Fallacy Study Guide

Chapter 2

A Claim with Reasons

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

2.1 Describe the key elements of classical argument.

2.2 Explain the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos.

2.3 Distinguish between issue and information questions and between genuine and pseudo-arguments.

2.4 Describe the basic frame of an argument.

In Chapter 1 we explained that argument is best viewed not as a quarrel or as a pro-con debate, but rather as a conversation of reasonable stakeholders seeking the best solution to a shared problem or issue. As a conversation of stakehold- ers, argument is both a process and a product. The rest of Part One provides an overview of the parts of an argument along with the general principles that make arguments effective. This chapter focuses on the core of an argument, which is a structure of claim, reasons, and evidence. The remaining chapters of Part One cover the same territory with more elaboration and detail.

The Classical Structure of Argument 2.1 Describe the key elements of classical argument.

The core of an argument can best be understood by connecting it to the ancient pattern of classical argument revealed in the persuasive speeches of ancient Greek and Roman orators. Formalized by the Roman rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian, the parts of the argument speech even had special names: the exordium, in which the speaker gets the audience's attention; the narratio, which provides needed background; the propositio, which is the speaker's claim or thesis; the partitio,

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which forecasts the main parts of the speech; the confirmatio, which presents the speaker's arguments supporting the claim; the confutatio, which summarizes and rebuts opposing views; and the peroratio, which concludes the speech by summing up the argument, calling for action, and leaving a strong, lasting impression. (Of course, you don't need to remember these tongue-twisting Latin terms. We cite them only to assure you that in writing a classical argument, you are joining a time-honored tradition that links back to the origins of democracy.)

Let's go over the same territory again using more contemporary terms. Figure 2.1 provides an organization plan showing the structure of a classical argu- ment, which typically includes these sections:

• The introduction. Writers of classical argument typically begin by connecting the audience to the issue by showing how it arises out of a current event or by using an illustrative story, memorable scene, or startling statistic some- thing that grabs the audience's attention. They continue the introduction by focusing the issue often by stating it directly as a question or by briefly

Figure 2.1 Organ ization p lan for an argument with c lassical structure Organization Plan for an Argument with a Classical Structure

• Exordium

• Narratio

• Propositio

• Partitio

• Confirmatio

• Confutatio

• Peroratio

Introduction (one to several paragraphs)

Presentation of writer· s position

Summary of opposing • VIews

Response to opposing • VIews

Conclusion

• Attention grabber (often a memorable scene)

• Explanation o f issue and needed backgroun d

• Writer's t hesis (claim)

• Forecasting passage

• Main body of essay

• Presents an d supports each reason in turn

• Each reason is tied to a value or belief h eld

by the audience

• Summary of views differing from writer's

(sh ould be fair and complete)

• Refutes or concedes to opposing views

• Shows weaknesses in opposing views

• May concede to some strength s

• Brings essay to closure

• Often sums up argument

• Leaves strong last impression

• Often calls for action or relates topic

to a larger context of issues

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summarizing opposing views and providing needed background and con- text. They conclude the introduction by p resenting their claim (thesis state- ment) and forecasting the argument's structure.

• The presentation of the writer's position. The presentation of the writer's own position is usually the longest part of a classical argument. Here writers present the reasons and evidence supporting their claims, typically choosing reasons that tie into their audience's values, beliefs, and assumptions. Usually each reason is developed in its own paragraph or sequence of paragraphs. When a paragraph introduces a new reason, writers state the reason directly and then support it with evidence or a chain of ideas. Along the way, writers guide their readers with appropriate transitions.

• The summary and critique of alternative views. When summarizing and responding to opposing views, writers have several options. If there are several opposing arguments, writers may summarize all of them together and then compose a single response, or they may summarize and respond to each argument in turn. As we explain in Chapter 6, writers may respond to opposing views either by refuting them or by conceding to their strengths and shifting to a different field of values.

• The conclusion. Finally, in their conclusion, writers sum up their argument, often restating the stakes in the argument and calling for some kind of action, thereby creating a sense of closure and leaving a strong final impression.

In this organization, the body of a classical argument has two major sections one presenting the writer's own position and the other summarizing and responding to alternative views. The organization plan in Figure 2.1, and the discussion that fo llows, have the writer's own position coming first, but it is possible to reverse that order.

For all its strengths, an argument with a classical structure may not always be your most persuasive strategy. In some cases, you may be more effective by delay- ing your thesis, by ignoring alternative views altogether, or by showing great sym- pathy for opposing views (see Chapter 6). In some cases, in fact, it may be better to abandon argument altogether and simply enter into a empathic conversation w ith others to bridge the gaps between opposing points of view (see Chapter 10 on col- laborative rhetoric as an alternative to classical argument). In most cases, however, the classical structure is a useful p lanning tool. By calling for a thesis statement and a forecasting statement in the introduction, it helps you see the whole of your argument in miniature. And by requiring you to summarize and consider oppos- ing views, the classical structure alerts you to the limits of your position and to the need for further reasons and evidence. As we w ill show, the classical structure is particularly persuasive when you address a neutral or undecided audience.

Classical Appeals and the etorical Triangle 2.2 Explain the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos.

Besides developing a template or structure for an argument, classical rhetori- cians analyzed the ways that effective speeches persuaded their audiences. They identified three kinds of persuasive appeals, which they called logos, ethos, and

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Figure 2.2 The rhetorical triangle Message

LOGOS: How can I make the argument internally consistent and logical? How can I find the best reasons and support them with the best evidence?

Audience PATHOS: How can I make the reader open to my message? How can I best appeal to my reader's values and interests? How can I engage my reader emotionally and imaginatively?

Writer or Speaker ETHOS: How can I present myself effectively? How can I enhance my credibility and trustworthiness?

pathos. These appeals can be understood within a rhetorical context illustrated by a triangle with points labeled message, writer or speaker, and audience (Figure 2.2). Effective arguments pay attention to all three points on this rhetorical triangle.

As Figure 2.2 shows, each point on the triangle corresponds to one of the three persuasive appeals:

• Logos (Greek for "word") focuses attention on the quality of the message- that is, on the internal consistency and clarity of the argument itself and on the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of logos on an audience is referred to as its logical appeal.

• Ethos (Greek for "character") focuses attention on the writer's (or speaker's) character as it is projected in the message. It refers to the writer's credibility. Ethos is often conveyed through the writer's investment in his or her claim; through the fairness with which the writer considers alternative views; through the tone and style of the message; and even through the message's professional appearance on paper or screen, including correct grammar, flaw- less proofreading, and appropriate formats for citations and bibliography. In some cases, ethos is also a function of the writer's reputation for honesty and expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an audience is referred to as the ethical appeal or appeal from credibility.

• Pathos (Greek for "suffering" or "experience") focuses attention on the val- ues and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated with emotional appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience's imaginative sympathies their capacity to feel and see what the writer feels and sees. Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a tangible and immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas appeals to logos

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and ethos can further an audience's intellectual assent to our claim, appeals to pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving th e audience to a deeper ap preciation of the argument's significance.

A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos, is that of kairos, from the Greek word for "right time," "season," or "opp or- tunity." This concept suggests that for an argument to be persuasive, its timing must be effectively chosen and its tone and structure in right proportion or mea- sure. You may have had the experience of composing a contentious e-mail and then hesitating before clicking the "send" button. Is this the right moment to send this message? Is my audience ready to hear what I'm saying? Would my views be better received if I waited for a couple of days? If I send this message now, should I change its tone and content? Kairos refers to this attentiveness to the unfolding of time. We will return to this concept in Chapter 5, when we consider ethos and pathos in more depth.

Given this background on the classical appeals, let's turn now to logos the logic and structure of arguments.

Issue uestions as the Origins of Argument 2.3 Distinguish between issue and information questions and between

genuine and pseudo-arguments.

At the heart of any argument is an issue, which we can define as a controver- sial topic area (such as legalizing marijuana or building a wall between Mexico and the United States) that gives r ise to differing points of view and conflict- ing claims. A writer can usually focus an issue by asking an issue question that invites alternative answers. Within any complex issue for example, the issue of abortion there are usually a number of separate issue questions: What govern- mental restrictions should be placed on abortion? Should the federal government authorize Medicaid payments for abortions? When does a fetus become a human person? (At conception? At three months? At birth?) What would be the conse- quences of expanding or limiting a woman's right to an abortion? (One person might stress that legalized abortion leads to greater freedom for women. Another person might respond that it lessens a society's respect for human life.)

Difference between an Issue Question and an Infortnation Question Of course, not all questions are issue questions that can be answered reasonably in differing ways. Some questions ask for information rather than for arguments. Rhetoricians have traditionally distinguished between explication, which is writing that sets out to inform or explain, and argumentation, which sets out to change a reader's mind. The fo llowing example illustrates the difference between an issue question and an information question:

Issue question: Should health insurance policies be required to cover contra- ceptives? (Reasonable persons can disagree.)

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Information question: How does the teenage pregnancy rate in the United States compare with the rate in Sweden? (Reasonable persons assume that a "right answer" to this question is available.)

Although the difference between the two kinds of questions may seem simple, the distinction can become blurry. Suppose we asked "Why is the teenage preg- nancy rate in Sweden lower than in the United States?" Although this might seem to be an informative question with a right answer, we can also imagine disagree- ment. One writer might emphasize Sweden's practical, secular sex-education courses, leading to more consistent use of contraceptives among Swedish teenagers. Another writer might point to the higher use of birth-control pills among teenage girls in Sweden (partly a result of Sweden's generous national health program) and to less reliance on condoms for preventing unwanted pregnancy. Another might argue that moral decay in the United States or a breakdown of the traditional fam- ily is responsible for the higher teenage pregnancy rate in the United States. Thus, what initially looks like a simple information question becomes an issue question.

How to Identify an Issue Question You can generally tell whether a question is an information question or an issue question by determining whether your purpose is (1) to explain or teach some- thing to your audience or (2) to change their minds about something. Often the same question can be an information question in one context and an issue ques- tion in another. Let's look at the following examples:

• How does a diesel engine work? (This is an information question because rea- sonable people who know about diesel engines will agree on how they work. This question would be posed by an audience of new learners asking experts for an explanation.)

• Why is a diesel engine more fuel efficient than a gasoline engine? (This also seems to be an information question because experts will probably agree on the answer. Once again, the audience seems to be new learners, perhaps students in an automotive class.)

• What is the most cost-effective way to produce diesel fuel from crude oil? (This could be an information question if experts agree and you are addressing new learners. But if you are addressing engineers and one engineer says process X is the most cost-effective and another engineer argues for process Y, then the question is an issue question.)

• Should the present highway tax on diesel fuel be increased? (This is certainly an issue question. One person says yes; another says no; another offers a compromise.)

For Writing and Discussion Information Questions Versus Issue Questions Working as a class or in small groups, decide wh ich of the fo llowing questions are information questions and wh ich are issue questions. Many of them could be either, depending on the rhetorical context. For those questions, create hypothetical contexts to show your reasoning.

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1. What percentage of public schools in the United States are failing? 2. Which causes more t raff ic accidents, d runk driving or texting w hile driving? 3. What is the effect on chi ld ren of playing first-person-shooter video games? 4. What effect w ill the advent of self-d riving cars have on truck drivers? 5. Shou ld people get rid of t heir land lines and have only cell phones?

Difference between a Genuine Argum.ent and a Fseudo-Argum.ent Although every argument is sparked by an issue question w ith alternative answers, not every disp ute over answers constitutes a rational argument. Ratio- nal arguments require three additional factors: (1) reasonable participants who operate within the conventions of reasonable behavior; (2) potentially sharable assumptions that can serve as a starting place or foundation for the argument; (3) confidence that evidence used in an argument is verifiable. Lacking these con- ditions, disagreements remain stalled at the level of pseudo-arguments. Let's look at each of these conditions in turn.

PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY UNREASONABLE BEHAVIOR Reasonable behavior in argument assumes the possibility of growth and change; disputants may modify their views as they acknowledge strengths in an alternative view or weaknesses in their own. Such growth becomes impossible and argument degenerates to pseudo-argument when disputants are so rigid ly committed to their positions that they can't imagine alternative views. Consider the case of the true believer and the fanatical skeptic.

From one perspective, true believers are admirable persons, guided by unwavering values and beliefs. True believers stand on solid rock, unwilling to compromise their principles or bend to the prevailing w inds. But from another perspective, true believers can seem rigidly fixed, incapable of growth or change. In Chapter 1, we mentioned that arguers can cling to sacred values either reli- gious or secular princip les that they consider absolute, inviolable, indisputable. When true believers from two clashing belief systems each with its own set of sacred values try to engage in dialogue with each other, a truth-seeking exchange of views becomes difficult. They talk past each other; dialogue is replaced by monologue from within isolated silos. Once true believers push each other's buttons on global warming, guns, health care, taxes, political cor- rectness, or some other issue, each disputant resorts to an endless replaying of the same prepackaged arguments based on absolute principles. Disagreeing with a true believer is like ordering the surf to quiet down. The only response is another crashing wave.

In contrast to the true believer, the fanatical skeptic d ismisses the possibility of ever believing anything. Skeptics often demand proof where no proof is pos- sible. So what if the sun has risen every day of recorded history? That's no proof that it will rise tomorrow. Short of absolute proof, which never exists, fanatical skeptics accept nothing. In a world where the most we can hope for is increased audience adherence to our ideas, the skeptic demands an ironclad, logical dem- onstration of our claim's rightness.

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PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF SHARED ASSUMPTIONS As we have seen, reasonable argument degenerates to pseudo-argument when there is no possibility for listening, learning, growth, or change. In this section, we look more closely at a cause of unreasonableness in argument: lack of shared assumptions.

A lack of shared assumptions necessarily dooms arguments about purely personal opinions for example, someone's claim that opera is boring or that pizza tastes better than nachos. Of course, a pizza-versus-nachos argument might be possible if the disputants assume a shared criterion about nutrition. For example, a nutritionist could argue that a vegetable-laden pizza is better than nachos because pizza provides more balanced nutrients per calorie than nachos do. But if one of the disputants responds, "Nah, nachos are better than pizza because nachos taste better," then he makes a different assumption "My sense of taste is better than your sense of taste." This is a wholly personal standard, an assumption that others are unable to share.

Lack of shared assumptions can also doom arguments when the disputants have different ideologies, as we saw in the discussion of true believers. Ideology is an academic word for belief systems or world views. We all have our own ideolo- gies. We all look at the world through a lens shaped by our life's experiences. Our beliefs and values are shaped by our family background, our friends, our culture, our particular time in history, our race or ethnicity, our gender or sexual orienta- tion, our social class, our religion, our education, and so forth. Because we tend to think that our particular lens for looking at the world is natural and universal rather than specific to ourselves, we must be aware that persons who disagree with us may not share our deepest assumptions and beliefs.

This lack of shared assumptions is evident in many disputes concerning poli- tics or religion. For example, consider differences over how to interpret the Bible within communities identifying as Christian. Some Christian groups choose a straightforward, literal interpretation of the Bible as God's inerrant word, some- times quoting Biblical passages as "proof texts" to support their stand on civic issues. Others believe the Bible is divinely inspired, meant to lead humans to a relationship with God, but transmitted through human authors. Other groups tend to read the Bible metaphorically or mythically, focusing on the paradoxes, historical contexts, and interpretive complexities of the Bible. Still other Christian groups read it as an ethical call for social justice. Members of these different Christian groups may not be able to argue rationally about, say, evolution or gay marriage because they have very different ways of reading Biblical passages and invoking the Bible's authority. Similarly, within other religious traditions, believers may also differ about the meaning and applicability of their sacred texts to scientific issues and social problems.

Similar disagreements about assumptions occur in the political arena as well. Our point is that certain religious or political beliefs or texts cannot be evoked for evidence or authority when an audience does not assume the belief's truth or does not agree on the way that a given text should be read or interpreted.

PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF CONFIDENCE IN EVIDENCE Finally, pseudo-arguments arise when disputants can't agree about the trustwor- thiness of particular evidence or about the possibility of trustworthy evidence existing at all, as if all facts are relative an especially troublesome problem in

The Core of an Argument 25

an era where many have raised concern s about "fake news" and "alternative facts." Reasonable arguments must be grounded in evidence that can be verified and trusted. Sometimes unethical writers invent facts and data to create propa- ganda, advance a conspiracy theory, or make money from the sale of fake stories. Scientific fraud has also occasionally occurred wherein scientists have fudged their data or even made up data to support a claim. Tabloids and fringe news sites are notorious for spreading fake news, often in their attention-grabbing but bizarre headlines ("Farmer shoots 23-pound grasshopper").

For disputants with different ideologies, pseudo-arguments may even occur w ith issues grounded in science. Liberals may distrust scientific data about the safety of genetically modified organisms, whereas conservatives may distrust the scientific data about climate change. Genuine argument can emerge only when all sides of the dispute agree that any given evidence derives from verifiable facts or data. We don't mean that reasonable disputants must use the same facts: Arguers necessarily and always select and frame their evidence to support their points (see the discussion of angle of vision in Chapter 4). But no matter what evidence is chosen, disputants must agree that the evidence is verifiable that it is real news or evidence, not fake news or evidence.

For Writing and Discussion Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments

Individual task: Which of the following questions wil l lead to reasonable arguments, and which wil l lead only to pseudo- arguments? Explain your reasoning.

1. Are the Star Wars films good science fiction? 2. Is it ethically justifiable to capture dolphins or orca whales and train them for human entertainment? 3. Should cities subsidize professional sports venues? 4. Is this abstract oil painting created by a monkey smearing paint on a canvas a true work of art? 5. Are nose rings and tongue studs attractive?

Group task: Working in pairs, small groups, or as a class, share your reasoning about these questions with classmates.

Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons 2.4 Describe the basic frame of an argument.

We said earlier that an argument originates in an issue question, which by defini- tion is any question that provokes disagreement about the best answer. When you w rite an argument, your task is to take a position on the issue and to support it w ith reasons and evidence. The claim of your essay is the position you want your

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audience to accept. To put it another way, your claim is your essay's thesis state- ment, a one-sentence summary answer to your issue question. Your task, then, is to make a claim and support it with reasons.

What Is a Reason? A reason (also called a premise) is a claim used to support another claim. In speaking or writing, a reason is usually linked to the claim with a connecting word such as because, since, for, so, thus, consequently, or therefore, indicating that the claim follows logically from the reason.

Let us take an example of a controversial issue that frequently gets reported in the news the public debate over keeping large sea mammals such as dol- phins, porpoises, and orcas (killer whales) in captivity in marine parks where they entertain large crowds with their performances. This issue has many dimen- sions, including safety concerns for both the animals and their human trainers, as well as moral, scientific, legal, and economic concerns. Popular documentary films have heightened the public's awareness of the dangers of captivity to both the animals and the humans who work with them. For example, The Cove (2009) exposes the gory dolphin hunts in Japan in which fishermen kill dolphins en masse, capturing some for display in shows around the world. Blackfish (2013) tells the history of the orca Tilikum, who in 2010 killed his trainer, Dawn Blancheau, at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. The death of Tilikum in 2017 resparked public debates about treatment of marine animals in captivity. Recently a flurry of legal efforts to release the captive orca Lolita back into the wild has also contributed to the larger battle among advocacy, governmental, scientific, and commercial groups over the value of marine parks.

In one of our recent classes, students heatedly debated the ethics of capturing wild dolphins and training them to perform in marine parks. One student cited his sister's internship at Sea World San Diego, where she worked on sea mammal rescue and rehabilitation, one of the marine park's worthy projects. In response, another student mentioned the millions of dollars these marine parks make on their dolphin and orca shows as well as on the stuffed animals, toys, magnets, T-shirts, and hundreds of other lucrative marine park souvenirs. Here are the frameworks the class developed for two alternative positions on this public issue:

One View

CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks.

REASON 1: Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.

REASON 2: The education these parks claim to offer about marine mammals is just a series of artificial, exploitive tricks taught through behavior modification.

REASON 3: These parks are operated by big business with the goal of mak- ing large profits.

REASON 4: Marine parks encourage artificial breeding programs and cruel hunts and captures.

REASON 5: Marine parks promote an attitude of human dominance over animals.

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Alternative View

CLAIM: The public should continue to enjoy marine parks.

REASON 1: These parks observe accreditation standards for animal welfare, h ealth, and nutrition.

REASON 2: These marine p arks enable scientists and veterinarians to study animal behavior in ways not possible w ith field studies in the wild.

REASON 3: These marine parks provide environmental education and memorable entertainment.

REASON 4: Marine parks use some of their profits to support research, conservation, and rescue and rehabilitation programs.

REASON 5: In their training of dolphins and orcas, these marine parks reinforce natural behaviors, exercise the animals' intelligence, and promote beneficial bonding with humans.

Formulating a list of reasons in this way breaks your argumentative task into a series of subtasks. It gives you a frame for building your argument in parts. In this example, the frame for the argument opposing commercial use of sea mammals suggests five different lines of reasoning a writer might pursue. You might use all five reasons or select only two or three, depending on which reasons would most persuade the intended audience. Each line of reasoning would be developed in its own separate section of the argument. For example, you m ight begin one section of your argument w ith the follow ing sentence: "The public should not support marine parks because they teach dolphins and orcas clownish tricks and artificial behaviors, which they pass off as 'education' about these animals." You would then provide examples of the tricks that dol- phins and orcas are taught, explain how these stunts contrast with their natu- ral behaviors, and offer examples of erroneous facts or information provided by commercial marine parks. You might also need to support the underlying assumption that it is good to acquire real knowledge about sea mammals in the wild. You would then proceed in the same manner for each separate section of your argument.

To summarize: The frame of an argument consists of the claim (the essay's thesis statement), which is supported by one or more reasons, which are in turn supported by evidence or sequences of further reasons.

For Writing and Discussion Using Images to Support an Argument In Chapter 1, we discussed the way that images and photographs can make implicit arguments. This exercise asks you to consider how images can shape or enhance an argument. Imag ine that your task is to argue why a nonprofit group in your city should (or should not) offer as a fund- raising prize a trip to Sea- World in Orlando, Florida; San Antonio, Texas; or San Diego, Cal ifornia. Examine the photographs of orcas in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 and describe the implicit argument that each photo seems to make about these whales. How might one or both of these photos be used to support an argument fo r or against the prize t rip to Sea- World? What reasons for going (or not going) to SeaWorld are implied by each photo? Briefly sketch out you r argument and explain your choice of t he photograph(s) that support your position.

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Figure 2.3 Orca performance at a marine park

Figure 2.4 Orcas breaching

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Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses Chances are that when you were a child, the word because contained magical explanatory powers. (I don't want that kind of butter on my toast! Why? Because. Because why? Just because.) Somehow because seemed decisive. It persuaded people to accept your view of the world; it changed people's minds. Later, as you got older, you discovered that because only introduced your arguments and that it was the reasons following because that made the difference. Still, because introduced you to the powers potentially residing in the adult world of logic.

This childhood power of because perhaps explains why because clauses are the most common way of linking reasons to a claim. For example:

The public should not support marine parks because these parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.

Of course, there are also many other ways to express the logical connection between a reason and a claim. Our language is rich in ways of stating because relationships:

• Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats. Therefore, the public should not support marine parks.

• Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats, so the public should not support these parks.

• One reason that the public should not support marine animal parks is that these parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.

• My argument that the public should not support marine animal parks is grounded on evidence that these parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.

Even though logical relationships can be stated in various ways, writing out one or more because clauses seems to be the most succinct and manageable way to clarify an argument for yourself. We therefore suggest that at some time in the writing process, you create a working thesis statement that summarizes your main reasons as because clauses attached to your claim.*

When you compose your own working thesis statement depends largely on your writing process. Some writers like to p lan their whole argument from the start and compose their working thesis statements with because clauses before they write their rough drafts. Others discover their arguments as they write. Some writers use a combination of both techniques. For these writers, an extended working thesis statement is something they might write halfway through the composing process as a way of ordering their argument when various branches seem to be growing out of control. Or they might compose a working thesis

* A working thesis statement opposing the commercial use of captured dolphins and orcas might look like this: The public should not support marine parks because marine parks inhu- manely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats; because marine parks are mainly big businesses driven by profit; because marine parks create inaccurate and incom- plete educational information about dolphins and orcas; because marine parks encourage inhumane breeding programs, hunts, and captures; and because marine parks promote an attitude of human dominance over animals. You probably would not put a bulky thesis statement like this into your essay; rather, a working thesis statement is a behind-the-scenes way of summarizing your argument so that you can see it fully and clearly.

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statement after they've written a complete first draft as a way of checking the essay's unity.

The act of writing your extended thesis statement can be simultaneously frustrating and thought provoking. Composing because clauses can be a power- ful discovery tool, causing you to think of many different kinds of arguments to support your claim. But it is often difficult to wrestle your ideas into the because clause shape, which may seem overly tidy for the complex network of ideas you are working with. Nevertheless, trying to summarize your argument as a single claim with reasons should help you see more clearly the emerging shape of your argument.

For Writing and Discussion Developing Claims and Reasons Try this group exercise to help you see how writing because clauses can be a discovery procedure. Divide into smal l groups. Each group member should contribute an issue with potentially opposing c laims. Whi le thinking of your issue, imagine a person who might disagree w ith you about it. This person w ill become your audience. Discussing each group member's issue in turn, help each member develop a claim supported by several reasons that might appeal to the imagined aud ience. Express each reason as a because clause. Then write out the working thesis statement for each person's argument by attaching the because c lauses to the claim. Finally, try to create because clauses in support of an alternative claim for each issue. Each group should select two or three working thesis statements to present to the c lass.

Conclusion This chapter introduced you to the structure of classical argument, to the rhetorical triangle (message, writer or speaker, and audience), and to the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos. It also showed how arguments originate in issue ques- tions, how issue questions differ from information questions, and how reasonable arguments differ from pseudo-arguments. The frame of an argument is a claim supported by reasons. As you generate reasons to support your own arguments, it is often helpful to articulate them as because clauses attached to the claim.

In the next chapter we will see how to support a reason by examining its logical structure, uncovering its unstated assumptions, and planning a strategy of development.

Writing Assignment An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements Decide on an issue and a claim for a classical argument that you wou ld like to write. Also imagine a reader who might be skeptical of your claim. Write a one-sentence question that summarizes the controversial is- sue that your c laim addresses. Then draft a working thesis statement for your proposed argument. Organize the thesis as a claim w ith bulleted because clauses for reasons. You should have at least two reasons, but it is okay to have three or four. Also include an opposing thesis statement-that is, a claim with because

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clauses for an alternative position on your issue. Think of this opposing argument as your imagined reader's starting position.

Unless you have previously done research on an issue, it is probably best to choose an issue based on your personal experiences and observations. For example, you might consider issues related to your college or high school life, your work life, your experiences in clubs or family life, your prospective career, and so forth. (Part Two of this text introduces you to research-based argument.) As you think about your claim and because clauses for this assignment, take comfort in the fact that you are in a very early stage of the writing process: the brainstorming stage. Writers almost always discover new ideas when they write a first draft. As they take their writing project through multiple drafts and share their drafts with readers, their views may change substantially. In fact, honest writers can change positions on an issue by discovering that a counter- argument is stronger than their own. Thus the working thesis statement that you submit for this assignment may evolve when you begin to draft your essay.

Below, as well as in Chapters 3 and 4, we follow the process of student writer Carmen Tieu as she constructs an argument on violent video games. During a class discussion, Carmen mentioned a psychol- ogy professor who described playing violent video games as gendered behavior (overwhelmingly male). The professor ind icated his dislike for such games, pointing to their antisocial, dehumanizing values. In class, Carmen described her own enjoyment of violent video games-particularly first-person-shooter games- and reported the pleasure that she derived from beating boys at Halo 2 and 3. Her classmates were inter- ested in her ideas. She knew that she wanted to write an argument on this issue. The following is Carmen's submission for this assignment.

Carmen's Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements Issue Question: Should girls be encouraged to play f irst-person-shooter video games? My claim: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great activities for girls,

• because they empower girls when they beat guys at their own game. • because they equip girls with skills that free them from feminine stereotypes. • because they give girls a different way of bonding with males. • because they give girls new insights into a male subculture.

Opposing claim: First-person-shooter games are a bad activity for anyone, especially girls, • because they promote antisocial values such as indiscriminate kil ling. • because they amplify t he bad, macho side of male stereotypes. • because they waste valuable time that could be spent on something constructive. • because FPS games could encourage women to see themselves as objects.

32

Chapter 3 •

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

3.1 Explain the logical structure of argument in terms of claim, reason, and assumption granted by the audience.

3.2 Use the Toulmin system to describe an argument's logical structure.

3.3 Use the Toulmin system to generate ideas for your argument and test it for completeness.

In Chapter 2 you learned that the core of an argument is a claim supported by reasons and that these reasons can often be stated as because clauses attached to a claim. In this chapter, we examine the logical structure of arguments in more depth.

An Overview of Logos: hat Do e Mean by the "Logical Structure" of an Argument? 3.1 Explain the logical structure of argument in terms of claim, reason,

and assumption granted by the audience.

As you will recall from our discussion of the rhetorical triangle, logos refers to the strength of an argument's support and its internal consistency. Logos is the argu- ment's logical structure. But what do we mean by "logical structure"?

The Logical Structure of Arguments 33

Forinal Logic Versus Real-World Logic First of all, what we don't mean by logical structure is the kind of precise certainty you get in a philosophy class in formal logic. Logic classes deal with symbolic assertions that are universal and unchanging, such as "If all ps are qs and if r is a p, then r is a q." This statement is logically certain so long asp, q, and rare pure abstractions. But in the real world, p, q, and r turn into actual things, and the rela- tionships among them suddenly become fuzzy. For example, p might be a class of actions called "Sexual Harassment," while q could be the class called" Actions That Justify Getting Fired from One's Job." If r is the class "Telling Off-Color Sto- ries," then the logic of our p-q-r statement suggests that telling off-color stories (r) is an instance of sexual harassment (p), which in turn is an action justifying getting fired from one's job (q).

Now, most of us would agree that sexual harassment is a serious offense that might well justify getting fired. In turn, we might agree that telling off-color stories, if the jokes are sufficiently raunchy and are inflicted on an unwilling audi- ence, constitutes sexual harassment. But few of us would want to say categorically that all people who tell off-color stories are harassing their listeners and ought to be fired. Most of us would want to know the particulars of the case before making a final judgment.

In the real world, then, it is difficult to say that rs are always ps or that every instance of a p results in q. That is why we discourage students from using the word prove in claims they write for arguments (as in "This paper will prove that euthanasia is wrong"). Real-world arguments seldom prove anything. They can only make a good case for something, a case that is more or less strong, more or less probable. Often the best you can hope for is to strengthen the resolve of those who agree with you or weaken the resistance of those who oppose you.

The Role of Assuinptions A key difference, then, between formal logic and real-world argument is that real- world arguments are not grounded in abstract, universal statements. Rather, as we shall see, they must be grounded in beliefs, assumptions, or values granted by the audience. A second important difference is that in real-world arguments, these beliefs, assumptions, or values are often unstated. So long as writer and audience share the same assumptions, it's fine to leave them unstated. But if these underlying assumptions aren't shared, the writer has a problem.

To illustrate the nature of this problem, suppose that you are an environmen- talist opposed to the use of plastic bags in grocery stores. You have several reasons for opposing these bags, one of which is their role in polluting the oceans. You express this reason in a because clause as follows:

States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because banning bags will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.

On the face of it, this is a plausible argument, but it depends on the audience's accepting the writer's assumption that it is good to reduce plastic pollution in the ocean. In other words, you might agree that plastics are polluting the ocean, but unless you also believe that this pollution is significantly harming the oceans, you might not automatically agree that plastic bags should be banned from grocery stores. What if you believe that pollution-caused damage to the ocean is not as

34 Chapter 3

severe as proponents claim? What if you believe that p lastic bags account for only a small percentage of plastic pollution in the oceans? What if you believe that the harm to the oceans is outweighed by the environmental benefits of plastic bags, which are reusable, recyclable, and more ecofriendly to produce and transport than paper bags? What if you believe that harm to the oceans might soon be reduced by scientific advances in creating biodegradable p lastics or in developing microorganisms that "eat" plastics? If these were your beliefs, the argument wouldn't work for you because you would reject its underlying assumption that plastic pollution is significantly harmful. To make this line of reasoning persua- sive, the writer would have to provide evidence not only that plastic bags are polluting the ocean but also that this pollution is harmful enough to justify a ban.

The Core of an Argu111ent: The Enthy111e111e The previous core argument ("States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because banning bags will reduce p lastic pollu tion in the ocean") is an incom- p lete logical structure called an enthymeme. Its persuasiveness depends on an underlying assumption or belief that the audience must accept. To complete the enthymeme and make it effective, the audience must willingly supply a missing premise in this case, that plastic pollution of the oceans is significantly harmful. The Greek philosopher Aristotle showed how successful enthymemes root the speaker's argument in assumptions, beliefs, or values held by the audience. The word enthymeme comes from the Greek en (meaning "in") and thumos (meaning "mind"). Listeners or readers must have in mind an assumption, belief, or value that lets them willingly supply the missing premise. If the audience is unwilling to supply the missing premise, then the argument fails. Our point is that success- ful arguments depend both on what the arguer says and on what the audience already has "in mind."

To clarify the concept of enthymeme, let's go over this same territory again, this time more slowly, examining what we mean by "incomplete logical struc- ture." The sentence "States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because banning bags will reduce p lastic pollution in the ocean" is an enthymeme. It combines a claim (States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores) with a rea- son expressed as a because clause (because banning bags will reduce plastic pol- lution in the ocean). To render this enthymeme logically complete, the audience must willingly supply a missing assumption that plastic pollution is harmful enough to the oceans to justify a ban on plastic bags. If your audience accepts this assumption, then you have a starting p lace on which to build an effective argu- ment. If your audience doesn't accept this assumption, then you must supply another argument to support it, and so on until you find common ground with your audience.

To sum up:

1. Claims are supported with reasons. You can usually state a reason as a because clause attached to a claim.

2. A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical structure called an enthymeme. To create a complete logical structure from an enthymeme, the underlying assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.

3. To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this underlying assumption should be a belief, value, or principle that the audience grants.

The Logical Structure of Arguments 35

Let's illustrate this structure by putting the previous example into schematic form.

Audience must supply this assumption

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM: States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores

REASON: because banning p lastic bags will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.

UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify a ban.

The Power of Audience-Based Reasons Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme focuses on the writer's need to create what we can now call"audience-based reasons" as opposed to "writer-based reasons." A reason that is persuasive to you as a writer might not be persuasive to your audience. Finding audience-based reasons means finding arguments effectively anchored within your audience's beliefs and values.

To illustrate the difference between an audience-based reason and a writer- based reason, suppose that you are a vegetarian persuaded mainly by ethical arguments against causing needless suffering to animals. Suppose further that you want to persuade others to become vegetarians or at least to reduce their consumption of meat. Your "writer-based reason" for vegetarianism could be stated as follows:

You should become a vegetarian because doing so will help reduce the need- less suffering of animals.

The underlying assumption here is that it is wrong to cause the suffering of ani- mals. This writer-based reason might also be an audience-based reason for per- sons who are wrestling with the moral dimension of animal suffering. But this assumption might not resonate with people who have made their own peace with eating meat. How might you use audience-based reasons to appeal to these meat- eaters? Here are two more possible enthymemes:

You should become a vegetarian because doing so may help you lower your cholesterol.

You should become a vegetarian because doing so will significantly lower your carbon footprint.

These arguments hook into the assumption that it is good to lower one's choles- terol (health values) or that it is good to lower one's carbon footprint (environ- mental values). All three of the arguments whether based on ethics, health, or the environment might further the practice of vegetarianism or at least reduce the amount of meat consumed, but they won't appeal equally to all audiences. From the perspective of logic alone, all three arguments are equally sound. But they will affect different audiences differently.

36 Chapter 3

For Writing and Discussion Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing Audience-Based Reasons Part 1 Working individually or in small groups, identify the unstated assumption that the aud ience must supply in order to make the fo llowing enthymemes persuasive.

Example

Enthymeme: Rabbits make good pets because they are gentle. Underlying assumption: Gentle animals make good pets.

1. We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy. 2. The federal government shou ld institute a carbon tax because doing so w ill reduce U.S. production

of greenhouse gases. 3. The federal government should not institute a carbon tax because doing so will damage the economy. 4. We should strengthen the Endangered Species Act because doing so will preserve genetic d iversity

on the planet. 5. The Endangered Species Act is too stringent because it severely restricts the rights of property owners.

Part 2 For each of the following items, decide which of the two reasons offered would be more persuasive to the specified audience. How might the reason not chosen be effective fo r a different kind of aud ience? Explain your reason ing.

1. Aud ience: people who advocate a pass/fail grad ing system on the grounds that the present grad ing system is too competitive a. We should keep the present grading system because it prepares people fo r the dog-eat-dog pres-

sures of the business world. b. We should keep the present grading system because it tells students that certain standards of

excel lence must be met if individuals are to reach their ful l potential. 2. Aud ience: environmentalists

a. We shou ld support tracking for natural gas because doing so wi ll help reduce our dependence on foreign sources of oi l.

b. We should support tracking fo r natural gas because doing so will provide a g reener "bridge fuel" that will give us t ime to develop better renewable technolog ies.

3. Audience: proponents of preventing illegal immigration into the United States by building a wall between the United States and Mexico a. U.S. citizens shou ld oppose building the wall because doing so promotes a racist image of America. b. U.S. cit izens should oppose building the wall because doing so may end up giving control of the

Rio Grande river to Mexico.

Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System 3.2 Use the Toulmin system to describe an argument's logical structure.

Understanding a new fie ld usually requires you to learn a new vocabulary. For example, if you were taking biology for the first time, you'd have to learn hun- dreds and hundreds of new terms. Luckily, the field of argument requires us to learn a mere handful of new terms. A particularly useful set of argument terms, one we'll be using occasionally throughout this text, comes from philosopher

The Logical Structure of Arguments 37

Stephen Toulmin. In the 1950s, Toulmin rejected the prevailing models of argu- ment based on formal logic in favor of a very audience-based courtroom model.

Toulmin's courtroom model differs from formal logic in that it assumes that (1) all assertions and assumptions are contestable by "opposing counsel" and that (2) all final"verdicts" about the persuasiveness of the opposing arguments will be rendered by a neutral third party, a judge, or a jury. As writers, keeping in mind the "opposing counsel" forces us to anticipate counterarguments and to question our assumptions. Keeping in mind the judge and jury reminds us to answer opposing arguments fully and without rancor, and to present positive reasons for supporting our case as well as negative reasons for disbelieving the opposing case. Above all else, Toulmin' s model reminds us not to construct an argument that appeals only to those who already agree with us. In short, it helps arguers tailor arguments to their audiences.

The system we use for analyzing arguments combines Toulmin's language with Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. It builds on the system you have already been practicing. We simply need to add a few key terms from Toulmin. The first term is Toulmin's warrant, the name we will now use for the underlying assump- tion that turns an enthymeme into a complete, logical structure as shown below.

Toulmin derives his term warrant from the concept of "warranty" or "guar- antee." The warrant is the value, belief, or principle that the audience has to hold if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted. We some- times make similar use of this word in ordinary language when we say "That is an unwarranted conclusion," meaning one has leaped from information about a situation to a conclusion about that situation without any sort of general prin- ciple to justify or "warrant" that move. Thus the warrant once accepted by the audience "guarantees" the soundness of the argument.

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores

REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.

Audience must supply this warrant --------..t WARRANT Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify a ban.

But arguments need more than claims, reasons, and warrants. These are sim- ply one-sentence statements the frame of an argument, not a developed argu- ment. To give body and weight to our arguments and make them convincing, we need what Toulmin calls grounds and backing. Let's start with grounds. Grounds are the supporting evidence that causes an audience to accept your reason. Grounds are facts, data, statistics, causal links, testimony, examples, anecdotes- the blood and muscle that flesh out the skeletal frame of your enthymeme. Toul- min suggests that grounds are "what you have to go on" in an argument the stuff you can point to and present before a jury. Here is how grounds fit into our emerging argument schema:

38 Chapter 3

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores

/~REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.

Grounds support .L---- thereason

GROUNDS

Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away plastic bags end up as ocean pollution and could be reduced with bans:

• According to the Earth Policy Institute, I 00 billion plastic bags pass through the hands of U.S. consumers each year.

• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into the oceans from river and stream pollution.

• According to Ocean Crusaders, plastic bags are the most prevalent man-made thing that sailors see in the ocean.

• A scientific study in 2014 estimated that there are 269,000 metric tons of plastic and 5.25 trillion plastic particles on the ocean's surface.

• Plastics float on the surface, where they are concentrated by ocean currents. National Geographic has documented the uPacific trash vortex" -a floating garbage patch the size of Texas.

• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as shown by states and cities that have recently instituted bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic bags in landfills and coastal areas.

In many cases, successful arguments require just these three components: a claim, a reason, and grounds. If the audience already accepts the unstated assumption behind the reason (the warrant), then the warrant can safely remain in the background, unstated and unexamined. But if there is a chance that the audience will question or doubt the warrant, then the writer needs to back it up by providing an argument in its support. Backing is the argument that supports the warrant. It may require as little as one or two sentences or as much as a major sec- tion in your argument. Its goal is to persuade the audience to accept the warrant. Here is how backing is added to our schema:

WARRANT

Backing supports BACKING the warrant Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are significantly harmful to the oceans:

• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat plastic bags, which look like jellyfish; birds and surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which often results in death or starvation).

• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up the food chain, including into the fish we eat, jeopardizing food safety.

• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example, some ocean insect species breed more quickly where plastics are floating.

• National Geographic News reports a study showing that udegrading plastics are leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly threatening ocean animals, and us."

The Logical Structure of Arguments 39

Toulmin' s system next asks us to imagine how a resistant audience would try to refute our argument. Specifically, an adversarial audience might challenge our reason and grounds by arguing that plastic bags are not polluting the oceans or that the pollution is not extensive. The adversary might also attack our warrant

Writer must an tid pate these attacks from skeptics

ENTHYMEME t CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores

_J ..-7 POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL

REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic - pollution in the ocean. V

/

A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds:

• Arguments that plastic bags from grocery stores comprise only a small proportion of plastic pollution in the ocean (far greater damage comes from plastic bottles, Styrofoam pellets, and floating fish nets)

GROUNDS Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away plastic bags end up as ocean pollution:

• According to the Earth Policy Institute, 1 00 billion plastic bags pass through the hands of U.S. consumers each year.

• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into the oceans from river and stream pollu-tion.

• According to Ocean Crusaders, plastic bags are the most prevalent man-made thing that sailors see in the ocean.

• A scientific study in 2014 estimated that there are 269,000 metric tons of plastic and 5.25 trillion plastic particles on the ocean's surface.

• Plastics float on the surface, where they are con-centrated by ocean currents. National Geographic has documented the llPacific trash vortex" -a floating garbage patch the size ofT exas.

• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as shown by states and cities that have recently instituted bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic bags in landfills and coastal areas.

• Arguments that the pollution is not extensive

• Arguments that banning plastic bags would eliminate all the ecological and consumer benefits of plastic bags

• Arguments that plastic bags are more eco-friendly to produce than paper bags and are completely recyclable

• Arguments that plastic bags are reusable, are better than paper for storing moist products, and save on use of plastic wrapping

• Arguments that bans don't work and that other polices would be more effective at tackling this problem, such as placing higher fees on plastic bags or implementing intensive recycling

• campaigns

WARRANT ~-----+--~POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL V A skeptic could attack the warrant and backing: Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify

a ban.

BACKING Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are significantly harmful to the oceans:

• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat plastic bags, which look like jellyfish; birds and surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which often results in death or starvation).

• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up the food chain, including into the fish we eat, jeopardizing food safety.

• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example, some ocean insect species breed more quickly where plastics are floating.

• National Geographic News reports a study showing that II degrading plastics are leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly threatening ocean animals, and us."

• Arguments that data about harm to sea life are primarily anecdotal and amplified by photographs appealing to pathos

• Argument conceding that some harm is done to the ocean, but research has not yet documented the extent of the danger to marine life

• Arguments that ocean damage is not severe enough to justify a ban, especially when balanced against the ecological benefits of plastic bags

• Arguments that the problem of ocean pollution might soon be solved by science, which is on track to devise biological methods to ll eat plastic" or to make plastic more biodegradable

40 Chapter 3

and backing by arguing that the harm caused by plastic pollution is not significant enough to justify a ban on plastic bags. These rebuttal strategies are outlined in the right-hand column of our schema:

As this example shows, adversarial readers can question an argument's reasons and grounds, or its warrant and backing, or sometimes both. Conditions of rebuttal remind writers to look at their arguments from the perspective of skeptics.

The use of a Toulmin schema to plan an argument strategy can also be illus- trated in the issue we examined in the last chapter whether the public should support marine parks that use trained captive orcas and dolphins for public enter- tainment. In the following example, the writer argues that the public should not support these parks because they inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitat.

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks

REASON: because marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitat.

GROUNDS Evidence and arguments showing the inhumane difference between the wild environment of dolphins and orcas and their environment in captivity:

• In the wild, dolphins swim in pods in the open oceans, dolphins around forty miles a day, and orcas around sixty miles a day, whereas marine park tanks provide only a fraction of that space.

• Evidence that the echoes from concrete pools, music of dolphin shows, and the applause and noise of audiences are stressful and harmful

• Statistics about the excessive number of performances or about the levels of stress hormones produced in dolphins

Writer must anticipate these attacks from skeptics

t J-----:/IIPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL

A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds":

• Argument that these programs must observe strict accreditation standards for animal welfare, health, and education

• Marine parks exercise dophins' and orcas' intelligence and abilities and build on their natural behaviors.

• Many dolphins and orcas have been bred in captivity, so they aren't #wild."

• The education and entertainment provided by marine parks promote public concern for dolphins and orcas.

WARRANT "-------------,. 11POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL It is wrong to separate wild animals from their natural habitats.

BACKING Arguments showing why it is unwise, unethical, or otherwise wrong to separate wild animals from their natural environments:

• Examples of wild animals (those in aquariums and zoos) that do not thrive in artificially constructed environments, that don't live long, or that suffer psychological stress from confinement

• An ecological argument about the beauty of animals in the wild and the complexity of the natural webs of which animals are a part

• A philosophical argument that humans shouldn't treat animals as instruments for their own enjoyment or profit

A skeptic can attack the warrant and backing.

• The natural habitat is not always the best environment for wild animals.

• Captivity may actually preserve some species.

• Scientists have been able to conduct valuable studies of dolphins and learn more about orcas in captivity, which would have been impossible in the wild.

The Logical Structure of Arguments 41

Toulmin's final term, used to limit the force of a claim and indicate the degree of its probable truth, is qualifier. The qualifier reminds us that real-world argu- ments almost never prove a claim. We may say things such as very likely, probably, or maybe to indicate the strength of the claim we are willing to draw from our grounds and warrant. Thus, if there are exceptions to your warrant or if your grounds are not very strong, you may have to qualify your claim. For example, you might say, "States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because ban- ning plastic bags would be a small first step toward reducing plastic pollution of the oceans" or "Except for limited cases of scientific research, dolphins and orcas should not be held in captivity." In our future displays of the Toulmin scheme we will omit the qualifiers, but you should always remember that no argument is 100 percent conclusive.

For Writing and Discussion Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema Working individually or in small groups, imagine that you have to write arguments developing the five enthymemes listed in the first For Class Discussion exercise in this chapter. Use the Toulmin schema to help you determine what you need to consider when developing each enthymeme. We suggest that you try a four-box diagram structure as a way of visualizing the schema. We have applied the Toulmin schema to the first enthymeme: "We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too bossy."

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM We shouldn't e lect Joe as committee chair

REASON because he is too bossy.

GROUNDS

Evidence of Joe's bossiness:

• Examples of the way he dominates meetings-doesn't call on people, talks too much

• Testimony about his bossiness from people who have served with him on committees

• Anecdotes about his abrasive style

WARRANT Bossy people make bad committee chairs.

BACKING Problems caused by bossy committee chairs:

• Bossy people don't inspire cooperation and enthusiam.

• Bossy people make others angry.

• Bossy people tend to make bad decisions because they don't incorporate advice from others.

CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL Attacking the reason and grounds:

Evidence that Joe is not bossy or is only occasionally bossy:

• Counterevidence showing his collaborative style

• Testimony from people who have liked Joe as a leader and claim he isn't bossy; testimony about his cooperativeness and kindness

• Testimony that anecdotes about Joe's bossiness aren't typical

CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL Attacking the warrant and backing:

• Arguments that bossiness can be a good trait

o Sometimes bossy people make good chairpersons.

o This committee needs a bossy person who can make decisions and get things done.

• Argument that Joe has other traits of good leadership that outweigh his bossiness

42 Chapter 3

Using Toulmin' s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument 3.3 Use the Toulmin system to generate ideas for your argument and test it

for completeness.

So far we have seen that a claim, a reason, and a warrant form the frame for a line of reasoning in an argument. Most of the words in an argument, however, are devoted to grounds and backing.

Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes For an illustration of how a writer can use the Toulmin schema to generate ideas for an argument, consider the following case. In April2005, the Texas House of Representatives passed a bill banning "sexually suggestive" cheer leading. Across the nation, evening TV comedians poked fun at the bill, while newspaper edito- rialists debated its wisdom and constitutionality. In one of our classes, however, several students, including one who had earned a high school varsity letter in competitive cheer leading, defended the bill by contending that provocative dance moves hurt the athletic image of cheerleading. In the following example, which draws on ideas developed in class discussion, we create a hypothetical student writer (we'll call her Chandale) who argues in defense of the Texas bill. Chan- dale's argument is based on the following enthymeme:

The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school cheerleaders is a good law because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.

Chandale used the Toulmin schema to brainstorm ideas for developing her argu- ment. Here are her notes:

Chandale's Planning Notes Using the Toulmin Schema

Enthymeme: The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school cheerleaders is a good law because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.

Grounds: First, I've got to use evidence to show that cheerleaders are athletes.

• Cheerleaders at my high school are carefully chosen for their stamina and skill after exhausting two-week tryouts.

• We begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of warm-up exercises- we are also expected to work out on our own for at least an hour on week- ends and on days without practice.

• We learned competitive routines and stunts consisting of lifts, tosses, flips, catches, and gymnastic moves. This requires athletic ability! We'd practice these stunts for hours each week.

• Throughout the year cheerleaders have to attend practices, camps, and workshops to learn new routines and stunts.

• Our squad competed in competitions around the state. • Competitive cheerleading is a growing movement across the country the

University of Maryland has made it a varsity sport for women. • Skimpy uniforms and suggestive dance moves destroy the image of cheer-

leaders as athletes by making women eye candy (for example, the Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders).

The Logical Structure of Arguments 43

Warrant: It is a good thing to view female cheerleaders as athletes.

Backing: Now I need to make the case that it is good to see cheerleaders as athletes rather than as eye candy.

• Athletic competition builds self-esteem, independence, and a powerful sense of achievement. It also contributes to health, strength, and conditioning.

• Competitive cheer leading is one of the few sports where teams are made up of both men and women. (Why is this good? Should I use this?)

• The suggestive dance moves turn women into sex objects whose function is to be gazed at by men, which suggests that women's value is based on their beauty and sex appeal.

• We are talking about HIGH SCHOOL cheerleading it is a very bad early influence on girls to model themselves on Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders or sexy videos of rock stars.

• Junior-high girls want to do what senior-high girls do suggestive dance moves promote sexuality way too early.

Conditions of Rebuttal: Would anybody try to rebut my reasons and grounds that cheerleading is an athletic activity?

• No. I think it is obvious that cheerleading is an athletic activity once they see my evidence.

• However, they might not think of cheerleading as a sport. They might say that the University of Maryland just declared it a sport as a cheap way to meet Title IX federal rules to have more women's sports. I'll have to make sure that I show that cheerleading is really a sport.

• They also might say that competitive cheerleading shouldn't be encour- aged because it is too dangerous lots of serious injuries, including paral- ysis, have been caused by mistakes in doing flips, lifts, and tosses. If I include this, maybe I could say that other sports are dangerous also, and it is in fact danger that makes this sport so exciting.

Would anyone doubt my warrant and backing that it is good to see female cheerleaders as athletes?

• Yes, all those people who laughed at the Texas legislature think that people are being too prudish and that banning suggestive dance moves violates free expression. I'll need to make my case that it is bad for young girls to see themselves as sex objects too early.

The information that Chandale lists under "grounds" is what she sees as the facts of the case the hard data she will use as evidence to support her contention that cheer leading is an athletic activity. The following paragraph shows how this argu- ment might look in a more formally written format.

First Part of Chandale's Argument

Although evening TV comedians have made fun of the Texas legislature's desire to ban "suggestive" dance moves from cheerleading routines, I applaud this bill because it promotes a healthy view of female cheerleaders as athletes rather than showgirls. I was lucky enough to attend a high school

(continued)

Summarizes oppos- • • 1ngv1ew

States her claim

44 Chapter 3

For grounds, uses personal experience details to show that cheer leading is an athletic activity

Provides more grounds by show- • • • Ing emerging views of cheer leading as a competitive sport

Supplies warrant: It is good to see cheer- leaders as athletic and bad to see them as sex objects

Supplies backing: Shows benefits that come from see- ing cheerleaders as athletes

Anticipates an objection

where cheer leading is a sport, and I earned a varsity letter as a cheerleader. To get on my high school's cheer leading squad, students have to go through an exhausting two-week tryout of workouts and instruction in the basic routines; then they are chosen based on their stamina and skill. Once on the squad, cheerleaders begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of grueling warm-up exercises, and they are expected to exercise on their own on weekends. As a result of this regimen, cheerleaders achieve and maintain a top level of physical fitness. In addition, to get on the squad, students must be able to do handstands, cartwheels, handsprings, high jumps, and splits. Each year the squad builds up to its complex routines and stunts con- sisting of lifts, tosses, flips, catches, and gymnastic moves that only trained athletes can do. In tough competitions at the regional and state levels, the cheerleading squad demonstrates its athletic talent. This view of cheer- leading as a competitive sport is also spreading to colleges. As reported recently in a number of newspapers, the University of Maryland has made cheer leading a varsity sport, and many other universities are following suit. Athletic performance of this caliber is a far cry from the sexy dancing that many high school girls often associate with cheer leading. By banning sug- gestive dancing in cheerleading routines, the Texas legislature creates an opportunity for schools to emphasize the athleticism of cheer leading.

As you can see, Chandale has plenty of evidence for arguing that competi- tive cheerleading is an athletic activity quite different from sexy dancing. But how effective is this argument as it stands? Is Chandale's argument complete? The Toulmin schema encourages writers to include if needed for the intended audience explicit support for their warrants as well as attention to conditions for rebuttal. Because the overwhelming national response to the Texas law was ridi- cule at the perceived prudishness of the legislators, Chandale decided to expand her argument as follows:

Continuation of Chandale's Argument

This emphasis on cheerleaders as athletes rather than sexy dancers is good for girls. The erotic dance moves that many high school cheerleaders now incorporate into their routines show that they are emulating the Dallas Cow- boys cheerleaders or pop stars in music videos. Our already sexually satu- rated culture (think of the suggestive clothing marketed to little girls) pushes girls and women to measure their value by their beauty and sex appeal. It would be far healthier, both physically and psychologically, if high school cheerleaders were identified as athletes. For women and men both, competi- tive cheerleading can build self-esteem, pride in teamwork, and a powerful sense of achievement, as well as promote health, strength, and fitness.

Some people might object to competitive cheerleading by saying that cheer leading isn't really a sport. Some have accused the University of Mary- land of making cheer leading a varsity sport only as a cheap way of meeting Title IX requirements. But anyone who has watched competitive cheer lead- ing, and imagined what it would be like to be thrown high into the air, knows

The Logical Structure of Arguments 45

instinctively that this is a sport indeed. In fact, other persons might object to competitive cheerleading because it is too dangerous, with potential for very severe injuries, including paralysis. Obviously the sport is dangerous but so are many sports, including football, gymnastics, diving, and trampoline. The danger and difficulty of the sport are part of its appeal. Part of what can make cheerleaders as athletes better role models for girls than cheerleaders as erotic dancers is the courage and training needed for success. Of course, the Texas legislators might not have had athleticism in mind when they banned suggestive dancing. They might only have been promoting their vision of morality. But at stake are the role models we set for young girls. I'll pick an athlete over a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader every time.

Our example suggests how a writer can use the Toulmin schema to generate ideas for an argument. For evidence, Chandale draws primarily on her personal experiences as a cheerleader I athlete and on her knowledge of popular culture. She also draws on her reading of several newspaper articles about the University of Maryland making cheerleading a varsity sport. (In an academic paper rather than a newspaper editorial, she would need to document these sources through formal citations.) Although many arguments depend on research, many can be supported wholly or in part by your own personal experiences, so don't neglect the wealth of evidence from your own life when searching for data. (Chapter 4 provides a more detailed discussion of evidence in arguments.)

Extend=ed Student Exa:mple: Girls and Violent Video Ga:mes Let's look at one more example of how the Toulmin system can help you generate ideas for your argument. In this case, we will look at a complete example from student writer Carmen Tieu, whose evolving argument about girls and violent video games was introduced in the last chapter. Carmen's assignment was to write a "supporting reasons" argument, which is a shortened form of the classi- cal argument described at the beginning of Chapter 2. It has all the features of a classical argument except for the requirement to summarize and rebut opposing views. In planning her argument, Carmen decided to use four lines of reasoning, as shown in her because clauses listed at the end of Chapter 2. She began by creat- ing a basic Toulmin frame for each reason:

Carmen's Toulmin Frames

My claim: Playing first-person-shooter (FPS) video games is good for girls

1. Reason: because playing FPS games empowers girls when they beat guys at their own game. Warrant: It is good for girls to feel empowered.

2. Reason: because playing FPS games equips girls with skills that free them from feminine stereotypes. Warrant: It is good for girls to be freed from feminine stereotypes.

3. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls a different way of bonding with males. Warrant: It is good for girls to find a different way of bonding with males.

Responds to objection by supplying more evidence that ch eer- leading is a sport; in fact , it is a dangerous sport

Sums up by returning to claim

46 Chapter 3

4. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls new insights into a male subculture. Warrant: It is good for girls to get new insights into a male subculture.

As Carmen began drafting her essay, she was confident she could support her first three lines of reasoning. For reason 1 she could use evidence (grounds) from per- sonal experience to show how she learned to beat guys at video games. She could also support her warrant by showing how beating guys made her feel empow- ered. For reason 2, she decided that she primarily needed to support her warrant (backing). It is obvious that playing FPS games breaks feminine stereotypes. What she had to show was why it was good or valuable to be freed from feminine ste- reotypes. Reason 3, she felt, needed support for both the reason and the warrant. She had to show how these games gave her a different way of bonding with males (grounds) and then why this different way was a good thing (backing). Carmen felt that her reason 4 was the most complex. Here are her more detailed planning notes for reason 4:

Carmen's Planning Notes for Reason 4

Enthymeme: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great activities for girls because playing these games gives girls new insights into male subculture.

Grounds: I've got to show the insights into male subculture I gained.

• The guys who play these video games are intensely competitive. 0 They can play for hours without stopping intense concentration. 0 They don't multitask no small talk during the games; total focus on

playing. 0 They take delight in winning at all costs they boast with every kill;

they call each other losers.

• They often seem homophobic or misogynist.

0 They put each other down by calling opponents "faggot" and "wussy," or other similar names that are totally obscene.

o They associate victory with being macho.

Warrant: It is beneficial for a girl to get these insights into male subculture.

Backing: How can I show these benefits?

• It was a good learning experience to see how girls' way of bonding is very different from that of guys; girls tend to be nicer to one another rather than insulting one another. Although I enjoy winning at FPS games, as a girl I feel alienated from this male subculture.

• The game atmosphere tends to bring out these homophobic traits; guys don't talk this way as much when they are doing other things.

• This experience helped me see why men may progress faster than women in a competitive business environment men seem programmed to crush one another, and they devote enormous energy to the process.

• What else can I say? I need to think about this further.

Based on these planning notes, Carmen's composed argument went through sev- eral drafts. Here is her final version.

The Logical Structure of Arguments 47

Student Essay

Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls

Carmen Tieu

It is ten o'clock P.M., game time. My entire family knows by now that when I am horne on Saturday nights, ten P.M. is my gaming night when I play my favorite first-person-shooter (FPS) games, usually Halo 3, on Xbox Live. Seated in my mobile chair in front of my family's 42-inch flat screen HDTV, I log onto Xbox Live. A small message in the bottom of the screen appears with the words "KrlpL3r is online," alerting me that one of my male friends is online and already playing. As the game loads, I send KrlpL3r a game invite, and he joins me in the pre-game room lobby.

In the game room lobby, all the players who will be participating in the match are chatting aggressively with each other: "Oh man, we're gonna own you guys so bad." When a member of the opposing team notices my garner tag, "ernbracingapathy," he begins to insult me by calling me various degrading, gay-associated names: "Embracing apa-what? Man, it sounds so erno. Are you some fag? I bet you want me so bad. You're gonna get owned!" Players always assume from my garner tag that I am a gay male, never a female. The possibility that I am a girl is the last thing on their minds. Of course, they are right that girls seldom play first-person-shooter games. Girls are socialized into activities that promote togetherness and talk, not high-intensity competition involving fantasized shooting and killing. The violent nature of the games tends to repulse girls. Opponents of violent video games typically hold that these games are so graphically violent that they will influence players to become amoral and sadistic. Feminists also argue that violent video games often objectify women by portraying them as sexualized toys for men's gratification. Although I understand these objections, I argue that playing first-person-shooter games can actually be good for girls.

First, playing FPS games gives girls the chance to beat guys at their own game. When I first began playing Halo 2, I was horrible. My male friends constantly put me down for my lack of skills, constantly telling me that I was awful, "but for a girl, you're good." But it didn't take much practice until I learned to operate the two joysticks with precision and with quick instinctual reactions. While guys and girls can play many physical games together, such as basketball or touch football, guys will always have the advantage because on average they are taller, faster, and stronger than females. However, when it comes to video games, girls can compete equally because physical strength isn't required, just quick reaction time and man- ual dexterity skills that women possess in abundance. The adrenaline rush that I receive from beating a bunch of testosterone-driven guys at something they supposedly excel at is empowering and exciting; I especially savor the look of horror on their faces when I completely destroy them.

(continued)

Title makes persua- sive claim

Attention -grabbing scene

Continues scene and provides more background

Sums up opposing -· v1ews

States claim

States first reason

For grounds, uses :personal narrative to show how she can beat guys

Briefly backs warrant by showing the good feeling of empowerment

48 Chapter 3

States second reason

Details focus on back- ing for warrant: It is good for girls -t-o be freed from feminine stereotypes

Provides third reason

Uses a narrative example for grounds; shows how FPS games give her a dif- ferent way of bonding with males

Backing for warrant: This new kind of bonding is good

Provides final reason

Provides grounds: gives examples of what she learned about male subculture

Provides backing for warrant: Shows value of learning about male subcultu-re while keeping sepa- rate from it

Because female video garners are so rare, playing shooter games allows girls to be freed from feminine stereotypes and increases their confidence. Our culture generally portrays females as caring, nonviolent, and motherly beings who are not supposed to enjoy FPS games with their war themes and violent killings. I am in no way rejecting these traditional female values because I myself am a compassionate, tree-hugging vegan. But I also like to break these stereotypes. Playing video games offers a great way for females to break the social mold of only doing "girly" things and introduces them to something that males commonly enjoy. Playing video games with sexist males has also helped me become more outspoken. Psychologically, I can stand up to aggressive males because I know that I can beat them at their own game. The confidence I've gotten from excelling at shooter games may have even carried over into the academic arena because I am majoring in chemical engineering and have no fear whatsoever of intruding into the male-dominated territory of math and science. Knowing that I can beat all the guys in my engineering classes at Halo gives me that little extra confi- dence boost during exams and labs.

Another reason for girls to play FPS games is that it gives us a different way of bonding with guys. Once when I was discussing my latest Halo 3 matches with one of my regular male friends, a guy whom I didn't know turned around and said, "You play Halo? Wow, you just earned my respect." Although I was annoyed that this guy apparently didn't respect women in general, it is apparent that guys will talk to me differently now that I can play video games. From a guy's perspective I can also appreciate why males find video games so addicting. You get joy from perfecting your skills so that your high-angle grenade kills become a thing of beauty. While all of these skills may seem trivial to some, the acknowledgment of my skills from other players leaves me with a perverse sense of pride in knowing that I played the game better than everyone else. Since I have started playing, I have also noticed that it is much easier to talk to males about lots of differ- ent subjects. Talking video games with guys is a great ice-breaker that leads to different kinds of friendships outside the realm of romance and dating.

Finally, playing violent video games can be valuable for girls because it gives them insights into a disturbing part of male subculture. When the testosterone starts kicking in, guys become blatantly homophobic and misogynistic. Any player, regardless of gender, who cannot play well (as measured by having a high number of kills and a low number of deaths) is made fun of by being called gay, a girl, or worse. Even when some guys finally meet a female player, they will also insult her by calling her ales- bian or an ugly fat chick who has no life. Their insults towards the girl will dramatically increase if she beats them because they feel so humiliated. In their eyes, playing worse than a girl is embarrassing because girls are sup- posed to be inept at FPS games. Whenever I play Halo better than my male friends, they often comment on how "it makes no sense that we're getting owned by Carmen."

When males act like such sexist jerks it causes one to question if they are always like this. My answer is no because I know, firsthand, that when guys like that are having one-on-one conversations with a female, they show a softer side, and the macho side goes away. They don't talk about how girls

The Logical Structure of Arguments 49

should stay in the kitchen and make them dinner, but rather how they think it is cool that they share a fun, common interest with a girl. But when they are in a group of males their fake, offensive macho side comes out. I find this phenomenon troubling because it shows a real problem in the way boys are socialized. To be a real"man" around other guys, they have to put down women and gays in activities involving aggressive behavior where men are supposed to excel. But they don't become macho and aggressive in activities like reading and writing, which they think of as feminine. I've always known that guys are more physically aggressive than women, but until I started playing violent video games I had never realized how this aggression is related to misogyny and homophobia. Perhaps these traits aren't deeply ingrained in men but come out primarily in a competitive male environment. Whatever the cause, it is an ugly phenomenon, and I'm glad that I learned more about it. Beating guys at FPS games has made me a more confident woman while being more aware of gender differences in the way men and women are socialized. I joined the guys in playing Halo, but I didn't join their subculture of ridiculing women and gays.

The Th-esis-Governed "Self-Announcing" Structure of Classical Argument Like the complete classical argument explained at the beginning of Chapter 2, Carmen's supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-governed structure in which she states her claim near the end of the introduction, begins body paragraphs with clearly stated reasons, and uses effective transitions throughout to keep her reader on track. This kind of tightly organized structure is sometimes called a self-announcing or closed-form structure because the writer states his or her claim before beginning the body of the argument and forecasts the structure that is to follow. In contrast, an unfolding or open-form structure often doesn't give away the writer's position until late in the essay. (We discuss delayed-thesis arguments in Chapter 6.) A general rule of thumb for arguments using more than one line of reasoning is to place your most important or most interesting reason last, where it will have the greatest impact on your readers.

In writing a self-announcing argument, students often ask how much of the argument to summarize in the thesis statement. Consider Carmen's options:

• She might announce only her claim:

Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.

• She might forecast a series of parallel reasons:

There are several reasons that playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.

• She might forecast the actual number of reasons:

I will present four reasons that playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.

• Or she might forecast the whole argument by including her because clauses with her claim:

Su ms up why her playing FPS games is valuable

50 Chapter 3

Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls because it lets girls feel empowered by beating guys at their own game, because it frees girls from feminine stereotypes, because it gives girls a different way of bonding with guys, and because it gives girls new insights into a male subculture.

This last thesis statement forecasts not only the claim, but also the supporting reasons that will serve as topic sentences for key paragraphs throughout the body of the paper.

No formula can tell you precisely how much of your argument to forecast in the introduction. However, these suggestions can guide you: In writing a self- announcing argument, forecast only what is needed for clarity. In short arguments, readers often need only your claim. In longer arguments, however, or in especially complex arguments, readers appreciate your forecasting the complete structure of the argument (claim with reasons). Also, as we explain in later chapters, the direct- ness of classical argument is not always the best way to reach all audiences. On many occasions more open-form or delayed-thesis approaches are more effective.

For Writing and Discussion Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal

Individual task:

1. Choose one of the following reasons. Then write a passage that provides grounds to support the reason. Use details from personal experience or imagine plausible, hypothetical details. a. Web surfing or checking social media can be harmful to college students because it wastes study time. b. Getting one's news from social media undermines informed citizenship because social media tend

to sensationalize news events. c. The university's decision to raise parking fees for solo drivers is a good environmental plan because

it encourages students to use public transportation. 2. Now create an argument to support the warrant for the reason you chose in task 1. The warrants for

each of the arguments are stated below. a. Support this warrant: Wasting study time is harmful for college students. b. Support this warrant: Sensationalizing of the news is harmful to citizens' understanding. c. Support this warrant: It is good for the environment to encourage students to use public

transportation.

Group task: Working in pairs, small groups, or as a class, share your strategies for supporting your chosen reason and warrant.

Conclusion Chapters 2 and 3 have provided an anatomy of argument. They have shown that the core of an argument is a claim with reasons that usually can be summarized in one or more because clauses attached to the claim. Often, it is as important to articu- late and support the underlying assumptions in your argument (warrants) as it is to support the stated reasons because a successful argument should be rooted in

The Logical Structure of Arguments 51

your audience's beliefs and values. To plan an audience-based argument strategy, arguers can use the Toulmin schema to help them discover grounds, warrants, and backing for their arguments and test them through conditions of rebuttal.

A Note on the Informal Fallacies The Toulmin system explained in this chapter is a response to the problem of uncertainty or inconclusiveness in real-world arguments, where we have to deal with probability as opposed to the certainty of formal logic. In the real world, we seldom encounter arguments that are absolutely conclusive. We can say that an argument is more or less "persuasive" or "non-persuasive" to certain audiences but not that it proves its case conclusively.

Another response to the problem of conclusiveness is the class of reasoning prob- lems known as the informal fallacies. (You have probably heard of at least some of them with their exotic, Latinate, or sometimes funny names hasty generalization, post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, or poisoning the well.) They are called "informal" because, like the Toulmin system, they don't focus on the form of the syllogism.* Although the fallacies are not useful for helping writers plan and test their own arguments, they can often help us name what is uncertain or illogically seductive in someone else's argument. They function as a compendium of the ways that flawed arguments can nevertheless seem persuasive on the surface. To provide flexibility in the way that informal fallacies can be integrated into a course, we have placed them all together in a convenient appendix at the end of the text.

Writing Assignment Plan of an Argument's Details This assignment asks you to return to the working thesis statement that you created for the brief writing assignment in Chapter 2. From that thesis statement extract one of your enthymemes (your claim with one of your because clauses). Write out the warrant for your enthymeme. Then use the Toulmin schema to brain- storm the detai ls you might use (grounds, backing, conditions of rebuttal) to convert your enthymeme into a fleshed-out argument. Use as your model Chandale's planning notes or Carmen's planning notes earl ier in this chapter. Note that this is a process-oriented brainstorming task aimed at helping you generate ideas for an argument in progress. You may end up changing your ideas substantially as you compose the actual argument. (An assignment to write a complete "supporting reasons" argument like Carmen's comes at the end of the next chapter, which explains the uses of evidence.)

*A syllogism is a three-part logical structure containing a major premise, a minor p remise, and a conclusion. If the syllogism is worded in a valid, correct way and if the premises are both true, then the conclusion must necessarily be true. Major premise: All men are mortal. Minor premise: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Chapter 5

Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn to:

5.1 Explain how the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos work together to move your audience.

5.2 Create effective appeals to ethos.

5.3 Create effective appeals to pathos.

5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the "timeliness" of your argument.

5.5 Explain how images make visual appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.

5.6 Explain how audience-based reasons appeal to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.

In Chapters 3 and 4 we focused on logos the logical structure of reasons and evidence in argument. Even though we have treated logos in its own chapters, an effective arguer's concern for logos is always connected to ethos and pathos (see the rhetorical triangle in Figure 2.2) and always considers the kairos, or timeliness of the argument. This chapter explains how arguers can create effective appeals from ethos, pathos, and kairos. It also explains the crucial role played by concrete language, examples, narrative stories, and use of images in enhancing ethical and emotional appeals. We conclude by showing how audience-based reasons enhance logos while also appealing to ethos and pathos.

67

68 Chapter 5

Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview 5.1 Explain how the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos work

together to move your audience.

At first, one may be tempted to think of logos, ethos, and pathos as "ingredients" in an essay, like spices you add to a casserole. But a more appropriate meta- phor might be that of different lamps and filters used on theater spotlights to vary lighting effects on a stage. Thus, if you switch on a pathos lamp (possibly through using more concrete language or vivid examples), the resulting image will engage the audience's sympathy and emotions more deeply. If you overlay an ethos filter (perhaps by adopting a different tone toward your audience), the projected image of the writer as a person will be subtly altered. If you switch on a logos lamp (by adding, say, more data for evidence), you will draw the reader's attention to the logical appeal of the argument. Depending on how you modulate the lamps and filters, you shape and color your readers' perception of you and your argument.

Our metaphor is imperfect, of course, but our point is that logos, ethos, and pathos work together to create an impact on the reader. Consider, for example, the different impacts of the following arguments, all having roughly the same logical appeal.

1. People should adopt a vegetarian diet because doing so will help prevent the cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.

2. If you are planning to eat chicken tonight, please consider how much that chicken suffered so that you could have a tender and juicy meal. Commer- cial growers cram the chickens so tightly together into cages that they never walk on their own legs, see sunshine, or flap their wings. In fact, their beaks must be cut off to keep them from pecking each other's eyes out. One way to prevent such suffering is for more people to become vegetarians.

3. People who eat meat are no better than sadists who torture other sentient creatures to enhance their own pleasure. Unless you enjoy sadistic tyranny over others, you have only one choice: Become a vegetarian.

4. People committed to justice might consider the extent to which our love of eating meat requires the agony of animals. A visit to a modern chicken fac- tory where chickens live their entire lives in tiny, darkened coops without room to spread their wings might raise doubts about our right to inflict such suffering on sentient creatures. Indeed, such a visit might persuade us that vegetarianism is a more just alternative.

Each argument has roughly the same logical core: But the impact of each argument varies. The difference between arguments

1 and 2, most of our students report, is the greater emotional power of argument 2. Whereas argument 1 refers only to the abstraction "cruelty to animals," argu- ment 2 paints a vivid picture of chickens with their beaks cut off to prevent their pecking each other blind. Argument 2 makes a stronger appeal to pathos (not necessarily a stronger argument), stirring feelings by appealing simultaneously to the heart and to the head.

ENTHYMEME

CLAIM: People should adopt a vegetarian diet

REASON: because doing so will help prevent

the cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.

GROUNDS

• Evidence of suffering in commercial chicken

farms, where chickens are crammed together

and lash out at one another

• Evidence that only widespread adoption of

vegetarianism will end factory farming

WARRANT If we have an alternative to making animals

suffer, we should use it.

Moving Your Audience 69

The difference between arguments 1 and 3 concerns both ethos and pathos. Argument 3 appeals to the emotions through highly charged words such as tor- ture, sadists, and tyranny. But argument 3 also draws attention to its writer, and most of our students report not liking that writer very much. His stance is self- righteous and insulting. In contrast, argument 4's author establishes a more posi- tive ethos. He establishes rapport by assuming his audience is committed to justice and by qualifying his argument with the conditional term might. He also invites sympathy for the chickens' plight an appeal to pathos by offering a specific description of chickens crammed into tiny coops.

Which of these arguments is best? The answer depends on the intended audi- ence. Arguments 1 and 4 seem aimed at receptive audiences reasonably open to exploration of the issue, whereas arguments 2 and 3 seem designed to shock com- placent audiences or to rally a group of true believers. Even argument 3, which is too abusive to be effective in most instances, might work as a rallying speech at a convention of animal liberation activists.

Our point thus far is that logos, ethos, and pathos are different aspects of the same whole, different lenses for intensifying or softening the light beam you project onto the screen. Every choice you make as a writer affects in some way each of the three appeals. The rest of this chapter examines these choices in more detail.

How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility 5.2 Create effective appeals to ethos.

The ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians recognized that an argument would be more persuasive if the audience trusted the speaker. Aristotle argued that such trust resides within the speech itself, not in the speaker's prior reputation. Speakers proj- ect their credibility through their manner and delivery, their tone, their word choice,

70 Chapter 5

their use of trustworthy evidence, and the sympathy and fairness with which they treat alternative views. Aristotle called the impact of the speaker's credibility the appeal from ethos. How does a writer create credibility? We suggest four ways:

• Be knowledgeable about your issue. The first way to gain credibility is to be credible that is, to argue from a strong base of knowledge, to have at hand the examples, personal experiences, statistics, and other empirical data needed to make a sound case. If you have done your homework, you will command the attention of most audiences.

• Be fair. Besides being knowledgeable about your issue, you need to demon- strate fairness and courtesy to alternative views. Because true argument can occur only where people may reasonably disagree with one another, your ethos will be strengthened if you demonstrate that you understand and empa- thize with other points of view. There are times when you may appropriately scorn an opposing view. But these times are rare, and they mostly occur when you address audiences predisposed to your view. Demonstrating empathy to alternative views is generally the best strategy.

• Build a bridge to your audience. A third means of establishing credibility- building a bridge to your audience has been treated at length in our ear- lier discussions of audience-based reasons. By grounding your argument in shared values and assumptions, you demonstrate your goodwill and enhance your image as a trustworthy person respectful of your audience's views. We mention audience-based reasons here to show how this aspect of logos- finding the reasons that are most rooted in the audience's values also affects your ethos as a person respectful of your readers' views.

• Demonstrate professionalism. Finally, you can enhance your ethos by the professionalism revealed in your manuscript itself. Appropriate style, care- ful editing and proofreading, accurate documentation, and adherence to the genre conventions expected by your audience all contribute to the image of the person behind the writing. If your manuscript is sloppy, marred by spell- ing or grammatical errors, or inattentive to the tone and style of the expected genre, your credibility will be damaged.

How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions 5.3 Create effective appeals to pathos.

Before the federal government outlawed unsolicited telephone marketing, news- papers published flurries of articles complaining about annoying telemarketers. Within this context, a United Parcel Service worker, Bobbi Buchanan, wanted to create sympathy for telemarketers. She wrote a New York Times op-ed piece entitled "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling," which begins as follows:

To those Americans who have signed up for the new national do-not-call list, my mother [a telemarketer] is a pest .... To others, she's just another anonymous voice on the other end of the line. But to those who know her, she's someone struggling to make a buck, to feed herself and pay her utilities.

Moving Your Audience 71

The op-ed continues with a heartwarming description of Buchanan's mother, La Verne. Buchanan's rhetorical aim is to transform the reader's anonymous, depersonalized image of telemarketers into the concrete image of her mother: a "hardworking, first generation American; the daughter of a Pittsburgh steel- worker; survivor of the Great Depression; the widow of a World War II veteran; a mother of seven, grandmother of eight, great-grandmother of three .... "The intended effect is to alter our view of telemarketers through the positive emotions triggered by our identification with La Verne.

By urging readers to think of "my mother, La Verne" instead of an anonymous telemarketer, Buchanan illustrates the power of pathos, an appeal to the reader's emotions. Arguers create pathetic appeals whenever they connect their claims to readers' values, thus triggering positive or negative emotions depending on whether these values are affirmed or transgressed. Pro-life proponents appeal to pathos when they graphically describe the dismemberment of a fetus during an abortion. Proponents of improved women's health and status in Africa appeal to pathos when they describe the helplessness of wives forced to have unprotected sex with husbands likely infected with HIV. Opponents of oil exploration in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) appeal to pathos when they lovingly describe the calving grounds of caribou.

Are such appeals legitimate? Our answer is yes, if they intensify and deepen our response to an issue rather than divert our attention from it. Because under- standing is a matter of feeling as well as perceiving, pathos can give access to nonlogical, but not necessarily nonrational, ways of knowing. Pathos helps us see what is deeply at stake in an issue, what matters to the whole person. Appeals to pathos help readers walk in the writer's shoes. That is why arguments are often improved through the use of stories that make issues come alive or sensory details that allow us to see, feel, and taste the reality of a problem.

Appeals to pathos become illegitimate, we believe, when they confuse an issue rather than clarify it. Consider the case of a student who argues that Professor Jones ought to raise his grade from aD to a C, lest he lose his scholarship and be forced to leave college, shattering the dreams of his dear old grandmother. To the extent that students' grades should be based on performance or effort, the student's image of the dear old grandmother is an illegitimate appeal to pathos because it diverts the reader from rational criteria to irrational criteria. The weep- ing grandmother may provide a legitimate motive for the student to study harder but not for the professor to change a grade.

Although it is difficult to classify all the ways that writers can create appeals from pathos, we will focus on four strategies: concrete language; specific exam- ples and illustrations; narratives; and connotations of words, metaphors, and analogies. Each of these strategies lends presence to an argument by creating immediacy and emotional impact.

Use Concrete Language Concrete language one of the chief ways that writers achieve voice can increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of a writer's prose. When used in argument, concrete language typically heightens pathos. For example, consider the differences between the first and second drafts of the following student argument:

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FIRST DRAFT

People who prefer driving a car to taking a bus think that taking the bus will increase the stress of the daily commute. Just the opposite is true. Not being able to find a parking spot when in a hurry to be at work or school can cause a person stress. Taking the bus gives a person time to read or sleep, etc. It could be used as a mental break.

SECOND DRAFT (CONCRETE LANGUAGE ADDED)

Taking the bus can be more relaxing than driving a car. Having someone else behind the wheel gives people time to chat with friends or study for an exam. They can check Instagram and Twitter, send text messages, doze off, read their favorite news website, or get lost in a novel rather than foam at the mouth looking for a parking space.

In this revision, specific details enliven the prose by creating images that evoke positive feelings. Who wouldn't want some free time to doze off or to get lost in a novel?

Use Specific Examples and Illustrations Specific examples and illustrations serve two purposes in an argument: They pro- vide evidence that supports your reasons; simultaneously, they give your argu- ment presence and emotional resonance. Note the flatness of the following draft arguing for the value of multicultural studies in a university core curriculum:

FIRST DRAFT

Another advantage of a multicultural education is that it will help us see our own culture in a broader perspective. If all we know is our own heritage, we might not be inclined to see anything bad about this heritage because we won' t know anything else. But if we study other heritages, we can see the costs and benefits of our own heritage.

Now note the increase in presence and emotional resonance when the writer adds a specific example:

SECOND DRAFT (EXAMPLE ADDED)

Another advantage of multicultural education is that it raises questions about traditional Western values. For example, owning private property (such as buying your own home) is part of the American dream. However, in studying the beliefs of American Indians, students are confronted with a very different view of private property. When the U.S. government sought to buy land in the Pacific Northwest from Chief Sealth, he is alleged to have replied:

Moving Your Audience 73

The president in Washington sends words that he wishes to buy our land. But h ow can you buy or sell the sky? The land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them? [ ... ] We are part of the earth and it is part of us. [ ... ] This we know: The earth d oes not belong to man, man belongs to the earth.

Our class was shocked by the contrast between traditional Western views of property and Chief Sealth's views. One of our b est class discussions was initi- ated by th is quotation from Chief Sealth. Had we not been exposed to a view from anoth er culture, we would have never been led to question the "rightness" of Western values.

Th e writer begins his revision by evoking a traditional Western v iew of p ri- vate proper ty, which h e then questions by shifting to Chief Sealth ' s vision of land as op en, endless, and unob tainable as the sk y. Th rough the use of a specific example, the writer brings to life his previously abstract point about the benefit of multicultural education.

Use Narratives A par ticularly powerful way to evoke pathos is to tell a st ory tha t either leads into your claim or emb odies it implicitly and that appeals to your readers' feelin gs and imagination. Brief narratives wheth er true or hypothetical are particularly effective as opening attention grabber s for an argument. To illus- trate h ow an introductory narrative (either a story or a brief scene) can create appeals to pathos, consider the following fi rst paragraph to an argumen t oppos- ing jet skis:

I d ove off the dock into the lake, and as I approached the surface I could see the sun shining through the water. As my head popped out, I located my cousin a few feet away in a rowboat waiting to escort me as I, a twelve-year-old girl, attemp ted to swim across the mile-wide, pristine lake and back to our dock. I made it, and that glorious summer day is one of my most precious memories. Today, however, no one would dare attempt that swim. Jet skis have taken over this small lake where I sp ent many summers with my grand parents. Dozens of whining jet skis criss- cross the lake, ruining it for swimming, fishing, canoeing, rowboating, and even water-skiing. More stringent state laws are needed to control jet skiing because it interferes with other uses of lakes and is currently very d angerous.

This narrative makes a case for a particular point of view toward jet skis by win- ning our identification w ith the writer's experience. She invites us to relive that experience with her while she also taps into our own treasured memories of sum- mer experien ces th at have been destroyed by change.

Op ening n arratives to evoke pathos can be p owerfully effective, but they are also risky. If they are too private, too self-indulgent, too sentimental, or even too dramatic and fo rceful, they can backfire. If you have doubts about an op ening narrative, read it to a sample audience before using it in your fina l draft.

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Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations Another way of appealing to pathos is to select words, metaphors, or analo- gies with connotations that match your aim. We have already described this strategy in our discussion of the "framing" of evidence in Chapter 4. By using words with particular connotations, a writer guides readers to see th e issue through the writer's angle of vision. Thus, if you want to create positive feelings about a recent city council decision, you can call it "bold and decisive"; if you want to create negative feelings, you can call it "short-sighted and autocratic." Similarly, writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors and analogies to evoke different imaginative or emotional responses. A tax bill m ight be viewed as a "potentially fatal poison pill" or as "unpleasant but necessary economic medicine." In each of these cases, the words create an emotional as well as intel- lectual response.

For Writing and Discussion Incorporating Appeals to Pathos Outside class, rew rite the introd uct ion to one of you r previous papers (or a current draft) to include more appeals to pathos. Use any of t he strateg ies for g iving your argument presence: concrete language, specific examples, narrat ives, metaphors, analog ies, and connotative wo rds. Bring both you r orig inal and your rewritten introduct ions to c lass. In pairs or in groups, d iscuss the comparat ive effectiveness of these int ro- d uctions in trying to reac h your intended audience.

Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments 5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the ''timeliness" of your argument.

To increase your argument's effectiveness, you need to consider not only its appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos, but also its kairos that is, its timing, its appro- priateness for the occasion. Kairos is one of those wonderful words adopted from another language (in this case, ancient Greek) that is impossible to define, yet powerful in w hat it represents. In Greek, kairos means "right time," "season," or "opportunity." It differs subtly from the ordinary Greek word for time, chronos, the root of our words "chronology" and "chronometer." You can measure chronos by looking at your watch, but you measure kairos by sensing the opportune time through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning. To think kairoti- cally is to be attuned to the total context of a situation in order to act in the right way at the right moment. By analogy, consider a skilled base runner who senses the right moment to steal second, a wise teacher who senses the right moment to praise or critique a student's performance, or a successful psychotherapist who senses the right moment to talk rather than listen in a counseling session. Kairos reminds us that a rhetorical situation is not stable and fixed, but evolves as events

Moving Your Audience 75

unfold or as audiences experience the psychological ebbs and flows of attention and care. Here are some examples that illustrate the range of insights contained by the term kairos:

• If you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or post a response to a blog, you usually have a one- or two-day window before a current event becomes "old news" and is no longer interesting. An out-of-date response will go unread, not because it is poorly written or argued but because it misses its kairotic moment. (Similar instances of lost timeliness occur in class discus- sions: On how many occasions have you wanted to contribute an idea to class discussion, but the professor doesn't acknowledge your raised hand? When you finally are called on, the kairotic moment has passed.)

• Bobbi Buchanan's "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling," which we used earlier in this chapter to illustrate pathos, could have been written only dur- ing a brief historical period when telemarketing was being publicly debated. Moreover, it could have been written only late in that period, after numerous writers had attacked telemarketers. The piece was published in The New York Times because the editor received it at the right kairotic moment.

• A sociology major is writing a senior capstone paper as a graduation require- ment. The due date for the paper is fixed, so the timing of the paper isn't at issue. But kairos is still relevant. It urges the student to consider what is appropriate for such a paper. What is the "right way" to produce a sociology paper at this moment in the history of the discipline? Currently, what are leading-edge versus trailing-edge questions in sociology? What theorists are now in vogue? What research methods would most impress a judging com- mittee? How would a good capstone paper written in 2019 differ from one written a decade earlier?

As you can see from these examples, kairos concerns a whole range of questions connected to the timing, fitness, appropriateness, and proportions of a message within an evolving rhetorical context. There are no rules to help you determine the kairotic moment for your argument, but being attuned to kairos will help you "read" your audience and rhetorical situation in a dynamic way.

Often you can establish the kairos of your argument in the opening sentences of your introduction. An introduction might mention a recent news event, politi- cal speech, legislative bill, or current societal problem that the audience may have experienced, thereby using awareness of kairos to connect with the audience's interests, knowledge, and experience. Elsewhere in your argument, attention to kairos can infuse currency and immediacy by establishing the stakes in the argu- ment and enlisting the audience's concern. For example, if you are going to argue that your university's policy on laptops in the classroom is too restrictive, you might enhance your argument by mentioning several recent editorials in your campus newspaper on this subject. If you are going to argue for increased urban gardening in your city, you might cite a recent TED talk on successful experi- ments with urban gardening. If you are creating a text that includes images, you might also establish kairos through a photograph or cartoon that signals appropriate currency. Thinking about kairos helps you focus on the public con- versation your argument is joining and on your audience's interests, knowledge, and values.

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For Writing and Discussion Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos Your instructor w ill select an argument for analysis. Working in small groups or as a class, analyze the assigned argument first from the perspective of kairos and then from the perspectives of logos, ethos, and pathos.

1. As you analyze the argument from the perspective of kairos, consider the fol lowing questions: a. What is the motivating occasion for this argument? That is, what causes this writer to put pen to

paper or fingers to keyboard? b. What conversation is the writer joining? Who are the other voices in this conversation? What are

these voices saying that compels the writer to add his or her own voice? How was the stage set to create the kairotic moment for this argument?

c. Who is the writer's intended aud ience and why? d. What is the writer's purpose? Toward what view or action is the writer trying to persuade his or

her audience? e. To what extent can various features of the argument be explained by your understanding of its

kairotic moment? 2. Now analyze the same argument for its appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos. How successful is this

argument in achieving its writer's purpose?

Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 5.5 Explain how images make visual appeals to logos, ethos, pathos,

and kairos.

One of the most powerful ways to move your audience is to use photos or other images that can appeal to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos in one glance. (Chapter 9 focuses exclusively on visual rhetoric the persuasive power of images.) Although many written arguments do not lend themselves to visual illustrations, we suggest that when you construct arguments you consider the potential of visual support. Imagine that your argument is to be delivered as a PowerPoint presentation or appear in a newspaper, in a magazine, or on a website where space will be pro- vided for one or two visuals. What photographs or drawings might help persuade your audience toward your perspective?

When images work well, they make particularly powerful appeals to pathos analogous to the verbal strategies of concrete language, specific illustrations, nar- ratives, and connotative words. The challenge in using visuals is to find material that is straightforward enough to be understood without elaborate explanations, that is timely and relevant, and that clearly adds impact to a specific part of your argument. As an example, suppose you are writing an argument supporting fund- raising efforts to help a developing country that has recently experienced a natural catastrophe. To add a powerful appeal to pathos, you might consider incorporating into your argument the photograph shown in Figure 5.1 of the devastation and personal loss caused by Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in 2013. A photograph such as this one can evoke a strong emotional and imaginative response as well as make viewers think.

For Writing and Discussion Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos

Individual task: Use the following questions to analyze the photo in Figure 5.1.

Moving Your Audience 77

1. How would you describe the emotional/ imag inative impact of Figure 5.1? What specific detai ls of the photo create its appeal to pathos?

2. Many disaster-rel ief photos seek to convey the magn itude of the destruction and suffering, sometimes shockingly, by depicting destroyed buildings, mangled bod ies, and images of human misery. How is your response to Figure 5.1 similar to or d ifferent from your response to commonly encountered close- up photographs of grief-stricken victims or to d istance shots of widespread destruction? To what extent is Figure 5.1 's story-told from the perspective of a child -different from the more typical photographs of destroyed build ings or angu ished faces?

3. After searching the web for other photos taken after Typhoon Haiyan, write a rationale for why you wou ld, or would not, choose this photo to accompany a proposal argument appealing for support for people in this region of the Ph ilippines.

Group task: Share your individual analysis and rationale with others in your class.

Figure 5.1 Photo after Typhoon Haiyan in the Ph ilippines

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Examining Visual Arguments

Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos Efforts to combat sexual assault and date rape on college campuses have figured prominently in public con- versation recently, with discussions booming on the websites of newly formed organizations and stories of ral lies on university campuses appearing on news sites. As this advocacy poster shows, the need to bolster bystander intervention is a critical piece in addressing this problem.

How does this advocacy poster attempt to move its audience? Analyze the poster's visual and verbal appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.

Moving Your Audience 79

How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 5.6 Explain how audience-based reasons appeal to logos, ethos,

pathos, and kairos.

We conclude this ch apter b y returning to the con cept of audience-based reason s that we introduced in Chapter 3. Audience-based reasons enhance logos becau se they build on underlying assumptions (warrants) that the audien ce is likely to accept. But they also enhan ce ethos, pathos, and kairos b y helping the audien ce identify w ith the w riter, by appealing to shared beliefs and valu es, and by con vey- ing a shared sense of an issue's timeliness. To consider the need s of your audience, you can ask yourself the questions in Table 5.1.

To see h ow a con cern for audien ce-based reason s can enhan ce ethos and pathos, we ask you to role p lay a student in the following h yp othetical scenario. Interested in a career in public h ealth, you are a nursing m ajor w h o h as d on e

Table 5.1 Questions for Analyzing Your Aud ience

1. Who is your audience?

2 . How much does your audience know or care about your issue?

3 . What is your audience 's current attitude toward your issue?

4 . What will be your audience's likely objections to your argument?

5 . What values, beliefs, or assumptions about the world do you and your audience share?

Your answer wil l help you thin k about audience-based reasons.

• Are you writing to a single person , a committee, or the general readership of a newspaper, magazine, blog, and so forth?

• Are your readers academics, professionals, other students, general citizens, or people with specialized background and interests?

• Can you expect your audience to be politically and culturally liberal , middle of the road , conservative, or a mixture of these groups?

• What are the rel igious views of your audience? • How do you picture your audience in terms of social class, ethnicity, gender, sexual

orientation, gender identity, age, and cultural identity? • To what extent does your audience share your own interests and cultural position? Are you

writing to insiders or to outsiders with regard to you r own values and beliefs?

Your answer can especially affect your introduction and conclusion.

• Do your readers need background on your issue, or are they already in the conversation? • If you are writing to specific decision makers, are they currently aware of the problem you are

addressing? If not , how can you get their attention? • Does your audience care about your issue? If not , how can you get them to care?

Your answer wil l help you decide the structure and tone of your argument.

• Are your readers already supportive of your position? Undecided? Skeptical? Strongly opposed? • What points of view other than your own will your audience be weighi ng?

Your answer wil l help determine the content of your argument and wi ll alert you to extra research you may need to conduct.

• What weaknesses will audience members find in your argument? • What aspects of your position will be most threatening to your audience and why?

Your answer wil l help you find common ground with you r audience.

• How are your basic assumptions, values, or beliefs different from your audience's? • Despite different points of view on th is issue, where can you find common ground with

you r audience? • How might you use common ground to build bridges to your audience?

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research on the obesity crisis in the United States. You have also researched the role of sugary soda and energy drinks in promoting heart disease and diabetes. Recently health advocates in your city have teamed with preschool education advocates to persuade the city council to propose a soda tax. Revenue from the tax would be used to improve the city's preschool programs. Your city council points to nationwide precedents for soda taxes, citing Philadelphia; Berkeley, California; and Cook County, Illinois, which includes Chicago. Other cities, such as Seattle, are on the verge of creating such a tax. The tax being proposed in your city would raise the price of a twelve-pack of soda by four dollars; the p rice of a large foun- tain soda at a fast-food restaurant would go up 35 cents.

As you can expect, the proposed tax is controversial. Opponents include the beverage industry, grocery store owners, fast-food restaurants, truck drivers (who deliver soda to the stores), and citizens who oppose the government's telling private citizens what they should or should not buy. Proponents include health advocates and education advocates. Medical and nursing associations point to the long-range health benefits of reducing consumption of sugary drinks. Meanwhile, education advocates point to the value of improved and extended preschool pro- grams made possible by revenue from the soda tax.

Your school 's student nurse association is scheduling a meeting next week to produce an advocacy piece in favor of the soda tax. Here is your dilemma: You are opposed to the soda tax, not from the perspective of business owners but from the perspective of d isproportionate costs to lower-income city residents. What bothers you is the fact that the soda tax is regressive, meaning that it will hit low-income consumers harder than wealthier consumers. Will you have enough courage to sp eak out at the nursing association meeting? After all, your anti-tax stance will be unpopular among other nursing students, even though it m igh t be applauded by business owners, truck drivers, and the beverage industry.

As you think about your upcoming speech, you formulate your audience- based problem like this:

Problem: How can I create an argument rooted in shared values with my fel- low nursing students? How can I reduce my audience's fear that I am becom- ing an advocate for the beverage industry? How can I make the case th at I share my audience's goals of reducing sugar consumption and improving preschool education? How can I show that these goals might be accomplished in a fairer way?

Possible bridge-building strategies:

• Show th at I support the health goals of our nursing association to figh t obesity-related d iseases by reducing consump tion of sugary drinks.

• Show that I support the educational goals made reachable by revenue from the tax. This revenue w ill make improved preschool education available for all children in the city.

• Stress that both my audience and I share a concern for the welfare of the poor- est citizens, who will be hit hardest by the tax.

• Make the case th at the tax will eat up a higher proportion of poor people's income than wealthier people's income. Research shows that poorer people buy more soda than wealthy people. Paying an extra four dollars for a 12-pack of soda p uts a substantial strain on a p oor family's budget. (Wealth y p eople

Moving Your Audience 81

often choose diet soda or get their sugar fix from syrups in their espresso coffee drinks). The cost of improving the city's preschools will thus be borne disproportionately by the poor.

• Show that the values underlying the tax are incoherent: If the tax truly reduces consumption of soda (the goal of health advocates), then it will not generate enough revenue to achieve the goals of the education advocates. In sum, the goals of one set of tax proponents are in conflict with the goals of the other set of proponents.

• Show that the goal of reducing sugar consumption might be better achieved through an aggressive educational campaign. Putting a "sin tax" on soda won't be as effective in the long run as raising public awareness about healthy diets and the danger of wasted calories.

• Show that the goal of improving preschool education can be achieved by establishing a fairer tax that puts a higher burden on wealthier people who can afford it.

These thinking notes allow you to develop the following p lan for your argument: Our nursing association should take a courageous stand against the

soda tax

• because a soda tax places a disproportionate burden on low-income consumers. (WARRANT: Taxes that primarily burden low-income consumers are unfair.)

• because preschool revenue can be raised by a more equitable tax that burdens the wealthy more than the poor. (WARRANT: It is fair for wealthier people to pay a greater proportion of their income on taxes than the poor.)

• because an educational campaign may be more effective than a soda tax in changing long-range diet behaviors. (WARRANT: If alternative solutions can be applied to a problem, the one promoting long-range change is better.)

As this p lan shows, your strategy is to seek reasons whose warrants your audi- ence will accept. Even though you oppose the soda tax, your argument differs significantly from the pro-business arguments mounted by the beverage industry. Whereas their arguments are aimed at undecided voters, your argument is aimed specifically at supporters of the tax. You can hope to persuade them only if you can build bridges to them with audience-based reasons and appeals to shared values.

For Writing and Discussion Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy

Individual task:

1. Choose one of the following cases and plan an audience-based argumentative strategy. Follow the t hink- ing process used by the writer of the anti-soda tax argument: (1) state several problems t hat the writer must solve to reach t he audience, and (2) develop possible solutions to those problems. a. An argument for the right of software companies t o continue making and sell ing v iolent v ideo

games: Aim the argument at parent s who oppose their ch ildren playing these games.

(continued)

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b. An argument to reverse grade inflation by limiting the number of As and Bs a professor can give in a course: A im the argument at students who fear getting lower grades.

c. An argument supporting the legalization of cocaine: Aim the argument at readers of Reader's Digest, a conservative magazine that supports the current war on drugs.

Group task: Share your plann ing notes with other members of your c lass, and d iscuss how your sketched argument would make appeals to ethos and pathos as well as to logos.

Conclusion In this chapter, we explored ways that writers can strengthen the persuasiveness of their arguments by creating appeals to ethos and pathos, by being attentive to kairos, by thinking visually, and by building bridges to their readers through audience- based reasons. Arguments are more persuasive if readers trust the writer's cred- ibility and if the argument appeals to readers' hearts and imaginations as well as to their intellects. Attentiveness to kairos keeps the writer attuned to the dynamics of a rhetorical situation in order to create the right message at the right time. Sometimes images such as drawings or photographs may reinforce the argument by evoking strong emotional responses, thus enhancing pathos. Finally, all these appeals come together when the writer explicitly focuses on finding audience-based reasons.

Writing Assignment Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons

Part 1: Choose an argument that you have previously written or that you are currently drafting. Revise the argument with explicit focus on increasing its appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos via audience-based reasons and other strategies. Consider especially how you might improve ethos by building bridges to the audience or improve pathos through concrete language, specific examples, metaphors, or connotations of words. Finally, consider the extent to which your reasons are audience-based.

Or

Create a multimodal argument by adding effective photographs or images to an argument that you have pre- v iously written or are currently drafting that could be enhanced with effective photographs or images. Revise your argument to include these images, perhaps creating a desktop-publ ished document that wraps text around visuals chosen to enhance pathos. Other multimodal possibilities include transforming your argu- ment into a speech supported by PowerPoint images (see Chapter 15, into a poster argument (see Chapter 9), or even into a podcast that includes music.

Part 2: Attach to your revision or transformed project a reflective letter explain ing the choices you made in revising your original argument or in transform ing it using a mu ltimodal approach. Describe for your instructor the changes or transformations you made, and explain how or why your new version enhances your argument's effectiveness at moving its audience.