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Case Reports

The forensic exhumation and human remain identification of an individual with albinism

Wilson Jilala a,*, Denis Russa b, Paul Ngw’alali c, Pastory Bushozi d

a Forensic Anthropology Section, Forensic Bureau, Tanzania Police Force, P.O. Box 14444, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania b Department of Anatomy, The Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania c Department of Pathology, The Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania d Department of Archaeology, The University of Dar es Salaam, College of Humanity, P.O. Box 35050, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords: Albinism Bacteria Pilon fracture Porosity lesions

A B S T R A C T

This article reports on an exhumation of an individual identified to be a victim of albinism from a trench dug for a well on 16 April 2018, Ukonga, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The skeletal remains were sent to the Forensic Bureau of the Tanzania Police Force for further investigation. Ante-mortem and postmortem information, the deoxy- ribonucleic acid (DNA) and skeletal diagnosis were used in the identification. Skeletal diagnosis suggests that the victim was a young African male aged between 19 and 26 years old with stature of 157–166 cm. Ante-mortem trauma suggest that the individual was wounded with a sharp object on the left shoulder resulting in severe infection. The victim had a problem with acute dental caries suggesting the existence of biochemical reaction. He also had porosity lesions on cranium and vertebral column which is indicative of chronic malaria infection or anemic condition. The distal end of the tibia exhibited a peri-mortem pilon fracture on the articular surface of the malleolus. This signifies he fell into that long edge trench either intentionally or accidentally or pushed by people and that is the circumstances of death. This article also provides a general picture of challenges facing people with albinism in Africa. People with albinism have been victimized in many ways such as restricted right of self- expression, deficiency of freedom, being hunted or repudiated to death, and deficiency of medical treatment. They also are suffering from dermal diseases, injuries and infections that can easily lead to skin cancer and skeletal diseases due to their disability. In fact, this problem requires urgent resolution for health departments and those involved in the protection of civilians, especially the security agencies. It is an intolerable life; therefore, African governments should take serious measures to curtail atrocities committed to people with albinism.

Introduction

Recent experience in Africa shows that people with albinism have been hunted and severely mutilated as results of superstition. Attacks and injuries against people with albinism have been reported across the continent, particularly in the Great Lakes region, which includes parts of Tanzania [1]. Most cases of murdering people with albinism have been intricately linked to superstition, with people believing that their re- mains (albino bones or tissues) can bring wealth, fortune, and therapy treatments. Excessive credulity has been reported among gold and dia- mond miners, who have strong faith in the use of albino bones for monetary gain or to increase their chances of becoming multi-millionaires or big politicians. As a result, people with albinism

are thought to play a significant role in acquiring political power and gaining strong political positions or servant supports the promotion [2, 3]. The desire to impair people with albinism is based on the assumption that the albino bone aids in inspiring person endorsement and treatment of people with chronic diseases such as Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and cancer. Typically, the bones of an albino person in Africa are created in a superstitious environment, appear to be a big deal, and are sold for large sums of money [4]. Such interregional and unlawful trading networks has been reported in different countries across sub-Saharan Africa [2]. As a result, people with albinism are currently living in deplorable conditions, with some suffering severe trauma and others being attacked and killed [2,3,5]. Psychologically many albinos live with the stress of witnessing death at any moment and

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (W. Jilala).

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healthily they also fight skin diseases [6], blurred vision [1,7] and the difficult environment created against them. This article reports on an individual’s skeletal examination which expresses the individual’s albinism beyond the skin and highlights all the critical issues that characterize the real plight of albinos. The article tries to reconstruct the nature of death of the victim by describing what might have happened to him based on the available osteological evidence. It has also made sig- nificant recommendations and calls on African governments to recon- sider and improve the lives and safety of these people with albinism. The paper aims to awaken sub-Saharan African governments that the albino homicide still exists and that more intelligence techniques are needed to address it. State agencies especially the police and its intelligence de- partments must work effectively to end these killings. Education de- partments, universities, the media, and religious institutions should educate people in order to eliminate this misconception.

The case study

The investigation was carried at Ukonga District in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In April 2018, the police received a report about the discovery of skeletal remains of human being. Civil servants cleaning an area to be used for house construction discovered human remains; the incident was reported to the Ukonga Police Station. The police went to inspect the scene and decided to do more excavation the next day because the bones were discovered in a long trench dug in preparation for the construction of a well, which had mud in it, so all of the mud had to be removed first, and it was not possible to complete the excavation activities in one day. The reported remains were discovered on 16 April 2018 and taken to a Forensic Bureau (FB) of the Tanzania Police Force for further examination.

Exhumation

According to Section 9 of the Tanzanian Inquest Act of 1980, a dead body may be exhumed if it appears to any Officer Commanding Criminal Investigation Department or Judge that the body of any person who died in circumstances necessitating the holding of an inquest on the body [8]. Following the provisions of the Exhumation Order, the Crime Scene Investigation unit of police at Ukonga district was responsible for this Exhumation. First, they surrounded the scene with tape to protect the area under investigation; second, they conducted a surface survey while searching the crime scene evidences; and finally, they documented the scene and physical evidence before and after the recovery of human remains. Excavation was done slowly with a trowel, removing mud from the trench and lifting it into plastic buckets with a capacity of 20 liters of liquid state. To make the evidence visible, the muds were screened in a 0.5 mm mesh wire through water soaked in a basin. This technique is known as screening and flotation [9], and it is commonly used by archeologists during excavation. However, it is rarely used in a crime

scene investigation, particularly by a forensic anthropologist [10]. During the screening and flotation process, human remains were grad- ually sorted out of the muds. After the excavation was finished, the bones were cleaned with running water in a screen mesh wire, dried, and sent to the Tanzania Police Force Laboratory’s Forensic Bureau (FB) for examination, where a thorough investigation was carried out in order to determine the identity of the individual and the possible cause of death.

Material and methods

A total of 45 bones, including crania and postcranial bones, were examined at the FB laboratory (Fig. 1). There were no ulnas, fibula, patella, carpals, metacarpals, tarsals, or metatarsals. The left radius, as well as the ribs and vertebrae, were all missing. Due to the nature of the trench, which was part of a construction site, it is possible that the missing skeletal parts were transported further away. At the site, several foundation holes were discovered, which would have aided in the water transportation of disarticulated individual skeletal parts. As a result, the missing skeletal remains could have been washed away from the trench or taken by those pursuing the decedent. The majority of the teeth were left on the mandible and maxilla bones. The bones brought to the lab- oratory for analysis were well preserved.

In sex estimation the Klales et al. revised method of sexing the human innominate bone using ventral arc, sub pubic concavity, medial aspects of the ischiopubic ramus scoring statistical methods were applied in parallel with the Walker sex estimation log regression equations which focus on scoring the skull landmarks occipital crest, Mastoid apophysis, Supra-orbital margin, Glabella, and mental eminence [11]. The study used Brooks-Suchey method in assessing age of individual morpholog- ical change of the pubic symphysis of the innominate which provided an excellent postcranial age estimation [12], together with Iscan and Loth transition analysis aging method using metamorphosis rib sternal end [13]. The estimation of stature used Trotter and Gleser method which is good for adults between 18 and 30 years old. The skeletal pathological examination was done using macroscopic and microscopic analysis where disease and mechanical stress were observed [14]. First, the skeletal pathological lesions were easily detected because they are visible to the naked eye. Thereafter, the Dino-Lite Digital Microscope AD4113T-12 V was used in the morphology study of the bio-marks.

Results

The biological profile

The pelvic innominate bone had a short and triangular body of pubis, a narrow subpubic angle with no ventral arch nor a large subpubic concavity, which are characteristics of male individual [15–17]. The results also show that this individual had no subpubic crest on the medial aspects although the bone is slightly twisted, another sign of

Fig. 1. The image of the entire skeleton. A photo showing a total of 45 bones, especially large ones, were brought to the FB laboratory for examination.

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masculinity [15]. Using Klales et al., logistic regression equation the results suggested that this is a male individual with a sex probability of 0.999468354 against a female which was 0.000531646, with average weights of 7.539 (see Table 1). Other sexual, dimorphism remarks include mastoid apophysis scoring 4/5, occipital crest, supra orbital margins, mental eminence, and glabella scoring 3/5 that are charac- teristics of human male [11]. Those methods derived probability by following Walker’s methods of sexing human skull [18], and all results showed that these skeletal remains belong to the male individual (see Table 2).

This male’s stature was estimated to be 157–166 cm using the hu- merus, radius, femur, and tibia equations developed by Trotter and Gleser’s1977 (see Table 3). The answers were then entered into a sta- tistical formula, which was used to calculate the mean for both the upper and lower average grades, which were obtained by adding numbers in formula (+) and lowering numbers in those formulas (-) The results of the special formula using the femur and tibia alone show that this person stands between 159 cm and 166 cm tall. In general, the minimum and maximum stature of this person for the combination of these formulas is 157.4175 and 165.7375, which is equivalent to 157–166 cm if approx- imated (see Table 3).

The male individual’s age was estimated to be between 19 and 26 years old based on morphological changes in the pubic symphysis [19, 20] and the sternal ends of ribs [21]. Developmental ridges cross on the innominate bone’s symphyseal surface. However, these characteristics are of male individuals aged 21–26 years old, and they also indicate the initial stage of rim formation and the beginning delimitation of the upper extremities ossific nodules [19]. Based on the metamorphosis of the sternal rib end, whose surface pit appears to be beginning to deepen, it creates a V-shape appearance, and its walls begin to thin, the age of this individual was determined to be between 19 and 23 years old [21].

The ante-mortem pathologies

Using macro and microscopic analysis, cavitation lesions on the cranium frontal bone and vertebral bodies were discovered. Pitting or cavitation bio-marks of pinpoint to penpoint sized pores of oval and round shapes with circa ranging between 0.5 and 1 mm were found on both the anterior and posterior sides of the vertebral bodies using a Dino-Lite Digital Microscope AD4113T-12 V. Similar porotic lesions were found in the skull frontal bone, but they were smaller in size compared to those found in vertebral bodies, despite having similar morphological shapes. On the occlusal surface of molars and premolars, dental caries appeared. The cavity lesions had spread to the enamel layer but had not reached the Dentine-Enamel Junction (DEJ). There were no periapical cavities or ante-mortem tooth loss in either the upper or lower jaw. The superior border of the left scapular was discovered to have a sharp cut mark from ante-mortem trauma during the healing process, and the periosteum layer around the cut mark has a rough surface due to periosteal reaction to osteomyelitis (see Fig. 2).

Peri-mortem trauma

Despite the fact that skeletal materials of albinos are used in witch- craft practices, in fact, from this individual’s skeletal remains there is no

evidence of peri-mortem cut marks or any other type of evidence that can prove the missing skeletal elements were removed at the time of death. The only possible peri-mortem trauma was found to be a pilon fracture (see Fig. 3), which may have resulted as a physiological and

Table 1 Present ‘methods’ of sex estimation from Klales et al., showing the score calculation of sex probability and its results.

Logistic Regression Equation: 2.726 (VA) + 1.214 (MA) + 1.073 (SPC) - 16.312 Trait Scores of

the Pelvic Bone Score Sex Probability

VA SPC MA using positive weights

pp Female pp Male

5 5 4 7.539 0.000531646 0.999468354

Table 2 Present cranial sex estimation log-regression equation methods from Walker [11], showing cranial trait scores and sex estimation probability which suggest the skull belongs to a male individual.

Trait Scores of the Skull

Nuchal Mastoid Orbit Glabella Mental

3 4 3 3 3

Sex Estimations - Probability methods:

score sex prob Male prob F accuracy vars eq

-3.187 MALE 0.96 0.04 88.4 / 86.4 gl-ma-me 1 -3.106 MALE 0.96 0.04 85.4 / 82.9 gl-ma 2 -1.658 MALE 0.84 0.16 86.6 / 82.1 gl-me 3 -3.165 MALE 0.96 0.04 79.9 / 83.6 me-ma 4 -2.553 MALE 0.93 0.07 78.1/77.9 or-me 5 -1.448 MALE 0.81 0.19 76.8 / 82.9 nu-ma 6

Table 3 Long bones – stature equations showing the victim’s stature of 157–166 cm as derived from measurements and calculations of long bones.

Equations Length measured

Stature – approximation

Low Score High Score

3.26 (Hum) + 62.10 + /- 4.43 29.5 153.84 162.7 3.42 (Rad) + 81.56 + /- 4.30 23 cm 155.92 164.52 2.11 (Fem) + 70.35 + /- 3.94 44.5 cm 160.305 168.185 2.19 (Tib) + 86.02 + /- 3.78 35.5 cm 159.605 167.545 Mean 157.4175 165.7375 1.15 (Fem þ Tib) þ 71.04 þ /-

3.53 (44.5 þ35.5) 159.51 166.57

Fig. 2. Photo showing left scapular ante-mortem trauma of sharp cut mark which is surrounded by rough surface which spreads as a healing response but is affected by the inflammatory layer which is the result of bacterial or viral infection.

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biomechanical response failure of the tibia to carry a weight in jumping or landing. By nature of its appearance, there are no signs of healing, bone tended to be elastic, but it failed due to excessive tension force applied, hence it developed a line of fracture in the distal articular surface.

Taphonomic alteration

A total of 10 teeth were recovered from the mud sediments. Both the four upper and lower (lateral and central) jaw incisors (4 +4) were uprooted by taphonomic agents, and all were found during screening and flotation process on excavation. The canine [1] and second molar [1] from the left side mandible were missing and not recovered at all. Its sockets had no healing indications which means the tooth loss resulted as postmortem damage or taphonomic modification, of course maybe they got lost in the mud or passed through holes out of the trench.

Cause of death

The cause of death was not established but circumstantial evidence indicates the remains were found in a deep hole dug for a well, with a pilon fracture, so he may have fallen in and died. Despite the high probability that the victim may have jumped in the trench posed by the presence of pilon fracture in the distal tibia articulation, a fracture by itself do not show clearly that an individual jumped. Therefore, without diminishing the importance of violence against albino individuals, the presence of a pilon fracture is also not in itself a justification for proving that the individual was pushed. On the other hand, it is not clear what the circumstance of death is, or if it is possible to assess it. The death scene (trench), available physical evidence (skeletal remains) and other historical accounts about albinism crisis in Africa; they refer to two types of cause of death which are accidental circumstance (fell or was pushed by accident) and a homicidal circumstance (intentionally pushed).

Person identification process

After Matching Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Data it was found that the skeletal remains belong to an African boy aged 19–26 and his stature was 158–166 cm. This biological information enabled the police to use them as trace evidence. Through comparing Postmortem Report (PR) with Ante-mortem Data (AD) of Missing Persons Data Base from the relevant Ukonga district Police Stations the evidence matched the re- ports of a young man with albinism who was reported missing on

January 3, 2018. There were no dental records to assist in identification. Therefore, to satisfy beyond reasonable doubt that the diagnosis was correct a DNA sample was taken from the boy’s mother who also matched correctly. DNA testing was done using GlobalFiler® express kit; a 24-marker STR assay in the laboratory of the Chief Government Chemist in Dar es Salaam. In fact, the Laboratory has identified 11 core STR loci to serve as the average, and that are routinely used in forensic DNA identification of human remains. The ante-mortem information about his parents shows that they are all Africans, so, matching DNA to the African mother also meant that this individual was African. Thus, these human skeletal remains were found to be of an individual young African male with albinism. Furthermore, the circumstances of his disappearance and the injuries he suffered highlights atrocities committed by people with superstitious beliefs about albinism throughout Africa.

Discussion

The results of a pelvic and skull landmarks sex assessment show that this individual is male with a stature of 157–166 cm based on mea- surements and long bone calculations. The sternal end of rib meta- morphosis and pubic symphysis transition analysis aging strongly suggest that this person is between the ages of 19 and 26. The nature of the crime scene played a significant role in the overall process of decomposition or taphonomic alteration detected on this individual’s skeletal remains. The teeth on the jaw sockets have disarticulated as a result of the water contained in the trench. Water deteriorates the cementum layer that connects the roots of the teeth to the gums and jaws as a taphonomic agent [22–24]. Because the trench had been retaining water that was leaking into the jaws for a long time, the cementum binding became weakened, failing to hold the teeth tightly in the jaws and eventually separating the teeth from the sockets. Dental examina- tions are meticulously performed with the Dino-Lite Digital Microscope AD4113T-12 V. Dental caries was discovered in the teeth (molars). The presence of tooth cavities in this individual could be due to oral bacteria producing acid and causing proteolysis, or to carbohydrate food con- taining sugar, which caused decalcification of dental enamels. The presence of cavities on back teeth suggests that the primary cause of these cariogenic lesions may be a combination of sugar consumption and bacteria (biochemical process) [14,25]. Because molars have groves, crannies and pit that can collect food residues and may also be habitats of microorganisms that produce acid which is destructive to teeth [26].

The sharp cut mark injury on the shoulder area suggests that it was an antemortem trauma in the healing process [27], which was never fully recovered at the time of death. The presence of scapula periosteum around the cut mark area indicates that it was infected. The bone’s outer layer was attacked and covered by a periosteal reaction caused by a bacterial or viral infestation that caused swelling, pus drainage, and pain in that area of the shoulder. It caused osteomyelitis, indicating that bacteria or viruses entered the scapula bone through a sharp cut, pyo- genic Stephylococcus aureus. The victim did not receive timely anti- biotic treatment, or the periosteal reaction was caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria or viruses (see Fig. 2). It is also possible that the victim took antibiotics without following proper treatment, or that the antibiotics did not work. Due to this failure or delay in medical attention, infectious bacteria or viruses may have infected the wound, causing widespread lesions on the scapula.

The pilon fracture appears to be a peri-mortem injury with no signs of healing process [27]. Pilon fractures are typically caused by rotational or axial forces acting on distal extremities, such as the tibia at the ankle joint. Based on the nature of the pilon fractures seen and their fre- quencies, we hypothesize that the deceased individual’s fracture was caused by falling into such a long and deep trench (Fig. 3). It’s unclear whether this was done on purpose, by accident, or was pushed into the trench by others. It has also been reported that pilon fractures can be caused by car or motorcycle accidents. That implies that other factors

Fig. 3. Photo showing a peri-mortem pilon fracture which normally occurs as a response failure of the distal tibia to carry a weight especially when a person falls from a high floor or long edge landing with his feet.

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may have contributed to the pilon fracture. However, the available ev- idence strongly suggests that the victim fell into the deep trench either intentionally or unintentionally, and was pushed by others, and landed with rotational or axial force, which may also be the circumstances of death. The presence of a pilon fracture indicates that the victim fell or was forced to fall. He may have fled to hide in the trench after being pursued or seeing criminals pursuing him. If he had fallen in that loca- tion by chance, he would not have landed on his feet; instead, he would have landed on other parts of his body, or if it was a foot, he would have landed on the knee, hip, or pelvis instead of the heel [28]. There is abundant circumstantial and physical evidence that albinos living in Africa are subjected to such cages [1]. The Tanzania Police Force has worked tirelessly to apprehend and prosecute the perpetrators [3], and many victims of these attacks have been permanently disabled [1]. With the way Albinos live on the hunt for being killed by tyrants who hold poor beliefs that the bones of the Albino bring good luck and great power, the fact that he was attacked with a sharp object on his shoulder is beyond Doubt.

He was also discovered to have porous, particularly the frontal bone and vertebral column, specifically on vertebral bodies, indicating that he may have had chronic malaria [29]. Malaria is still a major problem in East Africa [30]. The disease is spread by female Anopheles mosquitos, which transmit the Plasmodium parasite to the victim. The parasites then live and reproduce in vertebrate body tissue and the liver before entering the bloodstream and attacking individual red blood cells. When parasites breed in the spinal cord, they attack red blood cells and create their own habitat, taking up space in the area and causing many porosity lesions in the spinal cord [29]. Malaria was found in this person’s skeletal remains because it pierced many porotic lesions in the vertebral bodies and frontal bone [31]. These porotic signatures in cranial and postcranial may in fact not only exist in individuals with malaria. However, they could be a signal of other pathological conditions espe- cially those related to anemia, chronic vitamin C and D deficiency, but when assessing human skeletal remains from Tanzania, where malaria is endemic, these porotic lesions should be considered or linked to malaria.

On the missing skeletal parts, there are two distinct points of view emerging based on the evidence. First, several foundation holes were discovered in the trench, it is possible that disarticulated appendicular skeletal parts were eased water dragged and transported through the gaps. The second and most convincing theory is that the missing appendicular skeletons (hands and feet) were taken over by murderers hunting people with albinism. The mode of operandi shows the appen- dicular skeletons are the ones that are most easily taken [3]. Because the recovery was done with great care to reach the trench’s bottom depths and walls, and the soil that came out of it was screened to ensure that everything contained was found, the procedures ensured that no human remains were left inside the trench [32–34]. So, circumstantial evi- dences and modes of operation point to the possibility that hands and feet were taken by assassins or people with superstitious beliefs [1,2].

Conclusion

Accumulated evidence reflects the realities of albino people’s lives in Africa. They are constantly threatened and treated in an unpleasant manner. The majority of them face serious health challenges, including the inability to obtain health-care coverage due to low income. In other words, superstitious people see them as a source of wealth or a bridge to a political position or promotion to high status in civil services, putting their safety at risk. These scenarios have a significant impact on their mental health and can cause physical distress. The identified sharp cut marker trauma on left scapular is most likely the result of a personal attack by malicious people. Such occurrences can cause stress, discrimination, and even suicide. It is obvious that the pilon fracture was caused by an attempt to save his life against evil people, or that the stress of being discriminated against and hunted to death caused him to jump into a trench. As such incidents become more common, security organs

in Africa are encouraged to take serious measures against suspects of superstitious suicides. Albinos in Tanzania have gone missing, and their whereabouts are unknown. There are communities that have developed the belief that albinos do not die but only disappear away as they age; this is unacceptable because assassins have killed people with albinism. Beliefs like these are clearly based on the crime of kidnaping and silently killing albinos. Everyone will undoubtedly die here on Earth. Nobody can live and then vanish without dying. Criminals must have used such an argument to shield themselves from their evil. To ensure that justice is served, the perpetrators should be apprehended and their cases heard as soon as possible. Parliaments and health councils should also consider whether all Albinos should be provided with free health insurance. It is obvious that the sun is extremely hot in the African environment, which causes them to be exposed to the sun’s rays from time to time, resulting in rashes that can lead to skin cancer. African governments should provide these people with skin disabilities with free health insurance. The insurance will assist them in receiving treatment as well as other accessories such as special skin lotion, sunglasses, and hats. It will also provide them with physical and psychological care.

Conflict of interest

In this article there is no any conflict of interest.

Acknowledgements

The team of researchers would like to thank the Tanzania Commis- sion for Science and Technology (COSTECH) for funding and facilitating this research. Special thanks to the Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences and the Tanzania Police Force for the good cooperation they have given us in carrying out this role.

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