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The Following are NOT Thesis Statements! THESIS STATEMENTS

Descartes claims to have shown that mind is unextended thinking substance, but I disagree.

In the Symposium, Aristophanes takes over Eryximachus’ notion of healing to develop his myth.

From a Kantian perspective, corporations that fail to treat all stakeholders as ends in themselves fail to be ethical.

OK. Why?

This is more factual than argumentative

This simply says what one normative theory claims. And it’s not specific enough.

Tenner makes good points about how revenge effects are ironic, but I think there is more to it than irony.

Like what? Be specific.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Weston Preliminaries (CH VII)

 This is the preliminary work you’ve (hopefully) been doing all semester by:

• Reading the material • Studying the material • Questioning the readings on your own • Asking questions • Talking to your classmates, etc.

Rule 29: Explore the Issue

The issues you should explore in this class are ones that arise in the course of readings/lectures

Often: an argument paper grows out of objections or replies to others’ arguments (not merely their positions)

Several of these have come from our discussions/lectures: review your notes!

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Weston Preliminaries (CH VII)

 WHY and HOW? • It helps to “explore the issue” by questioning the issues in the text

• By framing these as short brainstorm questions in your notes (e.g., “Descartes immediately moves from knowledge of the self—because it’s clear and distinct—to another piece of “clear and distinct” knowledge: God. Why does he think this move is legitimate? If not, can it be made so? If so, can I make an argument on Descartes’ behalf? But if not, then can I get an argument from his failure? How would I show how he failed?)…

 TIP: try framing them in terms of the CH VI forms 3

**Rule 30: Spell out Basic Ideas as Arguments

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Weston Preliminaries (CH VII)

 Whatever claims you make in your argument, these will very often need to be defended

• WHY? Because your claims are probably not obvious to everyone

– You need to convince your reader by providing evidence – What is EVIDENCE?

Rule 31: Defend Basic Premises with Arguments of their Own

• Helpful examples of your own that can make general points (CH II) or make an issue clear (see thesis example later)

• Analogies that can help the reader understand your ideas by comparing it to something more familiar

• Deductive arguments, etc.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Weston Preliminaries (CH VII)

 Whatever claims you make in your argument, these will very often need to be defended

• WHY? Because your claims are probably not obvious to everyone

– You need to convince your reader by providing evidence – What does NOT count as EVIDENCE?

Rule 31: Defend Basic Premises with Arguments of their Own

• Citations from authorities • Invoking science to resolve a philosophical problem • Citation of religious texts

NOTE: you may cite these things only if you use them as examples or in analogical arguments

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Weston Preliminaries (CH VII)

 This is crucial to developing your paper • You cannot make a argument by simply arguing for the side you agree with

• When you are developing your paper, always have in mind what the other side might say

» Your paper must have counterarguments and your replies to those arguments

» Starting to think of objections at the development stage greatly helps when you start writing

**Rules 32/33: Consider Objections and Alternatives

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  This is your thesis statement  It lets the reader know what you will argue and how you will argue for it

 KEY ISSUE: it is almost never acceptable in a short paper thesis statement to simply deny someone’s overall position

• You may (of course) disagree with them; but you need to attack their arguments, not simply deny their position

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text

BAD: “Hume argues in the Enquiry that it is impossible to know anything about causation, whereas I argue he is wrong because causation exists in reality” a) This is question begging: you can’t simply say Hume is

wrong about causation because causation does in fact exist; that’s the very point at issue

b) You’re not attacking his arguments; you need to show where Hume gets it wrong about his arguments concerning causation

BETTER: “Hume’s understanding of causation in the Enquiry is too narrow— it only targets efficient causation—and this leads him to skepticism; a broader notion of causation—one that includes Aristotle’s notions of material, formal, and final causation—would not.”

This thesis statement—while it may not convince the reader (me )—actually gives the basis for an interesting argument. You’re not being graded on whether you convince me. You’re being graded on your arguments.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example: Thesis Statement (note: this could be less wordy)

Socrates’ argument for the unity of virtues (Protagoras XYZ) fails to explain cases where one acts virtuously yet lacks the relevant knowledge Socrates claims is required for virtue (e.g., when a child courageously helps a stranger deliver a baby in a taxicab); that such cases are conceivable shows that knowledge is not necessary in all cases of acting virtuously.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example

1) Targets a specific argument (not an overall position)

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example

1) Targets a specific argument (not an overall position)

2) Strongly takes a specific position

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example

1) Targets a specific argument (not an overall position) 2) Strongly takes a specific position 3) Points to a counterexample

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example

1) Targets a specific argument (not an overall position) 2) Strongly takes a specific position 3) Points to a counterexample 4) Gives the counterexample

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 1: Have a Position on an Issue from a Text  Example

1) Targets a specific argument (not an overall position) 2) Strongly takes a specific position 3) Points to a counterexample 4) Gives the counterexample 5) Uses a philosophical notion (conceivability) as support

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 2: The Body  The body of the paper contains the actual arguments  Each paragraph (or series of paragraphs) acts as a spelling out of the evidence you mentioned in the thesis

 The reader wants to know the position and relevant arguments from the text you will be discussing

First part of the paper: reconstruct—in your own words—Socrates’ argument

 Typically, this will consist of showing why one should take your notion that the conceivability of such a counterexample is sufficient to argue against Socrates’ position

Second part: give your argument that Socrates’ argument fails

Note: a good possible objection to raise is that conceivability is not sufficient to make your argument

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection  The objection part of the paper addresses how an interlocutor might challenge some part of your argument

• You must give their argument for them—and charitably! – That is: don’t make a straw person version of their argument!

• Example:

One objection to my argument might concern my main example: a child courageously helping to deliver a baby. The child clearly cannot have the relevant knowledge Socrates requires, but also clearly showcases courage. But, the objector might say, it is not really courage, only the appearance of courage. The child acts as if he has courage, whereas real courage still requires knowledge. Similarly, one can reason by modus ponens while knowing nothing at all about propositional logic. In this case knowing modus ponens is merely apparent, whereas being familiar with logic is required to know that one is reasoning in this way.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection  NOTICE: the objection doesn’t simply state what the objection is. It gives an argument for the objection. It shows the objection.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection

1) The objection is introduced as such (i.e., make it clear that this is a counterargument)

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection

1) The objection is introduced as such

2) The objection concerns a part of one’s argument

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection

1) The objection is introduced as such

2) The objection concerns a part of one’s argument 3) The objection charitably gives the other side’s argument

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection

1) The objection is introduced as such

2) The objection concerns a part of one’s argument 3) The objection charitably gives the other side’s argument

4) This example uses an argument by analogy to make its case

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 3: The Objection

1) The objection is introduced as such

2) The objection concerns a part of one’s argument 3) The objection charitably gives the other side’s argument

4) This example uses an argument by analogy to make its case

5) The objection also uses a philosophical notion to make its case: the general problem of appearances vs. reality

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 4: The Response  The response to the objection is where you respond to the argument you have charitably given to your imaginary objector

 Be careful: you cannot simply repeat the arguments you have already given: this is question begging!

There are two responses one might make here. First, it seems to miss the mark. Thus, even though not knowing (for example) modus ponens does mean that one is ignorant of logic, it does not mean that one is not actually reasoning logically. Taking a course in logic, one might argue, exposes what one already does on a daily basis, fine-tunes it, and gives it a name. Taking a course on virtue would—similarly—expose what the boy actually did (and might fine-tune his virtues as one would fine-tune their reasoning in a logic course). In the one case, it doesn’t follow that one wasn’t reasoning. So, in the other case, it doesn’t follow that the boy wasn’t acting courageously.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 4: The Response  Tips

• Craft the body of the paper with the objection in mind • That is: don’t show all your cards at once!

– You can give part of your overall argument first, raise the objection as an objection to a part of the argument you haven’t given yet

– Then, your response (i.e., the rest of the argument) is ready‐made

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 5: The Conclusion  The conclusion is a single short sentence/paragraph that must:

• Recap the argument briefly – A restatement—in new words—of the thesis is OK

• State what you have argued • Mention that you’ve addressed at least one objection

 The conclusion may: • Point to future developments you might want to address • Note an unresolved issue you have not discussed

– Here you would also note its importance

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 6: Rewrite: How to Clean Things Up  The following are ways of cleaning up (for word‐counts) each segment.

 THESIS BEFORE: 61 words; THESIS AFTER: 49 words

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 6: Rewrite: How to Clean Things Up  The following are ways of cleaning up (for word‐counts) each segment.

 OBJECTION BEFORE: 102 words; OBJECTION AFTER: 86 words

One objection to my argument might concerns my main example: a child courageously helping to deliver a baby. The child clearly cannot doesn’t have the relevant knowledge Socrates requires, but also clearly showcases courage. But, the objector might says, it is not really courage, only the appearance of courage. The child acts as if he has courage, whereas real courage still requires knowledge. Similarly, one can reason by modus ponens while knowing nothing at all about propositional logic. In this case Knowing modus ponens is here merely apparent, whereas being familiarity with logic is required to know that one is reasoning in this way.

How to Write a 400 Word Paper  Step 6: Rewrite: How to Clean Things Up  The following are ways of cleaning up (for word‐counts) each segment.

 RESPONSE BEFORE: 139 words; RESPONSE AFTER: 90 words

There are two responses one might make here. First, it seems to miss the mark. The objection misses the mark. Thus, Even though not knowing (for example) modus ponens does means shows that one is ignorant of logic, it does not mean that show one is not actually reasoning logically. Taking a course in logic, for example, one might argue, exposes what one already does on a daily basis how one already reasons, fine-tunes it, and gives it a name. Taking a course on virtue would—similarly—expose what the boy actually did (and might fine-tune his virtues as one would fine-tune their reasoning in a logic course). In the one case, it doesn’t follow that one wasn’t reasoning. So, in the other case, Similarly, it doesn’t follow that the boy wasn’t acting courageously.

IMAGE of a 400 Word Paper

Single sentence thesis statement

Body—your arguments for your thesis statement

Objection/Reply

Short conclusion

399 Words Word Count