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women in science and medicine, 1900–1937       

American women made many contributions to science and medicine in the early 20th century, aided by increased access to university education in those fields and greater opportunities to work with other scientists and engage in professional research. This is clear in both the number of women who achieved excellence during this period, as well as in the quality of their accomplishments. Before 1900, there were a limited number of women who had contributed outstanding achievements in the fields of science and medicine, but by the third decade of the 20th century there were far too many to name. Furthermore, those achievements encompassed most subfields within the disciplines.

Education and Career Development The first prerequisite to accomplishment in science and medicine has always been access to higher education, and opportunities for women in this regard increased steadily from the late 19th century onward. In 1900 only 2.8 percent of American women aged 18–21 were attending college. Within a decade, that number had grown to 10.5 percent. Several analyses of women's choice of university coursework during this period show that, contrary to popular belief, they did not avoid mathematics or the sciences. At the University of Chicago in 1902, for instance, more women than men enrolled in physiology courses and 16 percent took advanced mathematics courses. At Boston University in the same period, an almost equal percentage of women and men majored in mathematics (9 percent versus 11.4 percent).

A clustering e!ect is observable in women scientists of this period. Some universities and professors attracted numerous talented women students due to their support of women pursuing scientific careers. Women-only colleges remained important incubators of scientific talent. Of the 439 women

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listed in the first three editions of Men of Science (published in 1906, 1910, and 1921), 41 percent were graduates of women's colleges. Male mentoring was sometimes essential in helping women in scientific fields to achieve success. For instance, Professor Edward L. Nichols, chair of the physics department at Cornell University, was supportive of women despite the fact that physics was generally considered a field suitable only for males. As a result of Nichols's support, a number of prominent female physicists were associated with his laboratory, including Louise Sherwood McDowell (1876– 1966), who worked on short-wave radiation with him at Cornell, and Frances Gertrude Wick (1875– 1941), a specialist in luminescence and fluorescence, which deals with the properties of light. McDowell and Wick became lifelong professional collaborators, working together in the Army Signal Corps during World War I and later serving as heads of physics in two of the Seven Sisters Colleges (McDowell at Wellesley and Wick at Vassar).

Physical Sciences Physical sciences, which generally encompass astronomy, physics, chemistry, and Earth science, deal with the inorganic world, as opposed to biological sciences, which deal with living organisms. One of the first American women to work professionally in physics was Margaret Eliza Maltby (1860–1944), who conducted important research in acoustics and physical chemistry. She was the first woman to receive a doctorate in physics from a German university. Her first research area was the physics of sound. In 1892 she and Charles Cross published two papers describing the minimum number of vibrations required to distinguish between two pitches. Other areas of Maltby's research involved ionic dissociation in solids and the conductivity of aqueous solutions. Maltby taught at several American colleges before becoming a professor of physics at Barnard College, where she reformed the curriculum, adding lab work to introductory courses and increasing the number of advanced courses o!ered.

Like Maltby, Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921) followed an academic path to success, joining the sta! of the Harvard College Observatory in 1895, and eventually becoming chief of the photographic photometry department. Leavitt's most important work was on variable stars. She discovered the Cepheid period-luminosity relation while studying the variable stars of the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds. She also developed the photographic magnitude scale, which is used to determine the comparative brightness of stars. Her methods were used until the mid-20th century, when they were replaced by photoelectric techniques.

Other female scientists pursued career paths outside the world of academia. For instance, a"er three years of postdoctoral study in botany and chemistry, chemist Mary Engle Pennington (1872–1952)

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opened the Philadelphia Clinical Laboratory in 1898 and became head of the Philadelphia Health Department's bacteriological laboratory. While in that position, she developed national standards for milk inspection. In 1907 Pennington became a bacteriological chemist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The following year, she became chief of the Food Research Laboratory, where her work devising standards for refrigerated railroad cars earned her the Notable Service Medal.

Although an academician, Katharine Blunt (1876–1954) also used her research skills to develop materials aimed at a general audience. A chemist who taught at Pratt Institute in Brooklyn from 1907 to 1913, Blunt conducted studies in nutrition. She joined the department of Home Economics at the University of Chicago in 1913, remaining there until 1929. During World War I, at the behest of the USDA, Blunt wrote pamphlets about food conservation as well as the textbook Food and the War, which she coauthored with Florence Powdermaker in 1918. In 1929 Blunt became the third president of the Connecticut College for Women, serving until 1943.

Other women in the early 20th century continued to break new ground in their fields by amassing scientific knowledge. Physical chemist Emma Perry Carr (1880–1972) conducted research on ultraviolet spectroscopy and the application of physical chemistry to organic problems. Margaret Harwood (1885–1979) began her career at the Harvard College Observatory, aiding Arthur Searle in computations and preparing photometric measures. In 1912 she won the Astronomical Fellowship of the Maria Mitchell Association. A"er earning a master's degree from the University of California in 1916, Harwood became the permanent director of the Maria Mitchell Observatory, a position she held until her retirement in 1957.

Harwood's areas of expertise included the light curves of Eros and known and new variables near the Scutum Cloud; she also compiled a bibliography for the International Astronomical Union of all U.S. articles published from 1881 to 1889 on astronomy. Grace Medes (1885–1967), the head of metabolic chemistry at the Lankenau Hospital Research Institute in Pennsylvania, discovered tyrosynosis, a defect of amino acid metabolism estimated to occur in one per 100,000 live births in the United States. She also studied the influence of sulphur groups in cell proliferation, using isotope tracer studies to demonstrate how acetyl groups participate in acetoacetate synthesis. Her work in this area led to the discovery of coenzyme A.

Katharine Burr Blodgett (1898–1979) joined other women in breaking down barriers to women's participation in scientific technology. She was the first woman research scientist to be employed at the General Electric (GE) Laboratories. Her many contributions included significant work in the physics and chemistry of surface molecules and the properties of films.

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Blodgett also helped build the first large-scale analog computer at the GE lab in order to perform simulations of the growth of ice crystals on fiber surfaces. She worked with Irving Langmuir at GE to develop what are now known as Langmuir-Blodgett films.

Later, Blodgett used her skills on military projects, developing a superior method for deicing airplanes in subzero weather, improving smoke screens used by the infantry invading North Africa and Italy during World War II, and using thin films on military weather balloons to measure atmospheric humidity. She also worked on the development of nonreflecting glass, developing a technique in which thin molecular films were used to vary the index of refraction.

Life Sciences Many American women were important contributors to the life sciences in the early 20th century, particularly in the field of natural history, which primarily referred to observational studies of plants, animals, and geographical phenomena. Konrad Lorenz, the 1973 Nobel Prize winner in Physiology and Medicine, credits the ornithologist Margaret Morse Nice (1883–1974) with founding the science of ethology (the study of animal behavior). This distinction is made more impressive by the fact that Nice's formal education was in psychology; she had abandoned her Ph.D. studies to support her husband through graduate school. Nice wrote many articles on birds and co-wrote her first major book, The Birds of Oklahoma (1924), with her husband, by then a professor of physiology and pharmacology at the University of Oklahoma. Nice developed an innovative technique to study the territorial behavior of the song sparrow using colored leg bands. She published her research to international acclaim in the Journal für Ornithologie.

Like Nice, Mary Lee Jobe Akeley (1886–1966) gave up her scientific career to support her husband in his scientific pursuits. However, a"er being widowed shortly a"er her marriage, Akeley was able to combine her interests with those of her late husband to carry on his work as well as her own. In the 10 years a"er graduating from Columbia in 1909, Akeley had worked primarily in western Canada, collecting botanical specimens and exploring and mapping the area at the head of the Fraser River. Her first experience in Africa was as the o!icial photographer on an expedition led by her husband, the naturalist Carl Akeley. Mary Akeley continued to promote her husband's idea of game reserves through her books, which included Carl Akeley's Africa: The Account of the Akeley-Eastman-Pomeroy African Hall Expedition (1930), The Restless Jungle (1936), and Rumble of a Distant Drum (1946).

Some women, including Annie Montague Alexander (1867–1950), were willing to use inherited wealth to finance natural history expeditions. Alexander provided much of the financing for the Museum of

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Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California-Berkeley. While on a research expedition with the paleontologist John C. Merriam, she discovered fossil remains of a previously unknown reptile from the upper Triassic. The fossil was named Thalattosaurus alexandrae in her honor. In later life Alexander worked with the American mammalogist Louise Kellogg (1879–1967). Together, they donated more than 34,000 plant, animal, and fossil specimens to the museums of the University of California, including 16,000 species of birds and mammals.

Rebecca Craighill Lancefield (1895–1981) chose to devote her energies to medical research. A"er receiving a doctorate in bacteriology from Columbia University in 1925, she accepted a position at Rockefeller Institute, where she remained for the rest of her career. She worked on rheumatic fever with Homer Swi", proving that Streptococcus viridians were not causative agents for the disease. As a student, she had co-authored a paper documenting the fact that di!erent types of streptococci caused di!erent types of infections, and she later demonstrated that the dominant strains of streptococci varied from year to year. In 1933 she published a paper that classified more than 60 distinct strains of hemolytic streptococci and she became the world's leading authority on identification of streptococcus strains.

Medicine American medical education underwent a sea change in the early 20th century as a result of a 1910 report issued by Abraham Flexner, which recommended that strict guidelines be implemented in medical education and suggested that many existing medical schools should be shut down. Prior to this time, medical education in the United States had been virtually unregulated. There were few requirements as far as preparation, specified coursework, or clinical hours; and alternatives such as homeopathy existed on a more or less equal footing with scientific medicine. Flexner recommended sweeping changes that were designed to bring American medical education in line with that o!ered in Europe. His reforms included requiring students to have at least two years of college-level science courses before entering medical school and stipulated that a medical degree should require four years of study, including both clinical and classroom work.

As a result of Flexner's reforms, which drastically reduced the number of American medical schools, American medicine became less diverse, and medical educations became lengthier, more expensive, and more centralized. Consequently, fewer women and persons of color were able to a!ord the costs of attending medical school. However, women who attended science-based medical schools such as Johns Hopkins continued to thrive, producing important research and becoming leaders in their fields, particularly the field of public health.

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One of those women who received a medical degree from Johns Hopkins at that time was Florence Rena Sabin (1871–1953). A"er completing a one-year fellowship in anatomy, Sabin became the university's first woman faculty member; in 1917 she became the first woman to be appointed a full professor. She moved to the Rockefeller Institute in 1925 and initiated a long-term study of tuberculosis, which integrated the Rockefeller faculties with those of other research institutions, universities, and researchers from private industry. In 1925 Sabin was the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences, and she served as the first woman president of the American Association of Anatomists.

Ethel Collins Dunham (1883–1969) was also a graduate of Johns Hopkins Medical School. She was a pioneer in the study of neonatal and infant health and was the first to establish prematurity as the principal cause of death and disease in neonates. In 1927 Dunham was appointed medical o!icer in charge of neonatal studies of the Children's Bureau in Washington, D.C., and she published many papers and books over the course of her career, including Premature Infants: A Manual for Physicians (1943) with a revised edition in 1955.

Immigrant women also contributed to the growing number of women in science and medicine in the Progressive Era. Sophie Rabino! (1889–1959) was born in Russia but emigrated to the United States as a child. She was the first woman intern at Beth Israel Hospital in New York City, and then became a pediatric resident working on the first large-scale trial of diphtheria. She also conducted research on rickets and scurvy with Alfred Hess. A"er serving with the American Zionist Medical Unit in Palestine, she returned to New York in 1919 and set up a private practice, simultaneously running the pediatric clinic at Mt. Sinai Hospital.

Public Health Medicine and Nursing The public health field was one of the fastest growing sectors in the United States in the early years of the 20th century, and nursing was becoming increasingly more professionalized in response to a marked rise in the number of nursing schools that provided women with a myriad of opportunities. Throughout the country, dedicated women made great strides in advancing the health of the American people. In North Carolina, for instance, Frances Sage Bradley (1862–1949) pioneered the field of rural medicine and promoted public health e!orts. A"er completing her studies at Cornell Medical School, Bradley opened a practice in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1915 she was appointed special agent of the rural medical program of the Federal Children's Bureau; in 1916, she conducted a medical survey in North Carolina that revealed the alarming health conditions that were prevalent in rural areas. Bradley wrote pamphlets for the State Department of Agriculture, discussing hygiene, child

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welfare, and the economic costs of poor health, and helped found public health departments in many North Carolina counties.

Physician and public health advocate Sara Josephine Baker (1873–1945), who received her medical degree from the Woman's Medical College in New York City in 1898, also obtained a doctorate in public health (D.P.H) from the same institution in 1917. She was the first woman to earn the D.P.H. degree. Baker became a medical inspector for the New York Department of Health (1901–07). A"er serving one year as New York City Commissioner of Public Health, she was appointed head of the Department of Health, where she remained until 1933. Among her many accomplishments was helping to discover the identity of Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary.

Love Rosa Gantt (1875–1935) was also a notable advocate for public health and was one of the first women trained in ophthalmic surgery. A"er receiving a doctorate from the Medical College of South Carolina in 1901, she conducted postgraduate training at the New York Ophthalmic and Aural Institute and the New York University Eye and Ear Clinic. She then set up a medical practice in Spartanburg, South Carolina, and organized public health projects to battle diseases of the poor, including pellagra and tuberculosis.

Nursing was traditionally the province of women, and many women were leaders in public health reforms; so it was not surprising that women played major roles in creating the field of public health nursing. Lillian Wald (1867–1940) was instrumental in establishing an innovative visiting nurse service that provided medical care for the poor in their homes. She graduated from the New York Hospital Training School for Nurses in 1891 and began studies at the Woman's Medical College in New York City. She only found her true vocation when she began organizing home nursing classes on the Lower East Side. These classes grew into the Henry Street Nurses Settlement, which is considered the birthplace of public health nursing.

Many of the most celebrated nurses of the Progressive Era were associated with Wald in some way. Mary Sewall Gardner (1871–1961) graduated from the Newport Hospital Training School for Nurses in 1905 and worked for the Providence District Nursing Association until 1931. In 1912 she and Lillian Wald founded the Organization of Public Health Nursing. Gardner worked for the Red Cross during World War I and later took the opportunity to study public health nursing in Europe. She chaired the public health committee of the International Council of Nurses 1925–33. Gardner also wrote the textbook Public Health Nursing (1916). Ella Phillips Crandall (1871–1938) graduated from the Philadelphia General Hospital School of Nursing, working first in a school of nursing and then for the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service of New York City. She helped develop courses in public health

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nursing at Columbia University Teachers College and served as first executive secretary of the National Organization for Public Health Nursing, an organization founded to improve the education of public health nurses and establish standards for the profession.

Psychology and Psychiatry Psychology was a relatively young science in 1900, but American women made important contributions to the field almost from the beginning. In 1900 Katharine Bement Davis (1860–1935) became the first woman to be awarded a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. Her fields were political economy and sociology, and she pursued her interests in social justice by working as a superintendent at the Bedford Hills Reformatory in New York. The psychological laboratory she set up within the reformatory became a site for conducting groundbreaking research such as Jean Weidensall's The Mentality of the Criminal Woman (1916) and H. B. Woolston's Prostitution in the United States (1921). In 1929 Davis became the first woman commissioner of correction for New York City and continued to conduct research. Her most famous study was published as Factors in the Sex Life of Twenty-Two Hundred Women (1929).

Lillian Evelyn Moller Gilbreth (1878–1972) was one of the most colorful women involved in psychological research during this period. Gilbreth, an industrial engineer, was a pioneer, along with her husband Frank Gilbreth, in the study of management psychology. She published many basic works in the field, sometimes with her husband. She also sometimes worked without credit. Gilbreth gave birth to 12 children over a 17-year span, and her life story became well-known in two books, Cheaper by the Dozen (1948) and Belles on Their Toes (1952), written by her son Frank Jr. and her daughter Ernestine Gilbreth Carey. Both books were turned into movies in 1950 and 1952, respectively. Lillian Gilbreth co-wrote A Primer of Scientific Management, but the publisher refused to include a woman's name as author. In 1914 in Psychology of Management, Gilbreth stressed the importance of recognizing the psychological needs of workers, a clear departure from the mechanical methods of control recommended by Frederick W. Taylor.

Leta Anna Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) concentrated her skills on clinical psychology, working at New York's Bellevue Hospital. Several of her studies sought to discredit myths about women and establish their fitness for professional life. At Columbia University, she had argued in her dissertation that women's mental and motor abilities were una!ected by their menstrual cycles, while in other work she challenged the assumption that men were inherently more valuable than women, and thus more capable of intellectual accomplishment. She also conducted important work with children at both extremes of the intellectual scale. Her publications in this area include Psychology of Subnormal

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Children (1920) and Children above 180 I.Q. (published posthumously in 1942).

Psychologist Lauretta Bender (1897–1987) also used her skills in a clinical setting. She developed the Visual Motor Gestalt Test, which is used to screen patients for neurological impairment. She worked in numerous hospitals, universities, and mental institutions, most notably at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, where she was a senior psychiatrist. She published over 275 scientific papers, was a fellow of the American Medical Association, and served as president of the New York Society of Psychopathology and Psychotherapy (now known as the Schilder Society).

Conclusion Throughout the Progressive Era and continuing into the post–World War I years, women used their prodigious skills in science and medicine to increase understanding of the human body and mind and expand knowledge of the organic and inorganic worlds as well as the broader universe. At the same time, they proved that women were not limited by their emotions or by their ability to bear children. In addition to the accomplishments of the noted few, many women labored in these fields in relative obscurity, working long hours for little pay to improve the world in which they lived. At no time in this period did women in science and medicine even come close to achieving parity in numbers, earnings, opportunities, or public recognition with men. All of these women played a part in paving the way for generations of women who henceforth had the option to choose to pursue careers in the fields of science and medicine.

Further Information

Akeley, Mary L. Jobe. "Belgian Congo Sanctuaries." The Scientific Monthly, v.33/4 (October 1931).

Byers, Nina, and Gary Williams, eds. Out of the Shadows: Contributions of 20th-Century Women to Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Chin, Eliza Lo, ed. This Side of Doctoring: Reflections from Women in Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Chesler, Ellen. Woman of Valor: Margaret Sanger and the Birth Control Movement in America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Craig, Patricia Parratt. Jumping Genes. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1994.

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Dye, Nancy Schrom. "Mary Breckenridge, the Frontier Nursing Service, and the Introduction of Nurse- Midwifery in the United States." In Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, edited by Judith Walzer Leavitt. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.

Frankfort, Roberta. Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the-Century America. New York: New York University Press, 1977.

Gordon, Lynn D. Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Hamilton, Alice. Exploring the Dangerous Trades: The Autobiography of Alice Hamilton, M.D. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1943.

Henry Street Settlement. Available online, URL: https://www.henrystreet.org/site/PageServer. Accessed November 2009.

Hull, N.E.H., and Peter Charles Ho!er. Roe v. Wade: The Abortion Rights Controversy in American History. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001.

Hutchison, Kay Bailey. American Heroines: The Spirited Women Who Shaped Our Century. New York: William Morrow, 2004.

———. Leading Ladies: American Trailblazers. New York: HarperCollins, 2007.

Jennings, Boman Hamlin. "The Professional Life of Emma Perry Carr." Journal of Chemical Education, v.63 (1986).

Kaye, Judith. The Life of Florence Sabin. New York: Henry Holt, 1993.

Kobrin, Frances E. "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization." In Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, edited by Judith Walzer Leavitt. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.

Levin, B. Women and Medicine. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002.

Manning, Kenneth R. "Roger Arliner Young, Scientist." Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women, v.6/2 (Fall 1989).

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Mohr, James C. "Patterns of Abortion and the Response of American Physicians, 1790–1930." In Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, edited by Judith Walzer Leavitt. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.

Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey, and Joy Dorothy Harvey. The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid-20th Century. New York: Routledge, 2000.

Reagan, Leslie J. When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine and Law in the United States, 1867– 1973. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998.

Reed, Miriam. Margaret Sanger: Her Life in Her Words. Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, 2003.

Rosen, George. A History of Public Health. Expanded ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.

Rossiter, Margaret W. Women Scientists in America; Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.

Sicherman, B. Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

Solomon, Barbara Miller. In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985.

Stein, B.R. "Women in Mammology: The Early Years." Journal of Mammology, v.77/3 (1996).

Visiting Nurse Service of New York. "Lillian Wald." Available online, URL: https://www.vnsny.org/community/our-history/lillian-wald. Accessed November 2009.

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Record Information

From: The Progressive Era and the Great Depression: 1900 to 1937

Series: Celebrating Women in American History

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Published: 2020

Record Type: Encyclopedia Entry

Table of Contents

Ch. 1: women in American history, 1900–1937 Ch. 2: women in society, 1900–1937 Ch. 3: women's health, 1900–1937 Ch. 4: women's education, 1900–1937 Ch. 5: women in politics, 1900–1937 Ch. 6: women in science and medicine, 1900–1937 Ch. 7: women in the arts and literature, 1900–1937 Ch. 8: women in business, 1900–1937 Ch. 9: women in entertainment and sports, 1900–1937 Ch. 10: women and family, 1900–1937

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Education in the United States Lillian Moller Gilbreth Loma Linda University Medical school

Medical University of South Carolina Nursing South Carolina Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University

Women in medicine Women in science Women in technology

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