Assignment: Training for Reactive and Proactive Responses

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3 The Characteristics and Structure of Police Organizations

©iStockphoto.com/Yali Shi

Media Library

CHAPTER 3 Media Library

P R E M I U M V I D E OP R E M I U M V I D E O

S AG E N E W S C L I PS AG E N E W S C L I P

Ice Raids

Texas Shooting

C A R E E R V I D E OC A R E E R V I D E O

Communicating Efficiently in a Stru ctured Environment

Former Drug Investigator

O P E N AC C E S S V I D E OO P E N AC C E S S V I D E O

ASU Campus Police

Arkansas State Police Organiza- tional Chart Video

AU D I OAU D I O

Texas Created Its Own Border Pa- trol Police, But Is It Necessary?

W E BW E B

Types of Law Enforcement Agencies

Federal Law Enforcement Officers, 2008

J O U R N A LJ O U R N A L

Toward a Life-Course Perspective o f Police Organizations

Campus Policing in America: A Twe nty-Year Perspective

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Objectives

After reading this chapter you will be able to:

• Describe the characteristics of police organizations

• Discuss the challenges of managing police organizations

• Compare and contrast the structure of larger and smaller police departments

• Identify the major operating units within police departments

• Identify and describe the law enforcement agencies that operate at each level of government as well as those agencies with special jurisdiction

Fact or Fiction

To assess your knowledge about the characteristics and structure of police departments prior to reading the chapter, identify each of the following statements as fact or fiction. (See page 65 at the end of this chapter for answers.)

1. Police departments can be accurately described as monopolies.

2. There is sometimes conflict between street cops and management cops. Street cops have very little power

C

over management cops.

3. Much of the task of police management can be accurately thought of as the management of police discretion.

4. One of the biggest differences between small and large police departments is the amount of specialization present in the structure of the organization.

5. Of all sworn officers who work in law enforcement, the largest proportion works at the federal level.

6. While most local police departments in the country are quite small, most police officers work in larger departments.

7. State police agencies focus exclusively on highway and interstate highway traffic enforcement.

8. The Clery Act relates to local police departments and the reporting of crime to the FBI.

9. The Department of Homeland Security was created by President Richard Nixon in the 1970s.

10. There are three agencies at the federal level that have law enforcement responsibilities.

hapter 3 provides an introduction to the nature and management of police departments and describes

the characteristics of law enforcement agencies at each level of government.

Characteristics of Police Organizations

Police organizations have been described in several ways based on the characteristics they share and the means in which they operate. Specifically, police departments have been identified as being bureaucracies, quasi-military organizations, monopolies, and street-level bureaucracies. Each of these labels provides insight into the nature of police organizations and some of the challenges associated with managing them.

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Police Spotlight: Local Control of Police Departments and the Possibility of Unequal Policing

When police departments were first formed in the United States in the mid-1800s, they were designed to be controlled by local citizens and individual communities. This is the reason why the country now has more than 12,000 municipal, or city,

police departments.1 The value of this arrangement was originally

viewed in terms of accountability: Police departments would be more likely to be accountable to citizens if those citizens had input into the operations of the departments through their elected officials. Nevertheless, local control of police departments also has some potential serious drawbacks, not least of which is the concern that because police departments largely depend on their local communities for funding, they will offer an unequal quality of

policing.2

An analysis that was conducted on cities in St. Louis County (MO) found wide variation in the pay provided to

police officers.3 Cities on the extremes are listed in Table 3.1.

Do you think that the salaries of police officers might affect (or reflect) the quality of policing in these various communities? Explain.

TABLETABLE 3.1 Annual and Average Pay for Police Officers in St. Louis County, Missouri in 2014

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Police Pay Gap: Many of America’s

Finest Struggle on Poverty Wages, by Seth

Freed Wessler, NBC News, October 26, 2014.

POLICE AGENCIES AS BUREAUCRACIES

Max Weber, a German sociologist, studied the changing nature of European society in the early 1900s and during the Industrial Revolution. Although he did not invent bureaucracies, he did identify them as the best way of structuring, managing, and operating organizations. When people hear about bureaucracies today, they often think of red tape and the runaround; however, Weber saw bureaucracies as the solution to many managerial problems. He outlined a vision of how bureaucracies should operate in the ideal world—which is not necessarily how they actually operate. Police departments are still managed and structured with the five principles outlined

by Weber, explored below.4

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A Division of Labor

This principle holds that no one person or office is responsible for all of the work of an organization. Instead, labor is divided among personnel and offices so that the jobs employees are responsible for are specialized. Specialization is designed to allow for the development of expertise and efficiency. Many police departments divide the work of the agency among many units or divisions, such as patrol, criminal investigation, and administration, among others. Patrol may be divided among several districts and shifts. The task of criminal investigation may be divided into the investigation of homicides, property crimes, sensitive crimes, and so forth.

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Dina Rudick/The Boston Globe via Getty Images

PHOTO 3.1 Communicating through the departmental chain of command is expected and is an important rule for police to follow.

The amount of specialization in the division of labor of a department is largely a function of the size of the organization, as is the number of levels in the organizational hierarchy. A primary disadvantage of specialization is that with more units and divisions, effective control and coordination of the units becomes more challenging. With more divisions there is also the increased likelihood of conflict among them.

A Hierarchy of Authority

Also known as the chain of command, the hierarchy of authority principle holds that every person in the organization has a supervisor, and supervisors have more authority than their subordinates. This hierarchy has direct implications for supervision and formal communication. With a chain of command, communication is to follow a known path from subordinate to supervisor. If a subordinate “goes over the head” of his or her supervisor (i.e., skips a level of authority in communicating with superiors), then the proper chain of command was not followed. There is no optimal number of levels of authority in an organizational hierarchy. Generally

speaking, larger police departments have more levels of hierarchy than smaller ones because with more personnel comes a need for more supervisors and managers.

Within hierarchy of authority, there are some additional facets of the concept. First is span of control. This essentially refers to the number of people a supervisor is responsible for overseeing. Unity of command refers to the notion that each subordinate should only have one supervisor, thus eliminating the possibility of conflicting orders or instructions. Delegation of authority means that no one person in the organization is in control of everything. With delegation of authority the chain of command is necessary.

Rules

Written rules and policies are critical to the functioning of a bureaucracy, and police departments are definitely not an exception to this. Rules outline how jobs are to be performed and what responsibilities are associated with each job. Rules also specify standards of conduct and other work processes of the organization. Police departments have written policies and procedures regarding most aspects of their operation, addressing everything from proper uniform requirements to the use of deadly force. As with the other examples of bureaucracies, larger police departments tend to have

more rules and policies than smaller ones. However, as we will discuss in more detail in Chapter 8, given the nature of police work it is simply impossible to provide policies that specify the exact actions of officers in every situation.

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Impersonal Relationships

The impersonality of relationships principle indicates that decisions must be made objectively and without emotion. Informal and formal relationships among and between employees and supervisors is not a basis upon which to make organizational decisions. For example, the fact that Officer Gunz and Officer Pistal have been patrol partners for years and are good friends should not be a major consideration if one of them needs to be reassigned to a different precinct to fulfill some organizational need. The objective of decisions is to accomplish the goals of the organization.

Selection and Promotion Based on Competence

When selection and promotion decisions are based on objective criteria, it helps ensure that qualified individuals will carry out the work of the organization. In the early days of police departments in the United States, this requirement was

seldom followed; as a result, police officers (and police departments) did not perform well. This principle essentially requires that political considerations and relationships not be taken into account when making personnel decisions. Today, civil service requirements in police departments mandate that standard tests be used as a basis for selection and promotion decisions.

One potential drawback with civil service mandates is that they may constrain the ability of police department leaders to diversify their departments. For example, in selecting applicants for officers, only the candidates with the very highest scores may be considered for hiring. Race and gender are not part of a test score but may be valuable characteristics in selecting officers. Of course, the alternative argument would be that only those individuals most qualified for the job, as measured by a test or series of tests, should be hired, regardless of race, sex, or any other protected characteristic. Details about the selection of police officers are discussed in Chapter 5.

The Drawbacks of Bureaucracy

Most police departments today incorporate these five principles into their operations. As noted, larger departments typically do so to a greater degree than smaller ones. While there are arguments in

favor of bureaucratic management and structure, there are also unintended negative consequences. These include lack of flexibility, resistance to change, inefficiency, and insensitivity to the needs of workers. In recent decades some police departments have slowly begun moving away from the principles of scientific bureaucratic management and closer to more open and contemporary styles of management and organizational structure.

POLICE AGENCIES AS QUASI- MILITARY ORGANIZATIONS

When the first police departments were created in the early and mid-1800s, they were fashioned after the military. Indeed, there is still a clear reflection of the military in contemporary police departments, as evidenced by command and control orientation (i.e., supervisors giving orders, subordinates carrying out those orders); an emphasis on discipline; the top-down chain of command; the rank structure; the war-like mission of the organization; an emphasis on training; uniforms; weapons; and even the tactics that are used (patrol). Today police departments are often described as being quasi-military. As we will explore in Chap- ter 15, some people argue that since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the police have become more military-like (paramilitary) and the military has become

more police-like.5

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Mark Boster/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images

PHOTO 3.2 Police departments are designed and function as quasi-military organizations. Sometimes the reflection of the military in police operations is very clear.

A Question of Ethics

The Quasi-Military Police and the War on Crime

The military is obviously designed to fight and win wars. The police have also been described as fighting wars: the war on crime, the war on drugs, and the war on terrorism. With regard to the war on crime in particular, is it good to portray the police as engaged in a war? Explain why or why not.

What could be the consequences of such rhetoric for police officers, communities, and police organizations?

POLICE AGENCIES AS MONOPOLIES

A monopoly is a company or provider of services that does not have competitors, as there are no other providers of the same services or product in a particular jurisdiction or area. With a monopoly customers have only two options: to use the services of that agency or company or do without the product. A monopoly does not compete for clients or customers, and it has the ability to raise the cost of services without much concern about demand for those services. In the private sector, regulators are not fond of monopolies and, as a result, there are not many of them. Consider the opposite of a monopolistic industry: restaurants. In most places, there are a plethora of restaurants that customers can select to patronize. If a restaurant provides poor service, has unreasonable prices, and/or serves food that is not well liked, chances are that restaurant will eventually go out of business.

On the other hand, consider police departments. Normally, the police department that has jurisdiction over a

community is the only police department that is available to citizens. If you live in Detroit and need the assistance of the police, but you do not like the quality of service provided by the Detroit Police Department (DPD), you do not have any other options. You will need to call the DPD or call no police department at all. Therefore, the DPD needs not spend much time worrying about going out of business. If citizens did not report crimes to the police because of the perceived ineffectiveness of the police, the amount of reported crime would decrease. The irony is that a decrease in reported crime could be presented as evidence of a more effective police department!

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However, it is important that this point not be overstated: Even though a department may be a monopoly, citizens can demonstrate their dissatisfaction with the police. In extreme instances citizens can protest or riot in order to call attention to a poorly performing police department. And police departments are accountable to elected officials who have the power to change leadership in those departments. Also, in some instances the federal government—particularly the U.S. Department of Justice—has the authority to investigate the practices and policies of police departments and legally mandate changes in how they operate. So, while

police departments are monopolies and are thus somewhat insulated from the demands and dissatisfaction of citizens, they are still accountable through the political process.

POLICE AGENCIES AS STREET-LEVEL BUREAUCRACIES

Police departments have also been described as street-level bureaucracies. 6 They have many features and problems in common with other agencies, such as public schools; public assistance agencies (e.g., homeless shelters, welfare agencies); municipal courts; legal service offices; public health offices; and so forth.

Specifically, these agencies all share the following characteristics:

• They process people.

• They provide services and/or sanctions.

• They are public service agencies, and most rely on tax dollars for funding.

• Most of their clientele are poor.

• A large proportion of employees in street-level bureaucracies are street- level bureaucrats. Such bureaucrats are line-level workers in the agency (e.g., police officers, teachers, social workers).

• Street-level bureaucrats use substantial discretion in processing

people and providing services and/or sanctions. Their decisions are usually made on the spot.

• Clients change as a result of the decisions of street-level bureaucrats (e.g., citizens become suspects, suspects are jailed, victims may get a sense of justice).

Sometimes there is a tendency to focus on the aspects of police departments that make them unique. In actuality, they have many features in common with other public agencies, and particularly with other street-level bureaucracies.

The Challenges of Managing Police Organizations

Because police departments are bureaucratic, quasi-military, and operate at the street level, they have many management challenges. A few of the most significant are discussed here.

CAREER VIDEO Communicating Efficiently in a S tructured Environment

THE MANAGEMENT OF DISCRETION

Because officers can use their own judgment to make decisions, there is always the opportunity for that discretion to be misused or abused. Ultimately, police managers and administrators are responsible and accountable for their officers’ conduct. As such, much of the task of police management can be accurately thought of as the management of police discretion.

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STREET COPS VERSUS MANAGEMENT COPS

Unlike in the private sector where profit is a shared goal (especially if profits are shared among employees), officers who work the streets and supervisors who manage the street cops do not necessary

have the same goals or priorities.7 Police officers are most interested in completing their work with minimal interference. Their alliances and loyalties are most often to fellow officers. Managers, however, are most interested in achieving results that are in line with agency objectives. Police officers seek to maximize their autonomy; managers seek to limit that autonomy.

Street cops are concerned with doing the work; management cops are concerned with how this work is represented. While there is sometimes conflict between street

cops and management cops,8 there is also

mutual dependence.9 Street officers can make work difficult for their supervisors and vice versa. For example, managers may be able to control promotions and shift assignments or other work rewards or sanctions. On the other hand, if dissatisfied with management decisions, workers can engage in work stoppages or speed-ups. Although such tactics are seldom used by officers, it illustrates the power that they can have over managers.

CONSTANT RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS AND DEMAND FOR SERVICES

In police departments there is a never- ending demand for services but never enough resources. If there are more resources, there are simply more demands

to consume those resources.10 For example, if a police department has a sizeable number of patrol officers, it may have the opportunity to respond to more calls—calls that otherwise would not have been handled, such as keys locked inside of cars, burglar alarms, or missing vehicle license plates. Sometimes attempts to reduce demands result in even more demands. Some police departments have implemented a 311 telephone number for

Positive Police-

nonemergency calls to alleviate the burden of false emergency calls to 911. The result has been even more phone calls to the

police.11 There is also never enough money to operate a police department. Departments can always benefit from having more officers, better or newer equipment, the latest technology, more training, and/or better facilities. As a result, departmental budgets are never sufficient.

John Moore/Getty Images

PHOTO 3.3 Police officers and their supervisors work together to try to accomplish an agency’s goals, with supervisors directing the activities of officers. On occasion, however, there is conflict between street cops and management cops.

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GOOD POLICING

Citizen Interactions

A Question to Consider 3.1

The Means and Ends of Policing

Police departments are good at counting and tallying activities of officers. Some even keep track of the number of miles patrolled by officers during their work shifts, and this information becomes part of performance evaluations. How might

Despite the challenges of policing, the opportunity still exists for the police to develop positive and friendly relationships with citizens. Most people would say this is good policing.

For example, while two Chicago Police Department officers were on the lookout for drug dealers, they decided to play catch with a group of neighborhood kids. One officer was throwing a football; the other gave a boy the microphone to his squad car loudspeaker. “We really is having fun with police,” the boy said. Minister Tim Freeman recorded the action on his cell phone. Later he told the media, “Everybody says the police are bad. I

don’t think so.”13 The video has received several million views.

this information be legitimately useful? How might it reflect the means over ends syndrome?

AMBIGUOUS AND DIFFICULT-TO- ACHIEVE GOALS

The goals of police organizations are difficult to specify and even more difficult to achieve; therefore, it may also be difficult to determine what exactly constitutes good policing. The difficulty of adequately defining good policing has implications for all of police management. For example, if the goals of an organization are unclear, how does one determine who would best be able to accomplish those goals? And how does one determine good performance of employees?

When dealing with ambiguous and difficult-to-achieve goals, police departments have a tendency to focus on the means of reaching goals over the goals themselves, or to substitute means for goals. As noted previously, this has been referred to as the means over ends

syndrome.12 For instance, making arrests is often portrayed as a goal when in actuality it is probably best considered a means to a goal. The police often present the number of calls to which they respond as a measure of performance, although this statistic says nothing about the quality of services provided. For these reasons ambiguous and difficult-to-achieve goals

represent a major challenge in managing police departments.

The Structure of Police Departments

For the most part, police departments of a similar size are structured in the same way. There are also some similarities in structure between very large departments and very small departments. There are also significant differences between large and small departments, however. One of the biggest is the amount of specialization present in the organization. As noted, specialization refers to the number of distinct units within the organization as well as the number of supervisory levels in the organization.

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CAREER VIDEO Former Drug Investigator

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RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Police Department Size andPolice Department Size and the Representation ofthe Representation of Female OfficersFemale Officers

Overall, approximately 12% of sworn officers are female, but the representation of female officers varies considerably by department size (Figure 3.1).

A recent study was conducted to identify the characteristics of police departments that were associated with greater representation of

female officers.15 Using data from approximately 4,000 agencies, the authors found that a greater representation of female officers was associated not only with department size but also with factors such as higher-education selection requirements, greater benefits and pay, fewer physical fitness screening criteria, no collective bargaining (police labor union), and a departmental community policing

orientation. The bottom line is that certain policies and other characteristics of police agencies have a clear impact on the degree to which they are gender diverse.

FIGURE FIGURE 3.13.1 Full-Time Sworn Personnel by Gender and Size of Department, 2013

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Local Police

Departments, 2013: Personnel, Policies, and

Practices (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice

Statistics, 2015), Table 4.

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The problems and priorities of large departments are also different than those

Police Department Size and Technology

of smaller departments. In addition, diversity among officers tends to vary by department size. Overall, approximately 27% of sworn officers are racial or ethnic minorities, although larger departments are generally much more racially diverse

than smaller ones.14 This same pattern applies to the representation of female officers (see Research Spotlight).

One aspect of police operations that does not vary significantly by police department size is the technology that is available to officers (see Technology on the Job feature).

TECHNOLOGY ON THE JOB

As we have discussed, there are structural and personnel differences between large and small police departments. Interestingly, however, as seen in Ta- ble 3.2, there are relatively few differences between such departments in terms of the technology that is used by officers, especially video technology. The biggest differences are with body- worn cameras, which tend to be used more by smaller departments, and license plate readers and drones, which larger departments are more likely to deploy.

As such, it is not accurate to say that smaller departments are less advanced technologically than larger departments. However, as mentioned in the Police Spotlight feature at the introduction to the chapter, the local tax base and the amount of money available in communities for police services will strongly influence departmental operations, including the technologies available. The local tax base may or may not be associated with the size of the department.

TABLETABLE 3.2 Use of Video Technologies by Local Police Departments, by Size of Population Served, 2013

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Local Police

Departments, 2013: Equipment and Technology

(Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics,

2015).

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THE STRUCTURE OF THREE POLICE DEPARTMENTS OF DIFFERENT SIZES

As examples of the structure of three municipal police departments of varying sizes, below are the organizational charts from the Crete Police Department in Nebraska (Figure 3.2), the Watertown Police Department in Massachusetts (Fig- ure 3.3), and the Houston Police Department in Texas (Figure 3.4). Although the organizational charts of each department look quite different, notice that there are also similarities.

The city of Crete, Nebraska, has a population of approximately 7,000 persons, and its police department has eleven sworn officers. The organization of the department is fairly typical for its size and is discussed here as an example of the structure of a small department. The department is led by a chief; a lieutenant is second in command. It has four major sections, each led by a sergeant, although in 2016 the Investigations Unit was unstaffed and inactive. As explained on the department’s website:

• The Communications Section has several responsibilities, including answering 911 calls, operating the community warning systems, maintaining department records, and

greeting and assisting station visitors.

• The Patrol Section is responsible for patrolling the city, answering calls for service, presenting public safety programs, apprehending offenders, investigating traffic accidents, assisting other law enforcement agencies, and identifying conditions that may facilitate criminal behavior and disorder.

• The Support Section handles matters that do not necessarily require the attention of police officers, such as enforcing parking and ordinance violations, maintaining department equipment and vehicles, and coordinating community volunteer support.

• The Investigations Section, when staffed, conducts criminal investigations and provides training to patrol officers on investigative techniques. With the Investigations Section inactive, investigations are conducted by patrol officers and the supervisor.

FIGURE FIGURE 3.23.2 Crete, Nebraska, Police Department

Organizational Chart16

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : City of Crete, Nebraska, Police Department

website (http://www.crete-ne.gov/index.aspx?

NID=69).

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FIGURE FIGURE 3.33.3 Watertown, Massachusetts, Police Department

Organizational Chart17

Watertown, Massachusetts, is a suburb of Boston with a population of approximately 32,000. The Watertown Police Department has sixty-nine sworn officers.

Mikael Karlsson/Alamy Stock Photo

PHOTO 3.4 The Crete, Nebraska, Police Department is typical of a department in a small town.

These officers and civilian personnel work in various divisions within the department. The department is led by a chief and has two captains; one is responsible for managing the Bureau of Field Operations, and the other is responsible for the Bureau of Administrative Services. The Bureau of Field Operations oversees all things related directly to the patrol function of the department, including the patrol division, the communications/dispatch center, and the traffic division. The Bureau of Administrative Services oversees the detective division and matters that relate to the internal functioning of the department, such as the operation of computer systems, training, vehicle and building maintenance, management of records and reports, and internal affairs. Each division is led by a lieutenant.

Houston, Texas, has a population of approximately 2.2 million; it is the fourth- largest city in the country. The Houston Police Department has approximately 5,300 sworn officers. Due to the size of the city it serves, this department obviously looks quite different than the others discussed here. This is primarily because of the workload demands placed on the department and its corresponding size and specialization.

The Houston Police Department has a full staff with responsibilities related to internal affairs, budget and finance, and planning. Further, to provide for reasonable supervisory responsibilities, particular functional units of the department have their own supervisors and staff. For example, given the amount and types of crimes that occur in Houston, Investigative Operations is its own division, with responsibilities further divided within it by type of crime. Patrol is organized by geographic organization: North, South, East, and West, with further divisions in each area. Strategic Operations includes many of the functions of administrative services divisions in smaller departments and also includes, among others, an entire section relating to homeland security. Other units within Strategic Operations focus on training, recruiting, property (seized evidence), records, and communications.

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FIGURE FIGURE 3.43.4 Houston, Texas, Police Department

Organizational Chart18

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Office of the Chief of Police, updated

February 17, 2015.

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Major Operating Units in Police Departments

Now that we have a basic understanding of variations in the organizational structure of police departments, we can turn our attention to a more detailed discussion of some of the most common operating units within departments.

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PATROL

Virtually all but the smallest police departments have a patrol unit. Patrol officers have many responsibilities, but primary among them is responding to calls for service in the community. The proportion of all sworn officers in a department assigned to the patrol unit varies by the size of the department and the size of the population that the department serves; in smaller departments more officers are assigned to the patrol unit. Typically, about 70% of

officers are assigned to the patrol unit.19

Almost all local departments use automobiles for patrol, including sport

utility vehicles (SUVs), trucks, or vans.20

About 50% all local departments use foot patrol, around 33% use bicycle patrol, and

about 15% use motorcycles.21 Smaller

departments often only use automobiles

for patrol.22 In larger departments, some patrol officers do not wear a uniform and are responsible for initiating activities such as pedestrian and vehicle stops.

JOURNAL Toward a Life-Course Perspec- tive of Police Organizations CLICK TO SHOW

The patrol unit is generally staffed around the clock, although some larger departments may also staff homicide or other investigators twenty-four hours a day. Officers are assigned to shifts to provide continuous coverage over the course of the day. Different departments have different shift schedules; shifts are commonly eight hours, but some are ten hours. Uncommon but not unheard of are twelve-hour shifts. Some departments have different combinations of shift hours. Additional details about patrol shifts and shift work are provided in Chapter 6 and C hapter 10.

TRAFFIC

Some larger police departments have a designated traffic unit that is responsible for traffic control, enforcement, and investigation. Police officers assigned to the traffic unit are usually deployed in squad cars and/or motorcycles. If a department does not have a traffic unit,

traffic enforcement is the responsibility of officers who work in the patrol unit.

CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Common among police departments is a criminal investigation unit, comprised of detectives and sometimes other police officers. Typically, about 15% of officers in a department are assigned to an

investigations unit.23 Generally speaking, and as illustrated in the organizational charts presented above, the larger the department, the more specialization there is among investigators in the types of crimes investigated. Patrol officers are traditionally responsible for responding to crime scenes and conducting preliminary (or initial) investigations, including collecting evidence and interviewing victims and witnesses. Then, if warranted, detectives conduct follow-up investigations. It is becoming more common in police departments today for patrol officers to be assigned greater responsibility for conducting follow-up investigations. Chapter 7 provides additional details about criminal investigations.

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A department may have several other investigations-related units. For example, investigators and officers assigned to sensitive crimes units or special victims

Chris Pietsch/The Register-Guard via AP

PHOTO 3.5 Patrol officers typically conduct initial investigations of crimes and detectives conduct follow-up investigations. However, it is becoming more common for patrol officers to have increased investigative responsibilities.

investigation units typically investigate sex-related crimes. Another type of investigations unit found in some departments focuses on gang-related criminal investigations. Narcotics and vice units are most often found in very large police departments. These investigators are responsible for using nontraditional investigative methods, such as sting operations, to combat drug sales, prostitution, illegal gambling, and other so- called victimless crimes.

TACTICAL ENFORCEMENT

Many police departments have a tactical e nforcement unit (TEU) to handle high- risk situations, such as hostage or barricade situations, and to execute high- risk arrest and search warrants. In large departments officers are assigned to the TEU on a regular, full-time basis. In smaller departments the TEU consists mostly of officers who are assembled to handle particular situations as needed. TEU officers receive special training and equipment to handle the associated risks of their assignments.

Large police departments may also have a specially designated bomb squad. These officers are responsible for dealing with confirmed or suspected explosives in whatever situation they may be discovered. These materials can be properly and safely neutralized with special training and equipment.

YOUTH OR JUVENILE BUREAU

Officers and detectives who work in a juvenile bureau may be responsible for conducting investigations in which the victim or offender is a juvenile. School resource officers, school liaison officers, and DARE (Drug Awareness and Resistance Education) officers may also be assigned to a juvenile bureau.

COMMUNICATIONS

Virtually all police departments have a

communications/dispatch unit. This unit is usually staffed by civilians. Their job is to receive emergency and nonemergency calls for service and to dispatch officers to these calls.

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INTERNAL AFFAIRS

The internal affairs unit is responsible for investigating citizen complaints against officers as and internally generated complaints (officers filing complaints against each other, supervisors filing complaints about officers, officers filing complaints against supervisors). Internal affairs investigators are often responsible for investigating officer-involved shootings, although some departments are required to have an outside law enforcement agency exercise primary responsibility for conducting such investigations.

CRIME ANALYSIS

Crime analysis units are a relatively new addition to larger police departments. Usually staffed by civilians with advanced education and training in crime analytics, these units are responsible for identifying trends and patterns in criminal incidents, locating crime hot spots, conducting analyses of offender networks and crimes, and identifying high-rate offenders. They provide this information to investigators to

assist in criminal identification and apprehension and to the patrol unit to inform patrol allocation and enforcement decisions. Crime analysis is often associated with predictive policing, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 14.

Types and Levels of Law Enforcement Agencies

In the United States, law enforcement is provided at the local, county, state, and federal government levels. Agencies at each level are briefly described here.

WEB Types of Law Enforcement Age ncies CLICK TO SHOW

LOCAL POLICE

In 2013 there were 12,236 local (e.g., city,

village) police departments.24 These departments employed approximately 477,000 full-time sworn officers and 128,000 full-time civilians. Included in these totals were a few police departments operating at the county level (county sheriff’s departments, not police departments, typically provide police services at the county level). About 65% of municipalities and towns in the United States do not have their own police department. Policing services in these

areas are provided by the county in which the town is located (see below). The total number of local police departments in the nation is constantly changing, as some towns decide to form their own police department and others decide to dissolve theirs and rely on county sheriff’s departments instead. Decisions to disband a police department are usually based on financial considerations, as policing services are expensive. On average, it costs local police departments approximately

$131,000 per officer per year to operate.2

5

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO ASU Campus Police CLICK TO SHOW

In 2013 local police departments employed an average of 2.1 full-time officers per 1,000 persons in the population. Interestingly, the average number of full-time officers per 1,000 residents is greatest in communities with a population of fewer than 2,500 persons

(2.4 officers per 1,000 persons).26

JOURNAL Campus Policing in America: A T wenty-Year Perspective CLICK TO SHOW

Most of the 12,236 local police departments are quite small.

Approximately 48% employ fewer than ten full-time officers, and in total these departments employ less than 5% of all officers. Only 5% of local departments (645 of 12,236) employ 100 or more sworn officers. These 645 departments employ the majority (63%) of all sworn officers. The bottom line is that while most police departments in the nation are quite small, most police officers work in larger departments (see Figure 3.5).

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FIGURE FIGURE 3.53.5 The Five Largest Police Departments in the United States

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments,

2013: Personnel, Policies, and Practices (Washington,

D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015), Table 4.

COUNTY SHERIFF’S DEPARTMENTS

The vast majority of counties in the United States have a sheriff’s department; in 2013

there were 3,012 in the nation.27 Only four states (Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaii, and Rhode Island) and Washington, D.C., do not have sheriff’s departments. Sheriff’s departments employ about 189,000 full-

time sworn officers and 163,000 civilians.2

8 Compared to local and state law enforcement agencies, sheriff’s departments have the largest representation of civilian personnel. The increase in employment levels in sheriff’s departments that has occurred since 1993 is mostly due to an increase in civilian hires (see Figure 3.6).

Approximately 21% (628) of sheriff’s departments employ less than ten officers. 29 These 628 departments combined account for less than 2% of all sworn officers who work in sheriff’s departments. Twelve percent (370) of sheriff’s departments employ 100 or more full-time sworn officers; these agencies account for 65% of all sworn officers who work in

sheriff’s departments.30 So, similar to local police departments, while a sizable share of county sheriff’s departments are quite small, most sworn officers work in larger agencies (Figure 3.7).

As with local police departments, larger sheriff’s departments are more likely to exhibit greater diversity in terms of officer

gender and race. Overall, 14% of sworn officers in sheriff’s departments are

female, and 22% are racial minorities.31

Sheriff’s departments have several responsibilities. First, with a few exceptions, these agencies are responsible for law enforcement in the county, on county land (e.g., parks, county roads and highways), and in towns and villages that do not have their own police department. Second, about 75% of all sheriff’s departments are responsible for operating at least one county jail. Third, they may have responsibility for providing court security, transporting prisoners to and from jail and court, and serving processes (e.g., restraining orders, court summons, eviction notices). The allocation of officers and other resources to the various functions of the sheriff’s departments depends much on the characteristics of the county. Compared to urban counties, sheriff’s departments of more rural counties may allocate a larger portion of resources to law enforcement responsibilities because rural counties are likely to have fewer local police departments to provide services. On the other hand, sheriff’s departments in more urban counties generally allocate more resources to jail operations, if they are responsible for a jail. For example, in the Cook County Sheriff’s Department (which includes the city of Chicago and the greater Chicago area), only 4% of deputies

are assigned to respond to calls for service. 32

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FIGURE FIGURE 3.63.6 Full-Time Sheriff’s Office Employees, 1993–2013

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Bureau of Justice Statistics, Law

Enforcement Management and Administrative

Statistics (LEMAS) survey.

FIGURE FIGURE 3.73.7 The Five Largest County Sheriff’s Departments

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Census of State and Local

Law Enforcement Agencies, 2008 (Washington, D.C.:

Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2011).

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AP Photo/Jae C. Hong

PHOTO 3.6 Sheriff’s departments are typically responsible for providing police services in a county, operating the county jail, and providing court security. The amount of resources devoted to each of these responsibilities depends largely on the characteristics of the county.

STATE LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

Each state has a primary state law enforcement agency. Depending on the state, this agency could be a highway patrol, state police, or department of public safety. Because of the variation in law enforcement agency arrangements, it is difficult to compare agencies across states. If a state has a highway patrol agency, it also has a department of public safety or its equivalent. Each of these agencies varies in its sphere of authority and jurisdiction.

OPEN ACCESS VIDEO Arkansas State Police Organiza- tional Chart Video CLICK TO SHOW

State police agencies have the responsibility for providing general law enforcement services in the state. This includes traffic enforcement on state roads and highways and criminal investigations relating to drug trafficking, fraud, serial crimes, cyber and computer crimes, arson, tactical enforcement, explosives, and other matters in which local police agencies request the assistance of the state police. State police agencies also operate forensic crime laboratories, criminal information computer networks, and emergency management services, and they provide law enforcement officer training and

©iStockphoto.com/sshepard

PHOTO 3.7 There are about 750 college and university police departments in the United States that seek to ensure the safety of students, staff, and faculty.

certification. States that have this type of agency include Michigan, Illinois, New Jersey, and Colorado. The largest state police agency is the New York State Police,

which numbers 4,847 sworn personnel.33

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The jurisdiction of a state highway patrol agency is limited primarily to state and interstate roads, highways, and interstate highways. Highway patrol agencies are responsible for enforcement of traffic and other laws and also regulate vehicle safety through inspections and cargo movement. Patrol is provided via marked and unmarked automobiles and often motorcycles and aircraft. Wisconsin, Georgia, Florida, and Alaska are examples

of states with a highway patrol (in Wisconsin and Georgia the agency is referred to as the state patrol; in Alaska it is called the state troopers). The largest highway patrol agency is the California Highway Patrol, which has 7,202 sworn

personnel.34

As noted, if a state has a highway patrol agency, it also has a related agency that provides other state law enforcement services, including investigations and forensic support. For example, Wisconsin has the Wisconsin Department of Justice, Georgia has the Georgia Bureau of Investigation, Florida has the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, and Alaska has the Alaska Department of Public Safety. The largest of these agencies is the Texas Department of Public Safety,

which employs 3,529 sworn personnel.35

SPECIAL JURISDICTION LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

In addition to local, county, and state law enforcement agencies, there are approximately 1,700 other public law enforcement agencies in the United States that have special jurisdictions. In total, these agencies employ about 57,000 sworn personnel. The largest share of these agencies, about 750, consists of campus police departments serving

colleges and universities.36 For perspective, the largest university police

A Question to Consider 3.2

The Characteristics of Your Campus Police Department

Does your college or university have a police department? If yes, how many sworn officers are employed in the department? What is its geographic jurisdiction? How does your campus police department compare to typical ones as described here?

department is Temple University Police Department, which has 133 sworn personnel (see Table 3.3).

On most campuses the police have arrest powers not only on campus but in areas adjacent to campus and property outside

the area adjacent to campus.37 The overwhelming majority of campus police departments provide twenty-four-hour patrol coverage. About one-half of agencies serving public campuses use student patrols compared to about one- third of agencies that serve private

campuses.38 Most campus police departments also provide safety escort services for students, staff, and faculty; usually this service is provided by

nonsworn personnel.39 Almost all campus police departments have blue light phones available for emergencies. Nearly all campus police departments authorize

officers to use a firearm (94%), a chemical spray (94%), and a baton (93%). Seldom are nonsworn personnel authorized to use a firearm. Most campuses have a mass notification system to alert students and others of an emergency situation; the most common of these systems are e-mail

(100%) and text messages (99%).40

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TABLETABLE 3.3 Twenty-Five Largest Campus Law Enforcement Agencies, by Number of Full-Time Sworn Personnel, 2011–20124 1

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Campus Law Enforcement,

2011–12 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice

Statistics, 2015).

Another 250 of the special jurisdiction agencies serve public school districts, the largest of which is the School District of

Philadelphia with 450 sworn officers.43

Other law enforcement agencies include those that enforce fish and wildlife conservation laws; protect transportation systems; and serve parks, airports, state government buildings, and hospitals, among others. The largest natural resource law enforcement agency is the California Department of Parks and Recreation, which employs 645 full-time sworn officers. The largest agency with transportation-related jurisdiction is the Port Authority of New York and New

Jersey, which has 1,667 sworn officers.44

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Exhibit 3.1

The Clery Act and Reporting Campus Crime

The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act was signed into law in 1990 as the Campus Security

Act. The act requires institutions of higher education that participate in federal financial aid programs to keep and disclose information about crime on and near their campuses. The U.S. Department of Education monitors compliance. Violations can result in penalties of up to $35,000 per infraction and suspension from federal student financial aid programs. The Clery Act requires institutions to do the following:

• Publish an annual campus security report that documents three calendar years of specified campus crime statistics. This report must be made available to current and prospective students and employees. The crime statistics must include incidents occurring on campus, in public areas adjacent to or running through the campus, and at certain off-campus buildings.

• Maintain a timely public log of all crimes reported or otherwise known to campus law enforcement officials. The log must be accessible to the public during normal business hours.

• Give timely warning of crimes that represent a threat to student or employee safety.

• Submit an annual report to the

U.S. Department of Education. The report should include statistics on criminal homicide, sex offenses, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicle theft, and arson. The report must also identify any incidents that are believed to be hate crimes. The report must also include arrests and disciplinary referrals for liquor law violations, drug law violations, and illegal weapons

possession.42

• Clery Act statistics are available at: http://ope.ed.gov/security/.

S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Campus Law

Enforcement, 2011–12 (Washington, D.C.:

Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015).

FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES

The primary law enforcement agencies of the federal government are located in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ). As a result of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, federal law enforcement underwent a major reorganization. Most significant were the creation of the DHS and the removal of some agencies from the Department of the Treasury and their placement in the DHS. The major law enforcement agencies in the DHS now

include:

WEB Federal Law Enforcement Of- ficers, 2008 CLICK TO SHOW

• Customs and Border Protection

• Immigration and Customs Enforcement

• Secret Service

• Transportation Security Administration

The major law enforcement agencies in the DOJ include:

• Federal Bureau of Investigation

• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives

• Drug Enforcement Administration

• U.S. Marshals Service

The primary responsibilities of each of these agencies are summarized in Table 3.4.

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Max Faulkner/Fort Worth Star-Telegram/TNS via

Getty Images

PHOTO 3.8 The Federal Bureau of Investigation is one of the most high-profile federal law enforcement agencies. It has authority to investigate and enforce a wide variety of federal laws.

In addition to these well-known federal law enforcement agencies, there are a multitude of other agencies that have some law enforcement responsibilities and that employ agents, investigators, and/or police. Officers in these agencies investigate criminal offenses that relate to the jurisdiction of the agency. The agencies with the most significant law enforcement responsibilities are listed in Table 3.5.

TABLETABLE 3.4 Major Federal Law Enforcement Agencies: Their Responsibilities in Brief

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TABLETABLE 3.5 Other Federal Agencies with Significant Law Enforcement Responsibilities

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S o u r c e :S o u r c e : Brian A. Reaves, Federal Law Enforcement

Officers, 2008 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice

Statistics, 2012).

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MAIN POINTS

• Most police departments today are managed and structured in accord with the five principles of bureaucracies: (1) division of labor, (2) hierarchy of authority, (3) rules, (4) impersonality of relationships, and (5) selection and promotion based on competence.

• There is a clear reflection of the military in police departments today, as evidenced by the command and control orientation, emphasis on discipline, top-down chain of command, rank structure, “war-like” mission, emphasis on training, uniforms, weapons, and even the tactics that are used. The war-like mission can have negative consequences for the police and the community.

• Police departments are monopolies but still need to be accountable for the services they provide.

• Police departments have many features and problems in common with agencies such as public schools; public assistance agencies

(e.g., homeless shelters, welfare agencies); municipal courts; legal service offices; public health offices; and so forth. All of these agencies can be described as street-level bureaucracies.

• Much of the task of police management can be accurately thought of as the management of police discretion.

• Officers who work the streets and supervisors who manage the street cops do not necessarily have the same goals or priorities. However, there is also mutual dependence: police officers can make work difficult for their supervisors and vice versa.

• There are never enough resources in police departments, and there is a never-ending demand for services.

• If the goals of an organization are difficult to determine and achieve, then it may also be difficult to specify what exactly constitutes good policing. The difficulty of adequately defining good policing has implications for all of police management.

• Large and small police departments differ in several ways, including structural specialization and diversity of sworn officers.

However, large and small departments do not differ greatly in terms of the technology that is used on the job.

• All police departments have a patrol unit, although staffing levels may depend on the size of the department. Patrol is usually the largest unit in a department. To the extent that police departments are twenty-four-hour agencies, it is usually because patrol officers work both day and night shifts.

• Common among police departments is a criminal investigation unit. The larger the department, the more specialization there is among investigators in the types of crimes investigated.

• Other units within police departments may include special enforcement units (e.g., bomb squad, tactical enforcement); investigative units (e.g., sensitive crimes units); juvenile bureaus; communications units; internal affairs divisions; and crime analysis units.

• In the United States, law enforcement is provided at the local, county, state, and federal government levels.

• While most police departments in

the nation are quite small, most police officers work in larger departments.

• Most sheriff’s departments have more varied responsibilities than local police departments. These responsibilities include law enforcement, operation of a county jail, and court security. The amount of personnel and resources devoted to each task depends on the characteristics of the county.

• Each state has a state law enforcement agency. Some states have a highway patrol and department of public safety; other states have state police.

• There are approximately 1,700 other public law enforcement agencies in the United States that have special jurisdictions. The largest share of these agencies, about 750, consists of campus police departments serving colleges and universities.

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• The Clery Act requires institutions of higher education that participate in federal financial aid programs to keep and disclose information about crime on and near their campuses.

• The primary law enforcement agencies of the federal government are located in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Department of Justice (DOJ). They include Customs and Border Protection; Immigration and Customs Enforcement; the Secret Service; the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the Transportation and Security Administration; the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; the Drug Enforcement Administration; and the U.S. Marshals Service. There are a multitude of other federal agencies that have some law enforcement responsibilities and employ agents, investigators, and/or police.

IMPORTANT

TERMS

Bureaucracy 41

Chain of command 41

Internal affairs unit 54

Monopoly 43

Specialization 41

Street-level bureaucracy 44

Tactical enforcement unit (TEU) 53

QUESTIONS FOR

DISCUSSION

AND REVIEW

1. How might local control of police departments lead to unequal policing?

2. Police are often described as bureaucracies. Explain.

3. Police departments have also been described as being monopolies. What does this mean? What are the implications of police departments being monopolies?

4. What are the most significant challenges associated with managing police organizations?

5. How are large and small police departments the same? How are they different?

6. List and briefly discuss the major operating units in police departments.

7. What are the various types of law enforcement agencies?

8. Why do you think there are law enforcement agencies at each level of government?

9. What is the Clery Act and what is its purpose?

10. Identify and discuss the law enforcement agencies located in

the Department of Justice and Department of Homeland Security.

FACT OR

FICTION

ANSWERS

1. Fact

2. Fiction

3. Fact

4. Fact

5. Fiction

6. Fact

7. Fiction

8. Fiction

9. Fiction

10. Fiction

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DIGITAL

RESOURCES

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