = how big it is or how far it goes

Meaning of something = the category it fits in and what makes it significant

How can I write a 1000-word definition essay?

The dictionary definition is usually just the basic category. We look up a word in the dictionary to get a simple idea of the category it fits into.

For example, if I look up “faith” in the Cambridge dictionary, it says:

· “great trust or confidence in something or someone”

· “a particular religion”

· “strong belief in God or a particular religion”

This just gives me the very basic idea. It does not answer the nature, scope, and significance of the concept of faith. An essay can help me to explore the concept and truly come to understand it.

Perspective

We can come to understand a concept from different perspectives. Let’s look at the word “faith.”

What does having faith refer to if I’m talking about business? What if I am talking about my sense of myself? What if I am talking about my society and culture? What if I am talking about religion?

When you are defining a concept, first ask yourself about the origin or source of the concept. In other words, where does it come from or what causes it? For example, where does faith come from? Is it from the physical environment around me? Is it a gift of God? Is it something my mind creates? Some kind of emotion? Or is my ability to have faith somehow biological? Or maybe it is a combination of all four quadrants.

Writing the Definition Essay

Introduction:

Usually, the introduction is short (3-4 sentences). Start with a simple hook – a quote (famous quote, biblical quote, popular quote), a symbol, an image, what often comes to mind in association with the word you are going to define. You might include a statement on the importance of understanding the term. For example, “Understanding the Christian perspective on love provides a foundation for understanding the Christian culture as a whole.” Sometimes the introduction provides a few sentences on some of the different perspectives or definitions of the concept. Remember to use quotation marks for any copied phrases and citations for these quotes and any other content that you get from a source. However, the introduction should not be research-based.

Thesis statement (formal definition)

Term + its class/category + differentiation (what makes it unique in that category)

Note: For the class/category, consider your perspective and see the graph on the previous page.

Grammar you need for this:

Noun + be + article + noun + adjective clause (that, which, who, when, where)

Here are some examples:

Faith is a mindset that leads to well-being and a more peaceful life which is demonstrated through the following methods: contrast, cause/effect, and example.

Faith is a spiritual practice that requires the experience of suffering which is demonstrated through the following methods: origin of word, connotation, and example.

Faith is an executive function that requires healthy brain development which is demonstrated through the following methods: origin of word, appearance, and example.

Sample Introduction and Thesis Statement:

In 1985, George Michael sang, “I gotta have faith, faith, faith.” In this song, he seems to connect faith to a broken love relationship. The word faith can be used in many different contexts, including the idea of having faith in ourselves and in other people, as George Michael seems to say. It can be used as a synonym for trust, and it can be used either lightly or in a deeply spiritual way. In other words, modern culture has cause this word to lose its essence. In fact, faith is a spiritual practice that requires the experiences of suffering and difficulty to sustain it.

Expand the Definition

Choose one or more ways to continue the definition. One clear organizational choice is to write with one method per paragraph.

· Contrast (what it is NOT or how it is different from other things)

· Comparison (how it is similar to other things; synonyms)

· Characteristics or qualities

· Historical origin

· Analogy

· Appearance (what is looks like)

· Process (HOW it works)

· Causes and/or effects

· Connotation (associations and emotions)

· Functions (what it does; why it is important)

· Examples

Another good option is to use the WH Questions (Who, What, When, Where, Why, How). With this option, you can write a paragraph about “what” it is, another about “how” it functions, and another about “when and where.”

For my essay on “faith,” I could decide to define it by:

· The historical understanding of faith from the Bible

· How faith is misunderstood in modern culture

· A story of a person whose faith grew through hardship

Body Paragraph Structure

1. Make an assertion of your specific point. This should reveal the method of definition for your paragraph.

2. Explain more in your own words.

3. Offer your general evidence (such as a quotation or background information).

4. Explain the meaning of the evidence. Connect it to the key words in your paragraph and thesis.

5. Give more specific evidence.

6. Explain the meaning of the evidence and conclude.

Sample Body Paragraph:

The ancient Old Testament origins of the concept of faith focus on a sense of safety and security. In other words, people need to choose faith because their lives are sometimes unsafe and insecure. In his explanation of faith, theologian H.L. Schwartz (1996) says, “security that is a result of a trusting relationship with God is most important. It can be combined with the fear of the Lord and obedience to his Word so that the one who walks in the dark is encouraged to ‘trust in the name of the Lord and rely on his God (Isa 50:10).” Faith, then, requires actions such as seeking a relationship with God, obeying God, and relying on God. These actions are not easy, and they are in the context of “walking in the dark.” Faith, then, deepens when we experience difficulty. In Matthew 6, we read of numerous miracles of Jesus. In all cases, there is a serious crisis, but Jesus recognizes that in their crisis, these people have faith, and he heals them. Then, Jesus and his disciples go out on the lake in a boat, and a violent storm blows in. “The disciples went and woke him up. They said, ‘Lord! Save us! We’re going to drown!’ He replied, ‘Your faith is so small! Why are you so afraid? Then Jesus got up and ordered the winds and the waves to stop. It became completely calm (Matthew 6:23-26). In this situation, we can see that the opposite of faith is fear. Therefore, the Bible reveals that having faith is a choice during times of fear and trouble, even when it seems hopeless.

Another example:

The Latin cross is the most familiar and widely recognized symbol of Christianity today. It was most likely the shape of the structure upon which Jesus Christ was crucified. In the gospel account of Matthew, he describes the trip to Jesus’ execution: “As they were going out, they met a man from Cyrene, named Simon, and they forced him to carry the cross” (Matt 27:32 NIV). The story continues to tell how Jesus was nailed to the cross and hung up along with two other criminals. Though various forms of the cross existed, the Latin cross was made of two pieces of wood crossed to create four right angles. The Roman Catholic depictions of the cross often reveal the body of Christ still on the cross. This is known as the crucifix and brings emphasis to the sacrifice and suffering of Christ. Protestant churches tend to portray the empty cross, emphasizing the resurrected, risen Christ. Followers of Christianity identify with the cross through the words of Jesus: “anyone who does not take his cross and follow me is not worthy of me” (Matt 10:38 NIV). Therefore, the cross today represents Christ's victory over sin and death through the sacrifice of his own body on the cross. Christians wear the cross as a symbol that they are “following” Jesus.

Adapted From:

Fairchild, M. (2018). Christian symbols illustrated glossary. Retrieved from https://www.learnreligions.com/christianity-symbols-illustrated-glossary-4051292

Organization

Follow the deductive pattern. However, you do not need a separate A=B paragraph for this essay because the whole essay is definition. Instead, start your body paragraphs with a more general or foundational definition. It is common to start with a paragraph about the historical background or linguistic origin of the word and then go into other ways of defining in the following paragraphs. If you plan to use contrast, we often place this second. If you plan to write one paragraph using examples, since examples are very specific, place this paragraph last. These are not rules but common practices.

Conclusion

Return to the definition that you started with but now, add to it. Rewrite the definition more specifically or with new insight. Your concluding paragraph will be short (approximately 3-5 sentences).

Further Considerations

Kinds of Evidence

You can use any kind of evidence for a definition essay. However, consider the discipline you are writing for. If you are writing a definition essay for a biology course, what kind of evidence counts? If you are writing for a history class, what kind of evidence counts? If the assignment asks you for your own thoughts, then you can use your personal experiences. Otherwise, this is a formal paper and your personal experiences do not fit.

Research and documentation

Always read your professor’s instructions. Your professor might want you to write a definition essay that is also a research paper. Or you might write a definition based on your lectures and textbook. Or you might write a definition that does not use research but just your own thoughts.

Remember that any time you get ideas, information, background, or sentences from a source, you need to give your citation and reference.

Academic Tone

Definition essays are usually formal, so avoid using I/me/my. As always, avoid using “you” as well as slang, idioms, or informal language of any kind. Use proper sentence structures.

Cultural and Linguistic Comparisons

Definition essays provide a perfect opportunity to contribute your culture, religion and language to the discussion. Consider writing a comparison or contrast. For example, for our topic on faith, you might explain what words your language has that are similar. You might offer proverbs and teachings from your culture, or you might tell a story (true or fictional) about a person who demonstrates faith in your culture.

References

Brooks, B. (1965). Bob Brooks Nova Scotia Archives 1989, 468 (16). Sheet 5 image 22, Sheet 4 image 34. Retrieved from https://novascotia.ca/archives/africville/results.asp?Search=&Start=16

Fairchild, M. (2018). Christian symbols illustrated glossary. Retrieved from https://www.learnreligions.com/christianity-symbols-illustrated-glossary-4051292

Japanese internment. (2001). Canada: A People’s History. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPISCONTENTSE1EP14CH3PA3LE.html

Kagle, K. (2018, August 22). Rethinking millennials and generations beyond. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/2018/08/22/rethinking-millennials-and-generations-beyond/#5f5a7fa71893

King, M.L,K. (1963). I have a dream. Government Archives. Retrieved from

https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf

Lee, R. (2018, July 8). The acceptance of group mentality. Retrieved from https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-acceptance-of-group-mentality/

Marsh, J.H. (2016, November 28). Japanese Canadian internment: Prisoners in their own country. In The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/japanese-internment-banished-and-beyond-tears-feature

Nova Scotia Archives. (2019). Gone but never forgotten: Bob Brooks’ photographic portrait of Africville in the 1960s. Retrieved from https://novascotia.ca/archives/africville/default.asp

Ryback, R. (2016, February 22). From Baby Boomers to Generation Z: The generational gaps and their roles in society. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/the-truisms-wellness/201602/baby-boomers-generation-z

Schwartz, H. L. (1996). Faith. In W.A. Elwell (Ed.), Bakers’ evangelical dictionary of biblical theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. Retrieved from https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/faith/

All

Most

Some

Few

One

+ full sentence.

+ that + SVO.

+ noun phrase.

explains,

describes,

illustrates,

reports,

suggests,

implies,

argues

asserts

declares

the idea that + full sentence.

supports

critiques

rejects

forwards

Choose another specific idea/situation/quote/photo and respond to it.

Choose another specific idea/situation/quote/photo and respond to it.

You should have at least three response paragraphs. Your paragraphs should all connect to your key word.

Introduction and thesis

Summary of the prompt

The background such as who wrote/produced it and when.

This is A=B.

Choose another specific idea/situation/quote/photo and respond to it.

Choose one specific idea/situation/quote/photo and respond to it.

Brief conclusion

Mind

Social construct/

Imagination

Soul

Supernatural/Spiritual

Heart

Emotions/

Psyche

Body

Physical world around me