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CH APTER 13 • CREATIN G LEARN ING EN VIRONM ENTS 521

G U ID E LI NE S Establishing Class Routines

Determine procedures for student upkeep of desks, classroom equipment, and other facilities. Examples

1. Set aside a cleanup time each day or once a week in self- contained classes.

2. Demonstrate and have students practice how to push chairs under the desk, take and return materials stored on shelves, sharpen pencils, use the sink or water fountain, assemble lab equipment, and so on.

3. Put a rotating monitor in charge of equipment or materials.

Decide how students will be expected to enter and leave the room. Examples 1. Have a procedure for students to follow as soon as

they enter the room. Some teachers have a standard assignment (“Have your homework out and be checking it over”).

2. Inform students under what conditions they can leave the room, and make sure they understand when they need to ask for permission to do so.

3. Tell students how they should gain admission to the room if they are late.

4. Set up a policy about class dismissal. Many teachers require students to be in their seats and quiet before they can leave at the end of class. The teacher, not the bell, dismisses class.

Establish signals for getting students’ attention, and teach them to your students. Examples 1. In the classroom, flick the lights on and off, sound a chord

on a piano or recorder, sound a bell like the “ring bell for service” at a sales counter, move to the podium and stare silently at the class, use a phrase like “Eyes, please,” take out your grade book, or move to the front of the class.

2. In the halls, raise a hand, clap once, or use some other signal to indicate “Stop.”

3. On the playground, raise a hand or whistle to indicate “Line up.”

Set routines for student participation in class. Examples 1. Decide whether you will have students raise their hands

for permission to speak or simply require that they wait until the speaker has finished.

2. Determine a signal to indicate that you want everyone to respond at once. Some teachers raise a cupped hand to their ear. Others preface the question with “Everyone.”

3. Make sure you are clear about differences in procedures for different activities: reading group, learning center, discussion, teacher presentation, seatwork, video watching, peer learning group, library, and so forth.

4. Establish how many students at a time can be at the pencil sharpener, teacher’s desk, learning center, sink, bookshelves, reading corner, or bathroom.

Determine how you will communicate, collect, and return assignments. Examples 1. Establish a place for listing assignments. Some teachers

reserve a particular corner of the board for listing assignments. Others write assignments in colored chalk. For younger students, it may be better to prepare assignment sheets or folders, color-coding them for the math workbook, reading packet, and science kit.

2. Be clear about how and where assignments should be collected. Some teachers collect assignments in a box or bin; others have a student collect work while they introduce the next activity.

For ideas about involving students in developing rules and procedures, see educationworld.com/a_lesson/lesson/lesson274.shtml

turn, saying “please” and “thank you,” and not calling names. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute teachers) and peers.

2. Be prompt and prepared. This rule highlights the importance of the academic work in the class. Being prompt includes the beginning of the day as well as transitions between activities.

3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other students, in both large-class lessons and small-group discussions.

4. Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was okay to chew gum or listen to an iPod in your class, even though these are against school rules, “because you never made a rule against it for us.”

Whatever the rule, students need to be taught the behaviors that the rule includes and excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be needed before learning is complete.

As you’ve seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be confusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To prevent confusion, you

522 PART III • TEACHIN G AN D A SSESSING

might consider making signs that list the rules for each activity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures, so all students, not just the “well behaved,” know what is expected. Of course, you’ll need to explain and discuss these rules before the signs can have their full effect.

RULES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL. Emmer and Evertson (2009) suggest six examples of rules for secondary students:

1. Bring all needed materials to class. The teacher must specify the type of pen, pencil, paper, notebook, texts, and so on.

2. Be in your seat and ready to work when the bell rings. Many teachers combine this rule with a standard beginning procedure for the class, such as a warm-up exercise on the board or a requirement that students have paper with a proper heading ready when the bell rings.

3. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and general trouble- making. All people includes the teacher.

4. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applies when the teacher or other students are talking.

5. Respect other people’s property. This means property belonging to the school, the teacher, or other students.

6. Obey all school rules. As with the elementary class rules, this covers many behaviors and situa- tions, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. It also reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very adept at convincing teachers that their misbe- havior “really isn’t against the rules.”

These rules are more than ways to maintain order. In their study of 34 middle school class- rooms, Lindsay Matsumura and her colleagues (2008) found that having explicit rules about respecting others in the classroom predicted the number of students who participated in class discussion, so it seems clear that respect is a gateway to student engagement with the academic material and class dialogue that supports learning.

CONSEQUENCES. As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures, you must consider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a procedure. It is too late to make this decision after the rule has been broken. For many infractions, the logical consequence is going back to “do it right.” Students who run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incomplete papers can be redone. Materials left out should be put back. You can use natural or logical consequences to support social/emotional development by doing the following (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006):

• Separate the deed from the doer in your response. The problem is the behavior, not the student.

• Emphasize to students that they have the power to choose their actions and so avoid losing control.

• Encourage student reflection, self-evaluation, and problem solving. Avoid teacher lecturing. • Help students identify and give a rationale for what they could do differently next time in a

similar situation.

The main point here is that decisions about penalties (and rewards) must be made early on, so students know before they break a rule or use the wrong procedure what this will mean for them. I encourage my student teachers to get a copy of the school rules and their cooperating teacher’s rules, and then plan their own. Sometimes, consequences are more complicated. In their case stud- ies of four expert elementary school teachers, C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) found that the teachers’ negative consequences fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 13.1.

WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES? In the first chapter, I described Ken, an expert teacher who worked with his students to establish a students’ “Bill of Rights” instead of defining rules. These “rights” cover most situations that might require a “rule” and help the students

CH APTER 13 • CREATIN G LEARN ING EN VIRONM ENTS 523

move toward the goal of becoming self-managing. In a recent class, the Bill of Rights included the rights to whisper when the teacher is not talking, be treated politely, have a 2-minute break between working periods, make choices about the day’s schedule, have privacy and not have people take your things, and chew gum without blowing bubbles, among several others. If you are going to involve students in setting rules or creating a constitution, you may need to wait until you have established a sense of community in your classroom. Before students can contribute meaningfully to the class rules, they need to trust the teacher and the situation (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006).

Developing rights and responsibilities rather than rules makes an important point to students. “Teaching children that something is wrong because there is a rule against it is not the same as teaching them that there is a rule against it because it is wrong, and helping them to understand why this is so” (C. S. Weinstein, 1999, p. 154). Students should understand that the rules are devel- oped so that everyone can work and learn together. I might add that when Ken has had some very difficult classes, he and his students have had to establish some “laws” that protect students’ rights, as you can see in Table 13.2 on the next page.

Another kind of planning that affects the learning environment is designing the physical arrangement of the class furniture, materials, and learning tools.

Planning Spaces for Learning

STOP & THINK Think back over all the rooms in all the schools you have attended. Which ones stand out as inviting or exciting? Which ones were cold and empty? Did one teacher have a design that let students do different things in various parts of the room? •

Spaces for learning should invite and support the activities you plan for your classes, and they should respect the inhabitants of the space. This respect begins at the door for young children by help- ing them identify their classroom. One school that has won awards for its architecture paints each classroom door a different bright color, so young children can find their “home” (Herbert, 1998).

TABLE 13.1 • Seven Categories of Penalties for Students

1. Expressions of disappointment. If students like and respect their teacher, then a serious, sorrowful expression of disappointment may cause students to stop and think about their behavior.

2. Loss of privileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not completed homework, for example, they can be required to do it during a free period or recess.

3. Time-Out: Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10 to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending student for that time.

4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in journals, write essays about what they did and how it affected others, or write letters of apology—if this is appropriate. Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and date this statement. These records are available if parents or administrators need evidence of the students’ behavior.

5. Visits to the principal’s office. Expert teachers tend to use this penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situation warrants. Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain offenses, such as fighting. If you tell a student to go to the office and the student refuses, you might call the office saying the student has been sent. Then the student has the choice of either going to the office or facing the principal’s penalty for “disappearing” on the way.

6. Detentions. Detentions can be very brief meetings after school, during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk about what has happened. (In high school, detentions are often used as punishments; suspensions and expulsions are available as more extreme measures.)

7. Contacting parents. If problems become a repeated pattern, most teachers contact the student’s family. This is done to seek support for helping the student, not to blame the parents or punish the student.

Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), pp. 298–301, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

524 PART III • TEACHIN G AN D A SSESSING

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®

Classroom Space (I, C4) The physical organization of a class has an effect on student behavior and learning. Describe how the physical layout of classrooms can affect the learning environment. Apply principles of classroom organization to enhance learning and minimize disruption.

TABLE 13.2 • Laws to Protect Our Rights 1. Follow directions the first time. 2. Speak nicely, be courteous, and respect other people, their feelings, and their things. Follow

the Bill of Rights. 3. Laugh at the right time for the right time. 4. Respect others’ right to learn. Do not distract others. Don’t be nosy. Don’t yell. Remember to

get quiet at countdown. 5. Talk at the right times with the right tone of voice and volume. 6. Transitions and movements are calm, quiet, careful, and elegant. 7. Follow all classroom and school procedures, like: bathroom; pencil; lunch and recess;

morning; dismissal; and . . .

Source: From Elementary Classroom Management (6th ed.), p. 103, by C. S. Weinstein and M. E. Romano, New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Once inside, spaces can be created that invite quiet reading, group collaboration, or independent research. If students are to use materials, they should be able to reach them. In an interview with Marge Scherer (1999), Herb Kohl describes how he creates a positive environment in his classes.

What I do is put up the most beautiful things I know—posters, games, puzzles, challenges—and let the children know these are provocations. These are ways of provok- ing them into using their minds. You have to create an environment that makes kids walk in and say, “I really want to see what’s here. I would really like to look at this.” (p. 9)

In terms of classroom arrangement, there are two basic ways of organizing space: personal territories and interest areas.

PERSONAL TERRITORIES. Can the physical setting influence teaching and learning in classrooms organized by territories? A front seat location does seem to increase participation for students who are predisposed to speak in class, but a seat in the back will make it more difficult to participate and easier to sit back and daydream (Woolfolk & Brooks, 1983). The action zone where participation is greatest may be in other areas such as on one side or near a particular learning center (T. L. Good, 1983a; Lambert, 1994). To “spread the action around,” C. S. Weinstein and Romano (2015) suggest that teachers move around the room when possible, establish eye contact with and direct questions to students seated far away, and vary the seating so the same students are not always consigned to the back.

Horizontal rows share many of the advantages of the traditional row and column arrangements. Both are useful for independent seatwork and teacher, student, or media presentations; they encourage students to focus on the presenter and simplify housekeeping. Horizontal rows also permit students to work more easily in pairs. However, this is a poor arrangement for large-group discussion.

Clusters of four or circle arrangements are best for student interaction. Circles are especially use- ful for discussions but still allow for independent seatwork. Clusters permit students to talk, help one another, share materials, and work on group tasks. Both arrangements, however, are poor for whole-group presentations and may make class management more difficult.

The fishbowl or stack special formation, where students sit close together near the focus of attention (the back row may even be standing), should be used only for short periods of time, because it is not comfortable and can lead to discipline problems. On the other hand, the fishbowl can create a feeling of group cohesion and is helpful when the teacher wants students to watch a demonstration, brainstorm on a class problem, or see a small visual aid.

INTEREST AREAS. The design of interest areas can influence the way the areas are used by students. For example, working with a classroom teacher, Carol Weinstein (1977) made changes in interest areas that helped the teacher meet her objectives of having more girls involved in the science center and having all students experiment more with a variety of manipulative materials. In a second study, changes in a library corner led to more involvement in literature activities throughout the class (Morrow & Weinstein, 1986). If you design interest areas for your class, keep the Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces in mind.

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G U ID E LI NE S Designing Learning Spaces

Note the fixed features, and plan accordingly. Examples 1. Remember that the audiovisual center and computers

need electrical outlets. 2. Keep art supplies near the sink, small-group work by

a blackboard.

Create easy access to materials and a well-organized place to store them. Examples 1. Make sure materials are easy to reach and visible to students. 2. Have enough shelves so that materials need not be stacked.

Provide students with clean, convenient surfaces for studying. Examples 1. Put bookshelves next to the reading area, games by the

game table. 2. Prevent fights by avoiding crowded work spaces.

Avoid dead spaces and “racetracks.” Examples 1. Don’t have all the interest areas around the outside of the

room, leaving a large dead space in the middle. 2. Avoid placing a few items of furniture right in the middle of

this large space, creating a “racetrack” around the furniture.

Arrange things so you can see your students and they can see all instructional presentations. Examples 1. Make sure you can see over partitions. 2. Design seating so that students can see instruction without

moving their chairs or desks.

Make sure work areas are private and quiet. Examples 1. Make sure there are no tables or work areas in the middle

of traffic lanes; a person should not have to pass through one area to get to another.

2. Keep noisy activities as far as possible from quiet ones. Increase the feeling of privacy by placing partitions, such as bookcases or pegboards, between areas or within large areas.

Provide choices and flexibility. Examples 1. Establish private cubicles for individual work, open tables

for group work, and cushions on the floor for whole-class meetings.

2. Give students a place to keep their personal belongings. This is especially important if students don’t have personal desks.

Try new arrangements; then evaluate and improve. Examples 1. Have a “2-week arrangement”; then evaluate. 2. Enlist the aid of your students. They have to live in the

room, too, and designing a classroom can be a very challenging educational experience.

For more ideas on classroom design, see edfacilities.org/rl/ classroom_design.cfm

Personal territories and interest areas are not mutually exclusive; many teachers use a design that combines these types of organization. Individual students’ desks—their territories—are placed in the center, with interest areas in the back or around the periphery of the room. This allows the flexibility needed for both large- and small-group activities. Figure 13.3 on the next page shows a secondary classroom that has individual desks (personal territories), but still works well for teacher presentations and demonstrations, small-group work, computer interactions, and lab activities.

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Determining a room design, rules, and procedures are the first steps toward having a well-managed class, but how do effective teachers gain students’ cooperation in those early critical days and weeks? One study carefully analyzed the first weeks’ activities of effective and ineffective elementary teach- ers, and found striking differences. Let’s spend some time in the next pages examining these impor- tant differences (Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980).

EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS. In the effective teachers’ classrooms, the very first day was well organized. Nametags were ready. There was something interesting for each child to do right away. Materials were set up. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might take them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the