Introduction and conclusion for technical writing

Warren Wilson College

Missouri Western State University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pfeiffer, William S. Technical communication : a practical approach / William Sanborn Pfeiffer, Kaye Adkins. — 8th ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-278578-5 ISBN-10: 0-13-278578-1 1. English language—Technical English—Problems, exercises, etc. 2. Communication of technical information—Problems, exercises, etc. 3. English language—Rhetoric—Problems, exercises, etc. 4. Technical writing--Problems, exercises, etc. I. Adkins, Kaye E. II. Title. PE1475.P47 2013 808.06’66--dc23 2011041404

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-278578-1 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-278578-5

Editorial Director : Vernon R. Anthony Executive Editor : Gary Bauer Editorial Assistant : Tanika Henderson Director of Marketing : David Gesell Marketing Manager : Stacey Martinez Marketing Assistant : Les Roberts Senior Managing Editor : JoEllen Gohr Senior Project Manager : Rex Davidson Senior Operations Supervisor : Pat Tonneman Creative Director: Andrea Nix

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Dedication

Deepest thanks go to my family—Evelyn, Zachary, and Katie—for their love and support throughout this and every writing project I take on.

—Sandy

To those who have taught me about technical communication—Dr. Joanna Freeman, the programmers at Phoenix/SSC, TechWhirlers, my colleagues in ATTW and

CPTSC, and my former students who are now practitioners in the field. —Kaye

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Good writing is always a breaking of the soil, clearing away prejudices, pulling up of sour weeds of crooked thinking, stripping the turf so as to get at what is fertile beneath.

—Henry Seidel Canby (1878–1961), “Cultivate Your Garden”

Most writers agree with Henry Seidel Canby that writing is hard work, but well-crafted writing makes the effort worthwhile. Clear writing, of the kind we call technical writing or technical communication, helps businesses run more smoothly, helps government run more effectively, and helps all of us accomplish our goals.

To help you become an effective technical communicator, all editions of this book have stressed one simple principle: You learn to write well by doing as much writing as possible. This eighth edition adds new features that make it even more usable, without changing what has made the book work in all editions—updated models and references, clear explanations of the writing process, advice for using technology, and a new organi- zation that emphasizes the technical communication process in the workplace context.

The eighth edition continues the use of M-Global, the fictional company that serves as the basis for many examples and assignments. M-Global provides a complex case that runs throughout the book, with examples of technical communication practices in a vari- ety of professional fields. It reflects the communication experience of people at all stages of their careers, providing students with an insight into situations they will find as they start their careers, as well as introducing them to the kinds of communication challenges they will face as they advance professionally. The M-Global case also gives students a rich context for assignments. Students are welcomed to M-Global in the first chapter, and they learn more about the organization throughout the book, just as new employees are introduced to an organization with orientation and an employee handbook and then learn more about the organization and their colleagues as time passes.

At the start of our classes, we sometimes ask students to describe their professional goals for the next 10 years. As you might expect, they hope to rise to important positions in the workplace and make genuine contributions to their professions. Such long-term thinking is crucial, keeping you on course in your life.

Yet, ultimately, the way you handle the small details of daily life most influences the contribution you make in the long run. If you do good work, believe in what you do, and communicate well with others—both interpersonally and in writing—success will come your way. The author Robert Pirsig put it this way in his 1974 classic, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: “The place to improve the world is first in one’s own heart and head and hands, and then work outward from there.”

We believe—and this book tries to show—that clear, concise, and honest writing is one of the most powerful tools of your heart, head, and hands.

Kaye Adkins, Professor of English/Technical Communication Missouri Western State University

William S. Pfeiffer, President Warren Wilson College

Preface

v

>>> New Features of Technical Communication: A Practical Approach, Eighth Edition

Technical communication is a rapidly changing field that helps users adapt to advances in technology. At the same time, technical communicators must recognize the changes in how users access and use information about technology. Throughout this edition, you will find revisions and new information to reflect the changing field of technical communica- tion. First of all, the chapters have been reordered and grouped to reflect how writing is created and used in today’s workplace.

■ Part 1 , Introduction to Technical Communication, defines technical commu- nication as a practice. It helps students understand how they can apply what they have learned about the writing process in an academic setting to a workplace setting. The chapter on collaboration has been moved to this section to reflect its integral role in workplace writing.

■ Part 2 , Effective Workplace Documents, introduces students to the elements of all workplace documents, including organization and document design. It also includes a chapter on the most common form of workplace writing—correspondence.

■ Part 3 , Common Technical Communication Genres, explains the common genres traditional in technical communication—definitions, descriptions, process explanations, and instructions. These genres may serve as building blocks for larger documents, or they may stand by themselves.

■ Part 4 , Presenting Research, focuses on workplace research. The chapter on re- search has been moved so that it is the first chapter in this section, with an emphasis on the research processes common to technical communication. Although research is the basis of articles in professional journals, it is also the foundation for most reports, proposals, and white papers.

■ Part 5 , Alternatives to Print Text, brings together chapters that will help students present information in formats other than print text. As users access more information through digital and visual formats, alternatives to print text become more important.

■ Part 6 , Communicating a Professional Image, comprises two chapters to help students begin and succeed in professional careers.

Through all of the chapters, you will find a number of other changes as well. Chap- ters now open with a list of objectives, and the chapter summaries are presented as easy- to-read lists of key points from the chapter. Assignments at the end of the text are now clearly marked as Analysis or Practice exercises, and assignments placed in the context of M-Global are clearly identified. New and revised figures and models also appear in every chapter. Throughout the text, there is an increased emphasis on the use of computers in technical communication.

New and revised material in each chapter includes the following:

■ Chapter 1 now emphasizes the importance of context as an influence on the writing process and written documents. The information about M-Global, the fictional company

Prefacevi

that is the basis for cases and examples throughout the book, is now collected in a model employee orientation document at the end of the chapter.

■ Chapter 2 includes an expanded discussion of how software tools are used in the writing process.

■ Chapter 3 has been moved in this edition to emphasize that collaboration is a writ- ing process, and that it is central to most workplace writing. The chapter has been expanded and now includes a section on writing in a Content Management System (CMS) environment.

■ Chapter 4 includes an expanded discussion of modular writing and new information about organizing digital documents for easy access by users.

■ Chapter 5 now treats document design as a whole, including navigation elements, color, fonts, and consistent design. It includes a new section on designing digital docu- ments for a variety of platforms and an increased emphasis on the role of computers in the document design process.

■ Chapter 6 now emphasizes the qualities that make all forms of business correspond- ence effective. Correspondence is now categorized by its purpose and content. The chapter includes expanded discussion of how context and purpose lead writers to choose among e-mail, letters, and memos.

■ Chapter 7 has expanded the discussion of definitions and descriptions, including new ABC guidelines for organizing each. The discussion of definitions has been expanded to include the importance of definitions of abstract concepts in daily life.

■ Chapter 8 has expanded the discussion of process explanations and instructions, includ- ing new ABC formats for each. The discussion of process explanations now includes a discussion of script formats and the use of scripts, flowcharts, and lists in process expla- nations. The chapter also includes a new section on point-of-use documentation.

■ Chapter 9 has been revised and reorganized to explain how and why research is con- ducted by professionals in the workplace. It explains the importance of literature re- views as the foundation of any research. It now introduces quantitative and qualitative research, including new information about research with human subjects. The chapter clearly distinguishes between primary and secondary sources. Discussion of online tools for research has been expanded. New sections in the chapter include an ABC for- mat for presenting technical research and usability testing as a form of research.

■ Chapter 10 now puts all of the information about informal and formal document formats in one chapter, removing redundancy from previous editions. The chapter in- cludes a new discussion of how to format documents to suit their context and purpose.

■ Chapter 11 now emphasizes two main purposes for reports—for information and for analysis. Informative reports are explained as a means of conducting daily opera- tions and record keeping in organizations. The chapter introduces guidelines and ABC formats for four types of informative reports: activity reports, progress reports, lab reports, and regulatory reports—a type of report new to this edition. Analytical re- ports are explained as a resource for problem solving in organizations. The chapter

viiPreface

Preface

introduces guidelines and ABC formats for four types of analytical reports: problem analyses, recommendation reports, feasibility studies, and equipment evaluations.

■ Chapter 12 now classifies proposals in three ways—as unsolicited or solicited, and as grant proposals (new to this edition). The chapter includes guidelines and ABC formats for these three types of proposals. Also new to this edition is a discussion of white papers, a type of document that is important to many organizations. The chap- ter includes two new models: a grant proposal and a white paper.

■ Chapter 13 includes new and updated discussion and examples. It includes two new sets of guidelines—for photographs and for screen captures. Included in the chapter is a discussion of how to take and use screen captures in documents.

■ Chapter 14 has been revised to emphasize the dynamic nature of Web pages and Web sites, and to focus on the importance of developing content with the user in mind. As Web sites have become increasingly complex, the role of technical com- municators in creating and maintaining Web sites has changed. The chapter has been revised to reflect those changes. The chapter includes three new models with sample Web pages from Web sites—a professional Web site and two student Web sites.

■ Chapter 15 includes a new section on poster sessions, with information about design- ing and printing posters.

■ Chapter 16 includes new information on the role of networking in the job search proc- ess. The chapter also includes a new section on portfolios for technical communicators.

■ Chapter 17 has expanded the discussion of sample sentence revisions. The section on sexist language has been revised to address multiple varieties of language bias. The chapter includes new discussion of the role of style sheets and style guides in work- place writing.

■ The information for speakers of English as a second language (ESL) has been moved from the Handbook to a separate appendix, to make it easier to access.

■ A new appendix has been added with suggestions for Further Reading . This bibliography includes all sources cited in the textbook, as well as additional readings, organized by general chapter topic.

viii

Preface

>>> Core Features of Technical Communication: A Practical Approach

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

In this chapter, students will

■ Be introduced to the key characteristics of technical communication

■ Learn how workplace writing differs from academic writing

■ Learn the effect of organizational culture on workplace communication

■ Be introduced to communication challenges in the global economy

■ Learn basic ethical principles for use in the workplace

■ Be introduced to the M-Global case that is used throughout the book

>>> Chapter Objectives

1

Photo © Robnroll/Dreamstime.com

This edition continues the emphasis on the practi- cal aspects of technical communication in a work- place context.

Focus on Process and Product in a Workplace Context This book has students practicing writing early ( Chapter 1 ). The text immerses them in the proc- ess of technical writing while teaching practical formats for getting the job done.

163 Types of Messages in Correspondence

Any delay gives readers the chance to wonder whether the news will be good or bad, thus causing momentary confusion. On the left is a complete outline for positive correspondence that corresponds to the ABC format.

M-Global Case Study for a Positive Letter As a project manager at M-Global’s Houston office, Nancy Slade has agreed to complete a foundation investigation for a large church about 300 miles away. There are cracks in the basement floor slab and doors that do not close, so her crew needs a day to analyze the problem (observing the site, measuring walls, digging soil borings, taking samples, etc.). She took this small job on the condition that she could schedule it around several larger (and more profitable) projects in the same area during mid-August.

Yesterday, Nancy received a letter from the minister (speak- ing for the church committee), who requested that M-Global change the date. He had just been asked by the regional head- quarters to host a three-day conference at the church during the same time that M-Global was originally scheduled to complete the project.

ABC Format: Positive Correspondence

■ ABSTRACT Puts correspondence in the context of an ongoing professional relationship by referring to previous communication related to the subject

■ Clear statement of good news you have to report

■ BODY: Supporting data for main point mentioned in abstract

■ Clarification of any questions reader may have

■ Qualification, if any, of the good news

■ CONCLUSION: Statement of eagerness to continue relationship, complete project, etc.

■ Clear statement, if appropriate, of what step should come next

A Simple ABC Pattern for All Documents The “ABC format”— A bstract, B ody, and C onclusion—guides students’ work in this course and throughout their careers. This underlying three-part structure pro- vides a convenient handle for designing almost every technical document.

Chapter 6 Correspondence168

By taking an extra minute to check the style and tone of your message, you have the best chance of sending an e-mail that will be well received.

>> E-mail Guideline 1: Use Style Appropriate to the Reader and Subject E-mail sent early in a relationship with a client or other professional contact should be somewhat formal. It should be written more like a letter, with a salutation, closing, and complete sentences. E-mail written once a professional relationship has been estab- lished can use a more casual style. It can resemble conversation with the recipient on the phone. Sentence fragments and slang are acceptable, as long as they contribute to your objectives and are in good taste. Most important, avoid displaying a negative or angry tone. Don’t push the Send button unless an e-mail will produce a constructive exchange.

>> E-mail Guideline 2: Be Sure Your Message Indicates the Context to Which It Applies

Tell your readers what the subject is and what prompted you to write your message. If you are replying to a message, be sure to include the previous message or summarize the message to which you are replying. Most e-mail software packages include a copy of the message to which you are replying, as in Model 6–3 . However, you should make sure that you include only the messages that provide the context for your reader. Long strings of forwarded e-mail make it difficult to find the necessary information.

>> E-mail Guideline 3: Choose the Most Appropriate Method for Replying to a Message

Short e-mail messages may require that you write only a brief response at the beginning or end of the e-mail to which you are responding. For complex, multitopic messages, however, you may wish to split your reply by commenting on each point individually ( Figure 6–5 ).

>> E-mail Guideline 4: Format Your Message Carefully Because e-mail messages frequently replace more formal print-based documents, they should be organized and formatted so that the readers can easily locate the information you want to communicate.

■ Use headings to identify important chunks of information.

■ Use lists to display a series of information.

■ Use sufficient white space to separate important chunks of information.

■ Use separators to divide one piece of information from another.

Figure 6–6 illustrates an e-mail message with headings, separators, and white space.

>> E-mail Guideline 5: Chunk Information for Easy Scanning Break the information into coherent chunks dealing with one specific topic, including all the details that a reader needs to get all of the essential information. Depending on

Numbered Guidelines Many sets of short, numbered guidelines make this book easy to use to complete class projects. Each set of guidelines takes students through the process of finishing assignments, such as writing a proposal, doing research on the Internet, constructing a bar chart, and preparing an oral presentation.

ix

478 Chapter 12 Proposals and White Papers

PROJECT 8: Designed and Created Documentation of Data Security Procedures

CLIENT: Kansas Department of Social and Health Services

■ Model 12–6 ■ continued

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Brief Project Description In response to public concerns about the security of private data, the Kansas Department of Social and Health Services undertook a systematic documentation of all security protocols for personal information. Using the recommendations of an Information Systems Audit, M-Global created on-line and print documentation of computer security procedures.

Main Technical Tasks • Identified procedures to be documented • Designed information architecture for procedural documentation • Created on-line help files to be used by computer operators • Created print-format guide to data security procedures

Main Findings or Benefits • Assisted in meeting public expectations of privacy of confidential

information • New documentation contributed to improved security rating in follow-up

audit • Recognized by Kansans for Security and Privacy for contributions to

security of state records.

Daisuke Morita/Photodisc/Getty Images

M-Global, Inc.—A Fictional Company M-Global, Inc., creates a fictional com- pany for the classroom. Not all students have experience working in a professional or technical organization, so M-Global supplies a realistic backdrop for many of the book’s examples and assignments.

“Write About It” Assignments in Each Chapter Each “Communication Challenge” includes a writing as- signment that asks students to analyze and respond to the challenge and the discussion questions.

Chapter 6 Correspondence

over a four-hour period, for a list with almost 200

members?

2. Read through the list of subject lines. Do any of them

seem inappropriate for the M-Global [NEWS] list, given

its users and its history?

3. Are there any subject lines that could be improved?

Explain.

4. What do you think about Jeannie’s suggestion that all

messages sent to the [NEWS] list be approved before

being posted? What problems do you see with this

approach? What advantages?

5. What do you think of Janet’s decision to assign

the task of creating rules for the [NEWS] list to a

college intern? What benefits does it offer Bart?

What potential problems does he face in completing

this task?

Write About It

Assume the role of Bart. Do some research on netiquette

and decide what guidelines might apply to a list like the

employee [NEWS] list. Look over the subject lines and de-

cide what subjects, if any, should be kept off the list. Think

about what advice you might offer about subject lines for

the list. Do you like Jeannie’s idea about messages to the

list requiring approval? What alternatives are there? If

your campus has a similar list (or lists) that go out to ev-

eryone, look at the subjects of that list. Your instructor

may be willing to share the subjects of a day’s worth of

postings to any similar campus lists that she or he is on.

Write a persuasive memo to Janet that responds to Jean-

nie’s request and explains your reasons for your decisions.

Include citations from any sources that you have researched.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six

students, (2) use team time inside or outside of class to com-

plete the case, and (3) produce an oral or written response.

For guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment A century ago, business professionals had few opportuni-

ties for communication beyond the formal letter or meet-

ing; today, the range of options is incredibly broad. On one

hand, we marvel at the choices for getting our message

heard or read; on the other hand, the many ways to com-

municate present an embarrassment of riches that can be

confusing.

In other words, when you have multiple communica-

tion options, you’re challenged to match the right method

with the right context— right in terms of what the reader

wants and right in terms of the level of effort you should

exert to suit the purpose. You may think this challenge

applies only to your working life. However, it also can influ-

ence your life in college, as this exercise shows.

Team Assignment Brainstorm with your team to list every means you have

used to communicate with your college and university,

from the time you applied to the present. Then for each

communication option that follows, provide two or three

situations for which the option is the appropriate choice:

1. Letter that includes praise

2. Letter that describes a complaint

3. Letter that provides information

4. Letter that attempts to persuade

5. Telephone call

6. E-mail

7. Memo

8. Personal meeting

Collaboration at Work Choosing the Right Mode

Assignments

Assignments can be completed either as individual exercises

or as team projects, depending on the directions of your in-

structor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a response

that can be delivered as an oral presentation for discussion in

class. Analyze the context of each Assignment by considering

what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context of technical

writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from your

document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

176

25 Learning Portfolio

Worldwide Locations of M-Global, Inc., Offices

U.S. Locations

1. Corporate headquarters— Baltimore, Maryland

2. Baltimore, Maryland 3. Boston, Massachusetts 4. Atlanta, Georgia 5. Houston, Texas 6. Cleveland, Ohio 7. St. Paul, Minnesota 8. St. Louis, Missouri 9. Denver, Colorado 10. San Francisco, California

Non-U.S. Locations

1. Caracas, Venezuela 2. London, England 3. Moscow, Russia 4. Munich, Germany 5. Nairobi, Kenya 6. Dammam, Saudi Arabia 7. Tokyo, Japan

U.S. Offices

CORPORATE OFFICE

OVERSEAS OFFICE

Baltimore, Maryland

London, England Munich, Germany Moscow, Russia

Dammam, Saudi Arabia Tokyo, Japan Caracas, Venezuela

Nairobi, Kenya

Denver, Colorado

Cleveland, Ohio St. Louis, Missouri Houston, Texas Boston, Massachusetts Atlanta, Georgia Baltimore, Marryland

San Francisco, California

St. Paul, Minnesota

■ Model 1–1 ■ Employee orientation guide for M-Global, Inc.

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Prefacex

419 Learning Portfolio

Assignments

Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a re-

sponse that can be delivered as an oral presentation for dis-

cussion in class. Analyze the context of each Assignment by

considering what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context

of technical writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

1. Analysis: Executive summary Review the following executive summary for a formal,

solicited sales proposal. Evaluate its effectiveness as an

overview of the proposal.

2. Analysis: Conclusion Review the following conclusion section from a formal, solicited sales proposal. Discuss its tone and page design. Are they

appropriate to a formal solicited proposal? Is the use of a numbered list effective?

Conclusion

Why should a marine supply dealer consider carrying Teak Cam Cleat Spacers? This product satisfies two common criteria of

sailboat owners today: It enhances the appearance of any sailboat, and it makes the boat easier to handle. The potential success

of this product is based on its ability to meet these criteria and the following features and benefits:

1. It is practical, allowing quick, one-handed cleating.

2. It is ideally suited for a variety of sailors, whether they are racing, cruising, or sailing single-handedly.

3. It is a high-quality, handcrafted product that enhances the appearance of any sailboat.

4. It is a product that benefits the dealer by making a valuable addition to her or his inventory. It complements existing sail

accessories and satisfies a customer need.

5. It is geared toward a sizable potential market. Today there are thousands of sailboats in the class for which this accessory

is designed.

6. It is affordably priced and provides a good profit margin.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This proposal outlines features of a custom-made accessory designed for today’s sailors—whether they be racers, cruisers, or

single-handed skippers. The product, Teak Cam Cleat Spacers, has been developed for use primarily on the Catalina 22, a boat

owned by many customers of the 10 Bosun’s stores. However, it can also be used on other sailboats in the same class.

The predictable success of Teak Cam Cleat Spacers is based on two important questions asked by today’s sailboat

owners:

• Will the accessory enhance the boat’s appearance?

• Will it make the boat easier to handle and therefore more enjoyable to sail?

This proposal answers both questions with a resounding affirmative by describing the benefits of teak spacers to thou-

sands of people in your territory who own boats for which the product is designed. This potential market, along with the prod-

uct’s high profit margin, will make Teak Cam Cleat Spacers a good addition to your line of sailing accessories.

3. Analysis, M-Global context: Solicited Proposal Review the solicited proposal that follows, submitted by MainAlert Security Systems to the M-Global, Inc., office in Atlanta.

Evaluate the effectiveness of every section of the proposal.

Chapter 6 Correspondence182

MEMO

DATE: December 4, 2012 TO: Technical Staff FROM: Ralph Simmons, Technical Manager RS SUBJECT: New employee to help with technical editing

Last week we hired an editor to help you produce top-quality reports, proposals, and other documents. This memo gives you some background on this change, high- lights the credentials of our new editor, and explains what the change will mean to you.

PROBLEM: TIME SPENT EDITING AND PROOFREADING

At September’s staff meeting, many technical staff members noted the exces- sive time spent editing and proofreading. For example, some of you said that this final stage of writing takes from 15 to 30 percent of the billable time on an average report. Most important, editing often ends up being done by project managers—the employ- ees with the highest billable time.

Despite these editing efforts, many errors still show up in documents that go out the door. Last month I asked a professional association, the Engineers Professional Society (EPS), to evaluate M-Global-Boston documents for editorial correctness. (EPS performs this service for members on a confidential basis.) The resulting report showed that our final reports and proposals need considerable editing work. Given your comments at September’s meeting and the results of the EPS peer review, I began searching for a solution.

SOLUTION: IN-HOUSE EDITOR

To come to grips with this editing problem, the office just hired Ron Perez, an experienced technical editor. He’ll start work January 3. For the last six years, Ron has worked as an editor at Jones Technical Services, a Toronto firm that does work similar to ours. Before that he completed a master’s degree in technical writing at Sage University in Buffalo.

At next week’s staff meeting, we’ll discuss the best way to use Ron’s skills to help us out. For now, he will be getting to know our work by reviewing recent reports and proposals. Also, the attached list of possible activities can serve as a springboard for our discussion.

CONCLUSION

By working together with Ron, we’ll be able to improve the editorial quality of our documents, free up more of our time for technical tasks, and save the client and ourselves some money.

I look forward to meeting with you next week to discuss the best use of Ron’s services.

Enclosure Copy: Ron Perez

■ Model 6–2 ■ M-Global sample memo

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Gives important infor- mation about Ron in first sentence.

▲ Establishes his credibility.

▲

Refers to attachment.

▲

Focuses on benefit of change to reader.

▲

Restates next action to occur.

▲

Uses informative subject line.

Gives purpose of memo and highlights contents.

▲ ▲

Uses side headings for easy reading.

▲

Shows that the change arose from their concerns.

▲ Adds evidence from outside observer.

▲

453 Learning Portfolio

■ Model 12–4 ■ continued

Silver Rush Museum 1864 Heritage Rd.

Silver City, CO 80212

Mr. John Davis Director National Park Service Save America’s Treasures Grant Program 4567 Ridge Rd. Washington, DC 20240

Dear Mr. Davis: I enjoyed speaking with you last week about the needs of the Silver Rush Museum located in Silver City, Colorado. In response to your interest in the museum, I am submitting this proposal to renovate the windows of the historic museum.

This proposal outlines the history of the Silver Rush Hotel, need for renova- tion, and project objectives. This project will benefit the building by:

• Reglazing and painting windows, cornices, exterior wood trims, and the his- toric cupola

• Renovating the historic glass panes

I’ll give you a call next week to discuss and answer any questions or comments you may have regarding this proposal.

Sincerely,

Eva Kline Director of Museum Operations Silver Rush Museum

Refers in letter of transmittal to earlier contact, provides context for proposal.

▲

Calls attention with bul- leted list to main goals of the project.

▲

Invites future contact. ▲

Individual and Collaborative Assignments The “Assignments” section of each chap- ter includes a number of projects that can be completed by students working as a class, in teams, or individually.

Annotated Models The text contains models grouped at the end of chapters on pages with color edg- ing for easy reference. Annotations in the margins are highlighted in color and show exactly how the sample documents illustrate the guidelines set forth in the chapters.

xiPreface

Preface

>>> Additional Features Define the Book’s Mission and Demonstrate Its Utility in the Classroom

Chapter 6 Correspondence

over a four-hour period, for a list with almost 200

members?

2. Read through the list of subject lines. Do any of them

seem inappropriate for the M-Global [NEWS] list, given

its users and its history?

3. Are there any subject lines that could be improved?

Explain.

4. What do you think about Jeannie’s suggestion that all

messages sent to the [NEWS] list be approved before

being posted? What problems do you see with this

approach? What advantages?

5. What do you think of Janet’s decision to assign

the task of creating rules for the [NEWS] list to a

college intern? What benefits does it offer Bart?

What potential problems does he face in completing

this task?

Write About It

Assume the role of Bart. Do some research on netiquette

and decide what guidelines might apply to a list like the

employee [NEWS] list. Look over the subject lines and de-

cide what subjects, if any, should be kept off the list. Think

about what advice you might offer about subject lines for

the list. Do you like Jeannie’s idea about messages to the

list requiring approval? What alternatives are there? If

your campus has a similar list (or lists) that go out to ev-

eryone, look at the subjects of that list. Your instructor

may be willing to share the subjects of a day’s worth of

postings to any similar campus lists that she or he is on.

Write a persuasive memo to Janet that responds to Jean-

nie’s request and explains your reasons for your decisions.

Include citations from any sources that you have researched.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six

students, (2) use team time inside or outside of class to com-

plete the case, and (3) produce an oral or written response.

For guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment A century ago, business professionals had few opportuni-

ties for communication beyond the formal letter or meet-

ing; today, the range of options is incredibly broad. On one

hand, we marvel at the choices for getting our message

heard or read; on the other hand, the many ways to com-

municate present an embarrassment of riches that can be

confusing.

In other words, when you have multiple communica-

tion options, you’re challenged to match the right method

with the right context— right in terms of what the reader

wants and right in terms of the level of effort you should

exert to suit the purpose. You may think this challenge

applies only to your working life. However, it also can influ-

ence your life in college, as this exercise shows.

Team Assignment Brainstorm with your team to list every means you have

used to communicate with your college and university,

from the time you applied to the present. Then for each

communication option that follows, provide two or three

situations for which the option is the appropriate choice:

1. Letter that includes praise

2. Letter that describes a complaint

3. Letter that provides information

4. Letter that attempts to persuade

5. Telephone call

6. E-mail

7. Memo

8. Personal meeting

Collaboration at Work Choosing the Right Mode

176

Chapter 6 Correspondence

Write a one-page memo to your supervisor recommending

the purchase. You might want to consider criteria such as

■ Relevance of information in the source to the job

■ Level of material with respect to potential readers

■ Cost of book or periodical as compared with its value

■ Amount of probable use

■ Important features of the book or periodical (such as

bibliographies or special sections)

16. Persuasive Memo Practice, M-Global Context— Request

Assume you work at an M-Global office and have no un-

dergraduate degree. You are not yet sure what degree pro-

gram you want to enter, but you have decided to take one

night course each term. Your M-Global office has agreed to

pay 100 percent of your college expenses on two conditions.

First, before taking each course, you must write a memo

of request to your supervisor, justifying the value of the

class to your specific job or to your future work with the

company. Clearly, your boss wants to know that the course

has specific application or that it will form the foundation

for later courses. Second, you must receive a C or better in

every class for which you want reimbursement.

Write the persuasive memo just described. For the pur-

poses of this assignment, choose one course that you actu-

ally have taken or are now taking. Yet in your simulated role

for the assignment, write as if you have not taken the course.

lists. Now draft a simple code of ethics that could be distrib-

uted to members of any organization—such as M-Global,

Inc.—whose members use e-mail on a daily basis. Search

the Internet for examples of codes of ethics in general, and

of e-mail ethics in particular.

18. International Communication Assignment

E-mail messages can be sent around the world as easily as

they can be sent to the next office. If you end up working for

a company with international offices or clients, you prob-

ably will use e-mail to conduct business.

Investigate the e-mail conventions of one or more

countries outside your own. Search for any ways that the

format, content, or style of international e-mail may differ

from e-mail in your country. Gather information by collect-

ing hard copies of e-mail messages sent from other coun-

tries, interviewing people who use international e-mail, or

consulting the library for information on international busi-

ness communication. Write a memo to your instructor in

which you (1) note differences you found and (2) explain

why these differences exist. If possible, focus on any differ-

ences in culture that may affect e-mail transactions.

ACTNOW 19. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Whether you commute or live on campus, your everyday

life at a college or university may be influenced by student

i i ll d f d

180

Learning Portfolio 203

Sylvia Barnard, manager of the Denver branch of M-Global,

has a special interest in the energy industry. As a geologist

working in oil and gas exploration, she joined M-Global to

contribute to its construction projects in the oil and gas in-

dustry, such as oil fields and refineries. Sylvia wants to see

M-Global respond to changes in the energy industry by di-

versifying into work on biofuels projects. This case study

explains her approach to the problem. It ends with ques-

tions and comments for discussion and an assignment for a

written response to the Challenge.

Research As a first step in developing a proposal for Jim McDuff, Syl-

via wants to learn more about the biofuels industry and bio-

fuels technology. Although she has read about biofuels in

newspapers and general news magazines, she knows that

to propose that M-Global enter the field, she must have

more specialized knowledge about what biofuels are. With

a better understanding of the technology, she will be able

to focus her proposal on the areas in which M-Global’s ex-

perience in the oil and gas industry can be transferred to

construction projects in the biofuels industry. After her re-

search, she decides to focus on the following types of fuels:

■ Biodiesel

■ Bioalcohols

■ Biogas

■ Cellulosic biofuels

The Report Before she writes her proposal, Sylvia decides to create a

report that compares refineries and refinery construction

needs for biofuels to the oil and gas refineries that M-Global

has worked on in the past. The report will be primarily de-

scriptive. It must define biofuels and describe the equip-

ment and site construction needs of biofuels refineries.

Sylvia knows that M-Global has a history of look-

ing to environmental issues for business opportunities. In

the 1970s, the company (then McDuff, Inc.) began work in

hazardous waste disposal. (See Model 1–1 on pages 26–35 .)

At the time, however, it was clear that there was a need

for such services, and that the technology was rapidly

developing. Sylvia is concerned that her enthusiasm for

biofuels may be premature. Although there are companies

building biofuel refineries, many of them seem more fo-

cused on the environmental issues than on long-term prof-

itability. Her research also suggests that the technology is

in its early stages. She worries that it might be too early for

M-Global to get into the biofuels industry, but she decides to

write the report anyway.

Questions and Comments for Discussion

1. How can Sylvia use her knowledge of M-Global’s

history, especially Rob McDuff’s interest in environ-

mental issues, to make her report appealing to Jim

McDuff? Should Sylvia let Jim know that she plans to

follow this report with a proposal? If so, why and what

should she tell him?

2. What must Jim McDuff understand about biofuels

before he can make a decision about exploring the op-

portunity further? What illustrations might help him

make his decision?

3. What terms must Sylvia define? What kinds of defini-

tions should she write, and where should they be in-

cluded in the report?

4. Should Sylvia include her concerns about the fact that

the biofuels industry is in its early stages? If so, what

should she say? Should she even send the report, or

should she save it until the biofuels industry is better

established?

Write About It

Sylvia has assigned you the task of writing a short descrip-

tion of biofuels that she can include in various documents

related to her biofuels proposal. Write a one-page descrip-

tion of biofuels that could be used or adapted to a variety

of documents related to the biofuels initiative at M-Global.

You should define biofuels and describe them. You may de-

cide to describe the different types of biofuels that Sylvia

has decided to focus on (classification), or you may decide

to compare them to oil and gas products (comparison/con-

trast). Use illustrations as appropriate. Include a list of ref-

erences on a separate page.

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge Biofuels Brainstorm: Describing New Technologies

Communication Challenges Every chapter includes an M-Global case study, with related questions and a short writing assignment. Called a “Communication Challenge,” each case de- scribes a communication problem that relates to the material in its respective chapter. These case studies can be used as a springboard for class discussion or for project assignments.

Collaboration at Work Each chapter also includes a “Collaboration at Work” exercise that engages the student’s interest in the chap- ter content by getting teams to complete a simple project.

Coverage of International Communication Because globalism continues to transform the business world, this book includes suggestions for understanding other cultures and for writing in an international context. In addition, each chapter’s set of exercises ends with an “International Communication Assignment.”

xii

Preface

Assignments on Ethics To reinforce the ethical guidelines de- scribed in Chapter 1 , each chapter includes an ethics assignment. No one can escape the continuous stream of ethical decisions required of every professional almost every day, such as deciding what tone to adopt in a proposal. The text addresses ethical issues in these assignments.

Information on English as a Second Language A growing number of technical communication stu- dents are from countries or cultures whose first lan- guage is not English. The English as a second language (ESL) appendix focuses on three main problem areas: articles, prepositions, and verb use. It also applies ESL analysis to an excerpt from a technical report.

Chapter 9 Technical Research294

9. Practice: Interview Select a simple research project that would benefit from

information gained from an interview. (Your project may

or may not be associated with a written assignment in this

course.) Using the suggestions in this chapter, conduct the

interview with the appropriate person.

10. Practice: Usability Test Choose a simple, specific task for using a computer pro-

gram that you have access to, for example, changing para-

graph format. Identify the aspect of usability that you will

test, such as how long it takes a user to complete the task,

how many errors a user makes while trying to complete the

task, or how many clicks it takes a user to find information

in a Help file. Practice the task several times yourself to de-

termine the criteria for a successful interface. How many

minutes? How few errors? How many clicks?

Pair up with a class member and administer your us-

ability test, recording your data. Your instructor may ask

you to include a think-aloud protocol in your test. Write a

brief report of your results, including whether the interface

was successful for your user.

? 11. Ethics Assignment This assignment is best completed as a team exercise.

Assume your team has been chosen to develop a Web-

based course in technical communication. Team members

are assembling materials on a Web site that can be used

by students like you—materials such as (1) guidelines and

examples from this book, (2) scholarly articles on commu-

nication, (3) newspaper articles and graphics from print and

online sources, and (4) examples of technical writing that

have been borrowed from various engineering firms.

Your team has been told that generally speaking, the

“fair use” provision of the Copyright Act permits use of lim-

ited amounts of photocopied material from copyrighted

sources without the need to seek permission from, or pro-

vide payment to, the authors—as long as use is related to a

not-for-profit organization, such as a college. Your tasks are

as follows:

A. Research the Copyright Act to make sure you understand its application to conventional classroom use. If possible,

also locate any guidelines that relate to the Internet.

B. Develop a list of some specific borrowed materials your team wants to include on the site for the technical com-

munication course. These materials may fall inside or

outside the four general groupings noted previously.

C. Discuss how the medium of the Internet may influence the degree to which the fair use provision is applicable

to your Web course. Be specific about the various poten-

tial uses of the material.

D. Consult an actual Web-based college course in any field and evaluate the degree to which you think it follows

legal and ethical guidelines for usage.

E. Prepare a report on your findings (written or oral, de- pending on the directions you have been given by your

instructor).

12. International Communication Assignment

Using interviews, books, periodicals, or the Internet, inves-

tigate the degree to which writers in one or more cultures

besides your own acknowledge borrowed information in

research documents. For example, you may want to seek

answers to one or more of the following questions: Do you

believe acknowledging the assistance of others is a mat-

ter of absolute ethics, or should such issues be considered

relative and therefore influenced by the culture in which

they arise? For example, would a culture that highly values

teamwork and group consensus take a more lenient atti-

tude toward acknowledging the work of others? These are

not simple questions. Think them through carefully.

ACTNOW 13. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Interview two or three students to find out why they do or

do not participate in student elections on campus. On the

basis of information you gather from the interviews, de-

velop a survey form by which you systematically solicit in-

formation on the topic from a wider audience. Administer

the survey to at least 10 students and include the results in

an oral or written report, depending on the instructions you

are given.

294

English as a Second Language (ESL) Technical writing challenges native English speakers and nonnative English speakers alike. The purpose of this appendix is to present a basic description of three grammatical forms: articles, verbs, and prepositions. These forms may require more intense consideration from international students when they complete technical writing assignments. Each form is described by means of the ease-of-operation section from a memo about a fax ma- chine. The passage, descriptions, and charts work together to show how these grammar forms function collectively to create meaning.

Ease of Operation: Article Usage

The AIM 500 is so easy to operate that a novice can learn to transmit a docu- ment to another location in about two minutes. Here’s the basic procedure:

1. Press the button marked TEL on the face of the fax machine. You then hear a dial tone.

2. Press the telephone number of the person receiving the fax on the number pad on the face of the machine.

3. Lay the document face down on the tray at the back of the machine.

Appendix B

Writing Handbook This book provides a well-indexed, alphabetized writ- ing handbook on grammar, mechanics, and usage that gives quick access to rules for eliminating editing errors during the revision process.

>>> Handbook This handbook includes entries on the basics of writing. It contains three main types of information:

1. Grammar: The rules by which we edit sentence elements. Examples include rules for the placement of punctuation, the agreement of subjects and verbs, and the placement of modifiers.

2. Mechanics: The rules by which we make final proofreading changes. Examples include the rules for abbreviations and the use of numbers. A list of commonly mis- spelled words is also included.

3. Usage: Information on the correct use of particular words, especially pairs of words that are often confused. Examples include problem words like affect/effect, comple- ment/compliment, and who/whom.

Another editing concern, technical style, is the topic of Chapter 17 , including guide- lines for sentence structure, conciseness, accuracy of wording, active and passive voice, and unbiased language. Together, Chapter 17 and this handbook will help you turn uned- ited drafts into final polished documents.

This handbook is alphabetized for easy reference during the editing process.

A/An A and an are different forms of the same article. A occurs before words that start with consonants or consonant sounds. EXAMPLES:

■ a three-pronged plug

■ a once-in-a-lifetime job ( once begins with the consonant sound of w )

■ a historic moment (many speakers and some writers mistakenly use an before historic )

An occurs before words that begin with vowels or vowel sounds. EXAMPLES:

■ an eager new employee

■ an hour before closing ( hour begins with the vowel sound of o )

A lot/Alot The correct form is the two-word phrase a lot . Although acceptable in informal discourse, a lot usually should be replaced by more precise diction in technical writing. EXAMPLE: “They retrieved 25 [ n ot a lot of ] soil samples from the construction site.”

Appendix A

658

xiii

>>> Your One-Stop Source for Technical Communication Resources

MyTechCommLab for Technical Communication: A Practical Approach, Eighth Edition Instructors who package MyTechCommLab with Technical Communication provide their students with a comprehensive resource that offers the very best multimedia support for technical writing in one integrated, easy-to-use site. Features include tutorials, case studies, interactive model documents, activities, quizzes, Web links, mulimedia re- sources, downloadable PDFs of Pearson publications, the Longman Online Handbook, and Pearson’s unique MySearchLab feature for conducting research. MyTechCommLab is available packaged with Technical Communication at no additional cost or for purchase at www.mytechcommlab.com.

>>> Instructor’s Resources All instructor’s resources are available for download at the Instructor’s Resource Center. To access additional support materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor access code. Within 48 hours of registering you will receive a confirming e- mail, including an instructor access code. Once you have received your code, locate your text in the online catalog and click on the Instructor Resources button on the left side of the catalog product page. Select a supplement, and a log-in page will appear. Once you have logged in, you can access instructor material for all Prentice Hall textbooks.

■ Instructor’s Manual

An expanded Instructor’s Manual is loaded with helpful teaching notes for your class- room, including answers to the chapter quiz questions, a test bank, and instructor notes for assignments and activities.

■ MyTest Test Bank

■ PowerPoint Lecture Presentation Package

■ Templates for M-Global Letterhead and Planning Forms ■ Companion Website. www.pearsonhighered.com/pfeiff er

>>> Acknowledgments Our thanks to the following reviewers of the eighth edition for helping with the revision of the textbook:

■ Jennifer Hazel, Owens Community College

■ Melanie Parrish, Luzerne Community College

Prefacexiv

■ Octavio Pimentel, Texas State University-San Marcos

■ Carey Smitherman, University of Central Arkansas

■ Lynette Sue Stindt, Jackson Community College ■ Debra Wilson Purdy, Boise State University

In addition, the following reviewers have helped throughout the multiple editions of this book:

■ Brian Ballentine, Case Western Reserve University

■ Heidi Hatfield Edwards, Florida Institute of Technology ■ Jay Goldberg, Marquette University

■ Linda Grace, Southern Illinois University

■ Darlene Hollon, Northern Kentucky University

■ Liz Kleinfeld, Red Rocks Community College ■ John Puckett, Oregon Institute of Technology

■ Catharine Schauer, Visiting Professor, Embry Riddle University

■ Kirk Swortzel, Mississippi State University

■ Brian Van Horne, Metropolitan State College of Denver

A special thanks goes to Craig Baehr, Texas Tech University, for contributing Chapter 11 , “Web Pages and Writing for the Web,” to the sixth edition of the text.

Friends and colleagues who contributed to this edition or other editions include Shawn Tonner, Mark Stevens, Saul Carliner, George Ferguson, Alan Gabrielli, Bob Harbort, Mike Hughes, Dory Ingram, Becky Kelly, Chuck Keller, Jo Lundy, Minoru Moriguchi, Randy Nipp, Jeff Orr, Ken Rainey, Lisa A. Rossbacher, Betty Oliver Sea- bolt, Hattie Schumaker, John Sloan, Herb Smith, Lavern Smith, James Stephens, John Ulrich, Steven Vincent, and Tom Wiseman.

Four companies allowed us to use written material gathered during Sandy’s con- sulting work: Fugro-McClelland, Law Engineering and Environmental Services, McBride-Ratcliff and Associates, and Westinghouse Environmental and Geotechni- cal Services. Although this book’s fictional firm, M-Global, Inc., has features of the world we observed as consultants, we want to emphasize that M-Global is truly an invention.

We thank the following students for allowing us to adapt their written work for use in this book: Michael Alban, Becky Austin, Corey Baird, Natalie Birnbaum, Cedric Bowden, Gregory Braxton, Ishmael Chigumira, Bill Darden, Jeffrey Daxon, Rob Duggan, William English, Joseph Fritz, Jon Guffey, Sam Harkness, Gary Harvey, Lee Harvey, Hammond Hill, Kelsey Houser, Sudhir Kapoor, Steven Knapp, Scott Lewis, Wes Matthews, Kim Meyer, James Moore, Chris Owen, James Porter, James Roberts, Mort Rolleston, Chris Ruda, Ahmad Safi, Barbara Serkedakis, Tom Skywark, Tom Smith, DaTonja Stanley, James Stephens, Chris Swift, and Jeff Woodward. Kaye

xvPreface

thanks her research assistants Ted Koehler, Rachel Stancliff, Kathryn Fimple, and Kaitlin Newhart, who identified outdated examples and references and provided up- dated references, examples, and models.

Finally, we want to give special thanks to our Pearson editor, Gary Bauer, for his continuing faith in the book.

Prefacexvi

xvii

Part 1 Introduction to Technical Communication

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace 1

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication 35

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing 59

Part 2 Effective Workplace Documents

Chapter 4 Organizing Information 88

Chapter 5 Document Design 117

Chapter 6 Correspondence 151

Part 3 Common Technical Communication Genres

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions 192

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions 215

Part 4 Presenting Research

Chapter 9 Technical Research 249

Chapter 10 Formatting Reports and Proposals 300

Chapter 11 Reports for Information and Analysis 350

Chapter 12 Proposals and White Papers 398

Part 5 Alternatives to Print Text

Chapter 13 Graphics 479

Chapter 14 Web Pages and Writing for the Web 525

Chapter 15 Presentations 568

Part 6 Communicating a Professional Image

Chapter 16 The Job Search 598

Chapter 17 Style in Technical Writing 633

Brief Contents

Contents

Technical Communication in the Workplace 1

Writing in the Workplace 2 Features of Academic Writing 2 ■ Features of Workplace Communication 2

Defining Technical Communication 4 Culture in Organizations 6

Elements of an Organization’s Culture 6 ■ Business Climate 7

The Global Workplace 8 Understanding Cultures 8 ■ Communicating Internationally 12

Ethics in the Workplace 13 Ethical Guidelines for Work 13 ■ Ethics and Legal Issues in Writing 15

The M-Global Case 18 Chapter Summary 18

>>>Learning Portfolio 19 > Communication Challenge—Employee Orientation and Training:

Global Dilemmas 19

> Collaboration at Work —Outline for a Consulting Report 20

> Assignments 20

Welcome To M-Global

Model 1–1: Employee orientation guide for M-Global, Inc. 25

Chapter 1

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication 35 Determining the Purpose 37 Analyzing Your Readers 41

Obstacles for Readers 41 ■ Ways to Understand Readers 42 ■ Types of Readers 43

Collecting Information 46 Completing an Outline 48 Writing Initial Drafts 51

Part 1 Introduction to Technical Communication

xviii

Revising Drafts 52 Chapter Summary 54

>>>Learning Portfolio 55 > Communication Challenge—Bad Chairs, Bad Backs 55

> Collaboration at Work —Outline for a Consulting Report 56

> Assignments 56

Contents

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing 59 Approaches to Collaboration 61 Collaboration and the Writing Process 62

Guidelines for Team Writing 62 ■ Planning 65 ■ Budgeting Time and Money 67

Teamwork 67 Roles for Team Members 68 ■ Running Effective Meetings 68 ■ Writers and Subject Matter Experts 72

Tools for Collaboration 73 Planning Tools 73 ■ Communication Tools 75 ■ Writing Tools 76

Chapter Summary 80

>>>Learning Portfolio 81 >Communication Challenge—A Field Guide: Planning a User’s Manual 81

> Collaboration at Work —Advice About Advising 82

> Assignments 82

Model 3–1: Meeting agenda 85 Model 3–2: Meeting Minutes 86 Model 3–3: Example of M-Global Modular Writing 87

xix

Organizing Information 88

Importance of Organization 89 Three Principles of Organization 90 ABC Format for Documents 94

Document Abstract: the “Big Picture” for Decision Makers 95 ■ Document Body: Details for All Readers 96 ■ Document Conclusion: Wrap-Up Leading to Next Step 96

Chapter 4 Part 2 Effective Workplace Documents

Document Design 117

Elements of Document Design 118 Consistent Design 119 ■ Color 120

Computers in the Document Design Process 121 Style Sheets 122 ■ Templates 123

Elements of Page Design 124 Grids 124 ■ White Space 125 ■ Lists 128

Fonts 130 Type Size 130 ■ Font Types 130 ■ Font Style Guidelines 132 ■ In-Text Emphasis 134

Elements for Navigation 135 Headers and Footers 135 ■ Headings 135 ■ Special Navigation Elements 138

Designing Digital Documents 139 Chapter Summary 140

>>>Learning Portfolio 142 > Communication Challenge—The St. Paul Style Guide:

Trouble in the River City 142

> Questions and Comments for Discussion 143

> Collaboration at Work —Design of the Campus Paper 144

> Assignments 145

Model 5–1: Memorandum without document design 148 Model 5–2: Document design in memorandum 149-150

Chapter 5

Contentsxx

Tips for Organizing Sections and Paragraphs 97 Common Patterns of Organization 98 ■ Document Sections 99 ■ Paragraphs 100

Organizing Digital Documents 102 Chapter Summary 105

>>>Learning Portfolio 106 > Communication Challenge—Telecommuting: The Last Frontier? 106

> Collaboration at Work —Organizing the Catalog 108

> Assignments 108

Model 4–1: ABC format in whole document 113–114 Model 4–2: ABC format in document section 115 Model 4–3: ABC format in paragraphs 116

Contents xxi

Chapter 6 Correspondence 151 General Guidelines for Correspondence 152 Types of Messages in Correspondence 162

Positive Messages 162 ■ Negative Messages 163 ■ Neutral Messages 164 ■ Persuasive Messages 165

Letters 166 Memos 167 E-Mail 167

Guidelines for E-Mail 167 ■ Appropriate Use and Style for E-Mail 172

Memos Versus E-Mail 173 Chapter Summary 173

>>>Learning Portfolio 175 > Communication Challenge: Containing the E-Mail Flood 175

> Collaboration at Work —Choosing the Right Mode 176

> Assignments 176

Model 6–1: M-Global sample letter 181 Model 6–2: M-Global sample memo 182–183 Model 6–3: M-Global sample e-mail 184 Model 6–4: Positive letter in block style 185 Model 6–5: Negative letter in modified block style (with indented paragraphs) 186 Model 6–6: Neutral letter (placing order) in simplified style 187 Model 6–7: Neutral memo about changes in services 188 Model 6–8: Persuasive letter in simplified style 189 Model 6–9: Persuasive memo about changes in benefits 190 Model 6–10: Neutral e-mail about changes in procedure 191

Definitions and Descriptions 192

Definitions Versus Descriptions 193 Technical Definitions at M-Global 193 ■ Descriptions at M-Global 194

Guidelines for Writing Definitions 195 Example of an Expanded Definition 199

Guidelines for Writing Descriptions 199 Example of a Description 202

Chapter Summary 202

Chapter 7 Part 3 Common Technical Communication Genres

Contentsxxii

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions 215 Process Explanations Versus Instructions 216

Process Explanations at M-Global 217 ■ Instructions at M-Global 218

Guidelines for Process Explanations 219 Guidelines for Instructions 223

Usability Testing of Instructions 230 ■ Point-of-Use Instructions 231

Chapter Summary 233

>>>Learning Portfolio 234 > Communication Challenge—M-Global’s Home of Hope: The Good, the Bad,

and the Ugly? 234

> Collaboration at Work —A Simple Test for Instructions 235

> Assignments 236

Model 8–1: M-Global process explanation: E-mail 240 Model 8–2: M-Global instructions: E-mail 241 Model 8–3: Process explanation 242 Model 8–4: M-Global process explanation with a flowchart (both are included in an appendix to a report to a client) 243 Model 8–5: Instructions for making travel arrangements 244–245 Model 8–6: M-Global memo containing how-to instructions for a scanner 246–248

Part 4 Presenting Research

Chapter 9 Technical Research 249 Getting Started 251 Reviewing Published Research 252

Searching Online Catalogs 253 ■ Searching in the Library 258 ■ Searching the Web 265

>>>Learning Portfolio 203 > Communication Challenge—Biofuels Brainstorm: Describing New

Technologies 203

> Collaboration at Work —Analyzing the Core 204

> Assignments 204

Model 7–1: Expanded Definition 208–209 Model 7–2: Brief description (with formal definition included) 210 Model 7–3: Description from a user’s manual 211–212 Model 7–4: Technical description (with definition included): Soil grinder 213–214

xxiiiContents

Conducting Primary Research 270 Quantitative Research 271 ■ Qualitative Research 271 ■ Research With Human Subjects 274 ■ Using Surveys 274 ■ Usability Testing 282

Using Borrowed Information Correctly 283 Avoiding Plagiarism 283 ■ Selecting and Following a Documentation System 284

Reporting Your Research 286 ABC Format for Technical Research 286 ■ Writing Research Abstracts 287

Chapter Summary 289

>>>Learning Portfolio 291 >Communication Challenge—To Cite or Not to Cite 291

> Collaboration at Work —Surfing the Turf 292

> Assignments 292

Model 9–1: Memo report citing research—APA style 295–299

Chapter 10 Formatting Reports and Proposals 300 When to Use Informal Document Format 303

Letter Reports and Proposals at M-Global 303 ■ Memo Reports and Proposals at M-Global 304

General Guidelines for Informal Document Format 305 When to Use Formal Document Format 309 Strategy for Organizing Formal Documents 311 Guidelines for the Nine Parts of Formal Documents 313

Cover/Title Page 313 ■ Letter/Memo of Transmittal 314 ■ Table of Contents 316 ■ List of Illustrations 318 ■ Executive Summary 318 ■ Introduction 320 ■ Discussion Sections 321 ■ Conclusions and Recommendations 323 ■ End Material 323

Formal Report Example 324 Chapter Summary 324

>>>Learning Portfolio 325 > Communication Challenge—The Ethics of Clients Reviewing Report

Drafts 325

> Collaboration at Work —Suggestions for High School Students 326

> Assignments 326

Model 10–1: Informal report (letter format) 330–331 Model 10–2: Informal proposal (memo format) 332–333 Model 10–3: Formal report 334–349

Contentsxxiv

Chapter 11 Reports for Information and Analysis 350 Four Common Informative Reports 351

Activity Reports 352 ■ Progress Reports 355 ■ Regulatory Reports 356 ■ Lab Reports 358

Four Common Analytical Reports 359 Problem Analyses 360 ■ Recommendation Reports 361 ■ Feasibility Studies 362 ■ Equipment Evaluations 363

Chapter Summary 364

>>>Learning Portfolio 365 > Communication Challenge—A Nonprofit Job: Good Deed or Questionable

Ethics? 365

> Collaboration at Work —Critiquing an Annual Report 366

> Assignments 366

Model 11–1: Activity report 374–375 Model 11–2: Progress report 376–377 Model 11–3: Regulatory report 378–381 Model 11–4: Lab report 382–383 Model 11–5: Problem analysis 384–385 Model 11–6: Recommendation report 386–387 Model 11–7: Feasibility study 388–395 Model 11–8: Equipment evaluation 396–397

Chapter 12 Proposals and White Papers 398 Proposals 399

Guidelines for Proposals 400

Unsolicited Proposals 402 ABC Format for Unsolicited Proposals 403 ■ M-Global Case Study for an Unsolicited Proposal 405

Solicited Proposals 405 ABC Format for Solicited Proposals 408 ■ Case Studies for Solicited Proposals 409

Grant Proposals 410 ABC Format for Grant Proposals 412 ■ Case Study 412

White Papers 413 Guidelines for White Papers 414 ■ ABC Format for White Papers 415 ■ Case Study for a White Paper 415

Chapter Summary 416

xxvContents

>>>Learning Portfolio 417 > Communication Challenge—The Black Forest Proposal: Good Marketing, or

Bad Business? 417

> Collaboration at Work—Proposing Changes in Security 418

> Assignments 419

Model 12–1: Unsolicited informal proposal 426–427 Model 12–2: Solicited informal proposal 428–430 Model 12–3: Solicited formal proposal in response to RFP 431–451 Model 12–4: Grant proposal 452–459 Model 12–5: White paper 460–471 Model 12–6: M-Global project sheets included in proposal appendixes 472–478

Chapter 14 Web Pages and Writing for the Web 525 Your Role in Developing Web Sites and Content 526 Planning 528

Accessibility Guidelines 530 ■ Scripting Languages and Software-Authoring Tools 532

Part 5 Alternatives to Print Text

Chapter 13 Graphics 479 Terms in Graphics 480 Reasons for Using Graphics 481 General Guidelines for Graphics 484 Specific Guidelines for Nine Graphics 487

Tables 487 ■ Pie Charts 491 ■ Bar Charts 494 ■ Line Graphs 498 ■ Flowcharts 500 ■ Organization Charts 502 ■ Technical Drawings 504 ■ Photographs 509 ■ Screen Captures 511

Misuse of Graphics 514 Problems With Graphics 514 ■ Examples of Distorted Graphics 514

Chapter Summary 518

>>>Learning Portfolio 519 > Communication Challenge—Massaging M-Global’s Annual Report 519

> Collaboration at Work —Critiquing an Annual Report 521

> Assignments 521

Contentsxxvi

Structure 533 Site Structures and Types 533 ■ Process of Developing a Structure 535 ■ Labeling Strategies 538 ■ Guidelines for Navigation Design 538

Content Development 540 Content Chunking 541 ■ Adapting Content for the Web 541 ■ Document Conversion Issues and Common File Formats 542

Guidelines for Writing Web Content 542 Design 543

Design Conventions and Principles 543 ■ Finding a Theme and Developing Graphic Content 545 ■ File Formats and Graphics 545 ■ Interface Layouts 547 ■ Web Site Design Guidelines 548

Usability Testing 550 Testing Your Site for Your User Base 550 ■ Performing Usability Reviews 550 ■ Quick Usability Checks and System Settings 552

Publication 553 Chapter Summary 553

>>>Learning Portfolio 554 > Communication Challenge—What Does Your Company Do,

Anyway? 554

> Collaboration at Work —Usable Navigation 557

> Assignments 557

Model 14–1: Sample student portfolio Web site 560–561 Model 14–2: Sample student portfolio Web site 562–564 Model 14–3: Government agency Web site 565–567

Chapter 15 Presentations 568 Presentations and Your Career 569 Guidelines for Preparation and Delivery 570 Guidelines for Presentation Graphics 578 Poster Guidelines 581 Overcoming Nervousness 584

Why Do We Fear Presentations? 584 ■ A Strategy for Staying Calm 584

An Example of an M-Global Oral Presentation 587 Chapter Summary 587

>>>Learning Portfolio 589 > Communication Challenge—Ethics and the Technical

Presentation 589

xxviiContents

Part 6 Communicating a Professional Image

Chapter 16 The Job Search 598 Researching Occupations and Companies 599 Job Correspondence 603

Job Letters 604 ■ Résumés 606

Job Interviews 610 Preparation 610 ■ Performance 614 ■ Follow-Up Letters 616

Chapter Summary 617

>>>Learning Portfolio 618 > Communication Challenge—20-Something—Have Degree, Won’t

Travel 618

> Collaboration at Work —Planning for Success 619

> Assignments 620

Model 16–1: Job letter (modified block style) and chronological résumé 622–623 Model 16–2: Job letter (block style) and chronological résumé 624–625 Model 16–3: Job letter (modified block) and functional résumé 626–627 Model 16–4: Job letter (modified block) and functional résumé 628–629 Model 16–5: Combined résumé 630 Model 16–6: Combined résumé formatted for submission online 631 Model 16–7: Résumé with graphics—not effective for computer scanning 632

Chapter 17 Style in Technical Writing 633 Overview of Style 634

Definition of Style 635

Importance of Tone 635

Writing Clear Sentences 636 Sentence Terms 636 ■ Guidelines for Sentence Style 637

Being Concise 638 Being Accurate in Wording 643

> Collaboration at Work —Speeches You Have Heard 590

> Assignments 590

Model 15–1: Text and graphics of sample M-Global presentation 593–597

Contentsxxviii

Using the Active Voice 644 What Do Active and Passive Mean? 644 ■ When Should Active and Passive Voices Be Used? 645

Using Unbiased Language 645 Plain English and Simplified English 648

Plain English 648 ■ Simplified English 649

Chapter Summary 649

>>>Learning Portfolio 651 > Communication Challenge—An Editorial Adjustment 651

> Collaboration at Work —Describing Style 652

> Assignments 653

Appendix A: Handbook 658

Appendix B: English As a Second Language (ESL) 689

Appendix C: Further Reading 695

Index 699

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

In this chapter, students will

■ Be introduced to the key characteristics of technical communication

■ Learn how workplace writing differs from academic writing

■ Learn the effect of organizational culture on workplace communication

■ Be introduced to communication challenges in the global economy

■ Learn basic ethical principles for use in the workplace

■ Be introduced to the M-Global case that is used throughout the book

>>> Chapter Objectives

1

Photo © Robnroll/Dreamstime.com

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace2

>>> Writing in the Workplace Effective communicators understand the needs of the context in which they are speaking and writing, what Lloyd Bitzer has labeled the “rhetorical situation.” 1 This understanding means they must respond to audience expectations about appropriate content, form, and tone for a particular setting. You may have taken other writing courses that taught you how to write for an academic context. Although techniques you learned will help you with workplace writing, there are important differences between writing in academic and workplace contexts. This section highlights features of traditional academic writing on the one hand and workplace communication on the other.

Features of Academic Writing Academic writing requires that you use words to display your learning to someone who knows more about the subject than you do; thus, the purpose of most academic writing is evaluation of the writer. Because your reader’s job is to evaluate your work, you have what might be called a captive audience. The next section examines a differ- ent kind of writing—the kind you will be doing in this course and in your career. Note the similarities to the kind of writing you have been doing in other classes. Plan- ning, drafting, and revising are important, even for short correspondence. Clear orga- nization is essential. Finally, your purpose should be clear, and you should understand your audience, even though the purpose and audience differ considerably from those of academic writing.

Features of Workplace Communication The rules for writing shift somewhat when you begin your career. Employees unpre- pared for this change often flounder for years, never quite understanding the new

1 L. F. Bitzer. (1992). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1, 1–14.

Good communication skills are essential in any career you choose. Jobs, promotions, raises, and professional prestige result from your ability to present both written and visual information

effectively. With so much at stake, you need a clear

road map to direct you toward writing excellence. Tech-

nical Communication: A Practical Approach is such a map.

Chapters 1 – 3 of Technical Communication: A Practical Ap-

proach give you an overview of technical writing and

prepare you to complete the assignments in this book.

Chapters 4 – 6 give you a foundation for effective work-

place writing. Chapters 7 and 8 introduce basic genres

of technical communication documents. Chapters 9 – 12

discuss the ways that research is usually presented in

the workplace, in more complex documents such as re-

ports and proposals. Chapters 13 – 15 show you how to

present information in nonprint formats. The last two

chapters, 16 and 17, will help you present a profes-

sional image in workplace situations.

This textbook also includes examples and assign-

ments set in the context of M-Global, Inc., an interna-

tional company that is explained later in the chapter.

3 Writing in the Workplace

rules. Workplace communication is a generic term for all written and oral communica- tions done on the job—whether in business, industry, or other professions. The terms professional writing, business writing, and occupational writing also refer to writing done in your career.

Besides projects that involve writing, your career will also bring you speaking respon- sibilities, such as formal speeches at conferences and informal presentations at meetings. Thus this textbook covers the full range of the writing and speaking formats required to communicate your ideas on the job. Table 1–1 compares common features of academic writing and workplace writing.

Organizations depend on writing for clear communication, effective action, and nec- essary record keeping. Although the forms of written communication are changing rap- idly, clear, concise, and accurate writing is essential. With increasing use of electronic communication, employees may even be writing more than they have in the past. As an employee, you may be writing to readers in the following groups:

■ Supervisors and their superiors

■ Colleagues in your own department

■ Subordinates in your department

■ Employees at other departments or branches

■ Clients

■ Subcontractors and vendors

You will write a variety of documents for internal and external audiences. Figure 1–1 lists some typical on-the-job writing assignments. Although not exhaustive, the list does include many of the writing projects you will encounter.

■ Table 1–1 ■ Features of academic and workplace writing

Features Purpose

Writer’s knowledge of topic Audience

Criteria for evaluation

Graphic elements

Academic writing

Communicating what the student knows about the topic, to earn a high grade

Less than the teacher who evaluates the writing

The teacher who assigned the project

Depth, logic, clarity, unity, supporting evidence, and grammar

Sometimes used to explain and persuade

Workplace writing

Getting something done within an organization

Usually more than the reader’s knowledge

Often several people with differing professional backgrounds

Clear content organization, appropriate to the needs of busy readers

Frequently used to help readers find information and understand ideas

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace4

>>> Defining Technical Communication Technical communication is characterized by the following goals and features:

■ Technical communication aims to help people make decisions and perform tasks.

■ Technical communication responds to the needs of the workplace.

■ Technical communication is created by an informed writer conveying information both verbally and visually to a reader who needs the information.

■ Technical communication is read by readers who have specific questions to answer or tasks to accomplish.

■ Technical communication emphasizes techniques of organization and visual cues that help readers find important information as quickly as possible.

■ Figure 1–1 ■ Examples of technical communication

Correspondence: In-house or External • Memos to your boss and to your subordinates • Routine letters to customers, vendors, etc. • “Good news” letters to customers • “Bad news” letters to customers • Sales letters to potential customers • Electronic mail (e-mail) messages to co-workers or customers over a

computer network

Short Reports: In-house or External • Analysis of a problem • Recommendation • Equipment evaluation • Progress report on project or routine periodic report • Report on the results of laboratory work or fieldwork • Description of the results of a company trip

Long Reports: In-house or External • Complex problem analysis, recommendation, or equipment evaluation • Project report on field or laboratory work • Feasibility study

Other Examples • Proposal to boss for new product line • Proposal to boss for change in procedures • Proposal to customer to sell a product, a service, or an idea • Proposal to funding agency for support of research project • Abstract or summary of technical article • Technical article or presentation • Operation manual or other manual • Web site

5 Defining Technical Communication

MEMORANDUM DATE: December 6, 2011 TO: Holly Newsome FROM: Michael Allen SUBJECT: Printer Recommendation

Introductory Summary Recently you asked for my evaluation of the Hemphill 5000 printer/fax/scanner/copier

currently used in my department. Having analyzed the machine’s features, print quality, and cost, I am quite satisfied with its performance.

Features Among the Hemphill 5000’s features, I have found these five to be the most useful: 1. Easy-to-use control panel 2. Print and copy speed of up to 34 pages per minute for color and black-and-white 3. Ability to print high-quality documents like brochures & report covers 4. Built-in networking capability 5. Ability to scan documents to or from a USB port In addition, the Hemphill 5000 offers high-quality copies, color copies, and faxes,

and it uses high-capacity ink cartridges to reduce costs.

Print Quality The Hemphill 5000 produces excellent prints that rival professional

typeset quality. The print resolution is 1200 x 1200 dots per inch, among the highest attainable in combination printer/fax/scanner/copiers. This memo was printed on the 5000, and as you can see, the quality speaks for itself.

Cost Considering the features and quality, the 5000 is an excellent network combination printer

for work groups within the firm. At a retail price of $239, it is also one of the lowest-priced combination printers, yet it comes with a two-year warranty and excellent customer support.

Conclusion On the basis of my observation, I strongly recommend that our firm continue to use and purchase the Hemphill 5000. Please call me at ext. 204 if you want further information about this excellent machine.

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

■ Figure 1-2 ■ Short report

See Figure 1–2 for an example of a short technical document. Note that it has the five features of technical communication listed previously.

1. It is written to get something done—that is, to evaluate a printer.

2. It is sent from someone more knowledgeable about the printer to someone who needs information about it.

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace6

3. Although the memo is directed to one person, the reader probably will share it with others before making a decision concerning the writer’s recommendation.

4. It is organized clearly, moving from data to recommendations and including headings.

5. It provides limited data to describe the features of the printer.

Although technical communication plays a key role in the success of all technical profes- sionals and managers, the amount of time you devote to it will depend on your job.

>>> Culture in Organizations The first part of this section presents three features common to the culture of any organi- zation that may employ you. Then the second part concentrates on the larger context for corporate culture—the business climate.

Elements of an Organization’s Culture We use the term organization to remind you that in addition to commercial firms, there are many career opportunities in government and even in nonprofit organizations. As noted earlier, the writing you do in an organization differs greatly from the writing you do in college. The stakes on the job are much higher than a grade on your college tran- script. Writing directly influences the following:

■ Your performance evaluations

■ Your professional reputation

■ Your organization’s productivity and success in the marketplace

Given these high stakes, let’s look at typical features of the organizations where you may spend your career.

Starting a job is both exciting and, sometimes, a bit intimidating. Although you look forward to practicing skills learned in college, you also wonder just how you will fare in new surroundings. Soon you discover that any organization you join has its own personality. This personality, or culture, can be defined as follows:

Let’s look more closely at three features men- tioned in the preceding definition: a firm’s history, its type of business, and its management style.

>> Feature 1: Organization History A firm’s origin often is central to its culture. For example, the culture of a 100-year-old steel firm depends on accumulated traditions to which most employees are accustomed; in contrast, the culture of a recently established software firm may depend more on the entrepreneurial spirit of its founders. Thus the facts, and even the mythology, of an organization’s origin may be central to its culture, especially if the person starting the firm remained at the helm for a long time.

Organizational culture: The main features of life at a par- ticular organization. An organization’s culture is influenced by the firm’s history, type of business, management style, values, attitude toward customers, and attitude toward its own employees. Taken together, all features of a particular organization’s culture create a definable quality of life within the working world of that organization.

7 Culture in Organizations

>> Feature 2: Type of Business Culture is greatly influenced by an organization’s type of business. Many computer soft- ware firms, for example, are known for their flexible, nontraditional, innovative, and sometimes chaotic culture. Some of the large computer hardware firms, however, have a culture focused more on tradition, formality, and custom.

>> Feature 3: Management Style A major component of an organization’s culture is its style of leadership. Some organiza- tions run according to a rigid hierarchy, with all decisions coming from the top. Other organizations involve a wide range of employees in the decision-making process. As you might expect, most organizations have a decision-making culture somewhere between these two extremes.

An organization’s culture influences who is hired and promoted at the firm, how decisions are made, and even how company documents are written and re- viewed. Now let’s examine the larger context for an organization’s culture—the business climate.

Business Climate An organization’s culture is not isolated from the cultures of other organizations, or from the wider culture or cultures in which it is located. Organiza- tions, especially businesses and corporations such as M-Global, must respond to the business climate.

To compete in today’s global business climate, companies are focusing on quality and efficiency. To improve quality, companies seek to respond quickly to customer needs and to encourage employee interest in the success of the organization through an emphasis on team building and employee input. To improve efficiency, companies work to improve productivity while reducing costs. This climate has resulted in such strategies as just-in- time delivery and improved use of communication technology.

Two practices that are being used more often in the global business climate are outsourcing and offshoring. Outsourcing is the practice of purchasing goods or sub- contracting services from an outside company. Both the client company and the company that is providing the goods or services may be in the same country, or they may be in different countries. Offshoring happens when a company moves some of its operations to another country. This practice is often done to reduce labor costs, but it may also help a company work more effi- ciently by creating offices closer to suppliers or clients. Although both practices are changing the workplace, they also offer opportunities for companies and employ- ees who are prepared for the global marketplace.

Business climate: The economic and political factors that influence an organization’s priorities, plans, and activities. These factors include competition, investor interests, regula- tions, and the overall health of the economy.

Jack Hollingsworth/Thinkstock

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace8

>>> The Global Workplace Very possibly, you will end up working for an organization that does some of its business beyond the borders of its home country. It may even have many international offices, as does M-Global. Such organizations face opportunities and challenges of diversity among employees or customers. They seek out employees who are able to view issues from a perspective outside their own cultural bias, which we all have. This section examines work in the global workplace, with emphasis on suggestions for writing for readers in dif- ferent cultures.

Communication has entered what might be seen as its newest frontier—intercultural and international communication. More than ever before, industries that depend on good communication have moved beyond their national borders into the global community. Some people criticize internationalism and the so-called shrinking of the planet. They worry about the possible fusion of cultures and loss of national identities and uniqueness; others welcome the move toward globalism. Whatever your personal views, this phe- nomenon is with us for the foreseeable future. Following are some practical suggestions for dealing with it.

Understanding Cultures In studying other cultures, we must avoid extremes of focusing exclusively on either the differences or similarities among cultures. On the one hand, emphasizing differences can lead to inaccurate stereotypes; large generalizations about people can be misinformed and thus can impede, rather than help, communication. On the other hand, emphasizing sim- ilarities can tend to mask important differences by assuming we are all alike—one big global family. The truth is somewhere in between. All cultures have both common fea- tures and distinctive differences that must be studied. Such study helps set the stage for establishing productive ties outside one’s national borders, especially in fields such as technical communication.

Exactly how do we go about studying features of other cultures? Traditionally, there are two ways. One touches only the surface of cultural differences by offering simplistic dos and don’ts, such as the following:

1. In Japan, always bow as you greet people.

2. In Mexico, be sure to exchange pleasantries with your client before you begin to dis- cuss business.

3. In Germany, do not be a minute late for an appointment.

4. In China, always bring gifts that are nicely wrapped.

These and hundreds of other such suggestions may be useful in daily interactions, but they do not create cultural understanding and often present inaccurate stereotypes of the way people operate.

The other, more desirable, approach goes below the surface to the deeper structure of culture. It requires that we understand not only what people do, but also why they do

9 The Global Workplace

it. Although learning another language certainly enhances one’s ability to learn about an- other culture, linguistic fluency alone does not in and of itself produce cultural fluency. One must go beyond language to grasp one essential point:

People in different cultures have different ways of thinking, different ways of act- ing, and different expectations in communication.

To be sure, there are a few basic ethical guidelines evident in most cultures with which you will do business, but other than these core values, differences abound that should be studied by employees of multinational firms. These differences must be re- flected in communication with colleagues, vendors, and customers.

One of the ways that differences between cultures can be understood is through the concepts of high-context cultures and low-context cultures. High-context cultures are fairly homogeneous, with the culture providing a high degree of context for communication. Thus, communications may be less explicit because members of the culture share charac- teristics such as religion, ethnic background, and education. Think about the way that you communicate with members of your family. With a few words, you can tell a whole story, for example: “It’s just like Uncle Bill’s first car.” To outsiders, this means nothing, but members of your family immediately understand the situation. Important characteris- tics of high-context cultures include

■ Clear distinctions between insiders and outsiders

■ A focus on maintaining relationships, on saving face, and on helping others save face

■ A dependence on internalized cultural norms to govern behavior

Low-context cultures consist of diverse religions, ethnic backgrounds, and educational levels; as a result, communication must be explicit, because members of a group cannot assume that they share knowledge or attitudes. The culture provides a low degree of con- text for communication. The United States is an example of a low-context culture. Im- portant characteristics that affect communication in low-context cultures include

■ Openness to outsiders

■ A focus on actions and solving problems, with a willingness to disagree openly

■ A dependence on formally established rules to govern behavior

Although these concepts provide a starting point for learning about other cultures, interactions between cultures in the global marketplace can be very complex, as suggested by Nancy Settle-Murphy, a cross-cultural consultant, and summarized by Jan Pejovic in Table 1–2.

The concept of low-context and high-context cultures offers a general way of think- ing about how to relate to clients and colleagues in other cultures and countries, but if you find yourself working in a global, intercultural setting, you should understand the specific cultural practices of those you are working with. Companies in the United States can get information about the cultures and business practices of other countries from the U.S. Commercial Service of the Department of Commerce, as well as from organizations

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace10

Category Cultural differences

Big picture vs. details People from “high-context” cultures tend to derive their most valuable information from the context that surrounds words rather than the actual words. Precise details may be less important than the broader context.

People from “low-context” cultures pay more attention to the words and details than to the over- all context. They see the trees but may not always see the forest.

Order vs. chaos “Monochronic” cultures are more comfortable taking one thing at a time. Following the correct order or using the right process can seem almost as important as achieving the desired outcome. Unstructured conversations and interruptions can be unsettling.

“Polychronic” cultures cope well with simultaneous activities and see interruptions as a necessary and natural way of doing business.

Formal vs. informal Some cultures have a more compartmentalized communications flow, where information is par- celed out on a need-to-know basis, usually top-down.

In other cultures, people share information more freely among all levels, back and forth and up and down, and maintain multiple channels of communications, both formal and informal.

Motivations and rewards In some cultures, achieving personal recognition or widespread popularity may be the chief motivators.

People from other cultures may be more motivated by their contributions toward building a stronger company or a more harmonious organization. Financial rewards are less important to some than to others.

Quality vs. quantity of decisions

People from certain cultures like to make decisions only after they have carefully solicited input and gained buy-in from multiple perspectives. Such a methodical process may take more time up front, but once decisions are made, results are usually achieved quickly.

For others, speed trumps quality, even if it means that hurried decisions are eventually revisited and work must be redone.

Giving and receiving feedback

People from some cultures seek constant validation for the quality of their work, and may assume that the absence of feedback signals at least mild disappointment. These same people tend to provide frequent unsolicited feedback.

Others assume that unless they hear otherwise, the quality of their work is just fine. Some feel a need to lead with the positive before delving into the negative when giving feedback, while others regard “sugarcoating” as confusing and unnecessary.

Expressing opinions In some cultures, people tend to break in frequently to ask questions, pose challenges, or openly disagree, while others prefer to maintain group harmony by never openly disagreeing, especially in front of a group.

Some tend to allow others to speak before voicing their own opinions, while others speak over others’ voices if that’s what it takes to get heard.

Some need silence to think (and to translate into their native language and back again), and others are uncomfortable with silence, rushing in to fill a pause.

Role of managers In cultures where egalitarianism is prized, team members tend to have equal say when making decisions and setting priorities, regardless of seniority. Managers are seen as organizers and enablers, helping to set strategy, remove roadblocks, and otherwise grease the skids for moving in the right direction.

In cultures where hierarchy is important, managers typically make decisions and pass them down to team members, who implement the decisions and report back to management.

Willingness to sacrifice personal time

Some cultures abhor the notion of giving up personal time for work. Weeknights, weekends, holidays, and vacations are sacrosanct.

People from other cultures quite frequently, though not necessarily happily, forgo personal time if needed.

■ Table 1–2 ■ Cultural differences. Table by Nancy Settle-Murphy of Guided Insights. Source: Pejovic, J. (2006, May). Trans-Atlantic Roundtable. Intercom, 53. 12.

11 The Global Workplace

like the Society for Intercultural Education, Training, and Research (SIETAR). However, there are some general questions you can ask to prepare you to communicate with people outside your own culture. 2 Consider these questions to be a starting point for your journey toward understanding communication in the global workplace. 3

Question 1 Work : What are their views about work and work rules?

Question 2 Time : What is their approach to time, especially with regard to starting and ending times for meetings, being on time for appointments, expected re- sponse time for action requests, hours of the regular workday, and so on?

Question 3 Beliefs : What are the dominant religious and philosophical belief systems in the culture, and how do they affect the workplace?

Question 4 Gender: What are their views of equality of men and women in the work- place, and how do these views affect their actions?

Question 5 Personal Relationships: What degree of value is placed on close personal re- lationships among people doing business with each other?

Question 6 Teams: What part does teamwork have in their business, and, accordingly, how is individual initiative viewed?

Question 7 Communication Preferences: What types of business communication are val- ued most—formal writing, informal writing, formal presentations, casual meetings, e-mail, phone conversations?

Question 8 Negotiating: What are their expectations for the negotiation process, and, more specifically, how do they convey negative information?

Question 9 Body Language: What types of body language are most common in the cul- ture, and how do they differ from your own?

Question 10 Writing Options: What writing conventions are most important to them, espe- cially in prose style and the organization of information? How important is the design of the document in relationship to content and organization?

To be sure, asking these questions does not mean we bow to attitudes that conflict with our own ethical values, as in the equal treatment of women in the workplace. It only means that we first seek to comprehend cultures with which we are dealing before we operate within them. Intercultural knowledge translates into power in the international workplace. If we are aware of diversity, then we are best prepared to act.

It might help to see how some of these issues were addressed by Sarah Logan, a marketing specialist who transferred to M-Global’s Tokyo office three years ago. In her effort to find new clients for M-Global’s services, she discovered much about the

2 A good overview of this subject can be found in E. A. Thrush. (2001). High-context and low-context cultures: How much communication is too much? In D. S. Bosley (ed.), Global contexts: Case studies in inter- national communication (pp. 27 – 41 ). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

3 The questions in this section are drawn from information in two excellent sources for the student of inter- national communication: I. Varner & L. Beamer. (1995). Intercultural communication in the global workplace . Chicago: Irvin; and D. P. Victor. (1992). International business communication. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace12

Japanese culture that helped her and her colleagues do business in Japan. For example, she learned that Japanese workers at all levels depend more on their identification with a group than on their individual identity. Thus Sarah’s marketing prospects in Japan felt most comfortable discussing their work as a corporate department or team, rather than their individual interests or accomplishments—at least until a personal relationship was established.

Sarah learned that an essential goal of Japanese employees is what they call wa — harmony among members of a group and, for that matter, between the firm and those doing business with it. Accordingly, her negotiations with the Japanese often took an indirect path. Personal relationships usually were established and social customs usu- ally observed before any sign of business occurred. A notable exception, she discov- ered, occurred among the smaller, more entrepreneurial Japanese firms, where employees often displayed a more Western predisposition toward getting right down to business.

She also discovered that Japanese business is dominated by men more than in her own culture, and that there tends to be more separation of men and women in social contexts. Although this cultural feature occasionally frustrated her, she tried to focus on understanding behavior rather than judging it from her own perspective. Moreover, she knew Japan is making changes in the role of women. Indeed, her own considerable suc- cess in getting business for M-Global suggested that Japanese value ability and hard work most of all.

Like Sarah Logan, you should enter every intercultural experience with a mind open to learning about those with whom you will work. Adjust your communication

strategies so that you have the best chance of succeeding in the in- ternational marketplace. Intercultural awareness does not require that you jettison your own ethics, customs, or standards; instead, it provides you with a wonderful opportunity to learn about, em- pathize with, and show respect for the views of others.

Communicating Internationally This section includes guidelines for writing and designing English- language documents so that multinational readers can understand and translate them more easily.

When writing documents for other cultures, remember that your work will not be read in the cultural context in which it was written. For that matter, you may lose control of the document alto- gether if it is translated into a language that you do not know. In order to help solve this problem, organizations such as Intecom and the AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe have worked to develop and promote Simplified English, also known as Controlled English. (See Chapter 17 for more information about Simplified English style.) The goal of Simplified English is to elimi- nate ambiguity, improve translation, and make reading English easier © Arekmalang/Dreamstime.com

13 Ethics in the Workplace

for nonnative English speakers. Following are some basic guidelines to reduce the risk of misunderstanding:

1. Simplify grammar and style rules. It is best to write in clear language— with relatively simple syntax and short sentences—so that ideas cannot be misunderstood.

2. Use simple verb tenses and verb constructions. For example, constructions like gerunds and the progressive can have multiple meanings, and some languages don’t have an equivalent to the passive voice.

3. Limit vocabulary to words with clear meanings. Compound words or phrases used as subjects of sentences can be confusing and difficult to translate. The European Association of Aerospace Industries (AECMA) identifies a list of approved words. AECMA’s guidelines can be found at http://www.techscribe.co.uk/ta/ aecma-simplified-english.pdf .

4. Use language and terminology consistently. Texts are easier to read and translate if they follow this rule: “one meaning per word and one word per meaning.”

5. Define technical terms. All good technical writing includes well-defined termi- nology, but this feature is especially important in international writing. A glossary remains an effective tool for helping international readers.

6. Avoid slang terms and idioms. A nonnative speaker or someone from outside the United States may be unfamiliar with phrases you use every day. The ever-popular sports metaphors such as “ballpark estimate,” “hitting a home run,” and “let’s punt on this” present obvious obstacles for some readers. Use phrasing that requires little cultural context.

7. Include visuals. Graphics are a universal language that allows readers entry into the meaning of your document, even if they have difficulty with the text.

>>> Ethics in the Workplace This section outlines the ethical context in which all workers do their jobs. The goals are (1) to present six related guidelines for the workplace, and (2) to show how ethi- cal guidelines can be applied to a specific activity—writing. At the end of this chapter and throughout the book are assignments in which your own ethical decisions play an important role.

Ethical Guidelines for Work As in your personal life, your professional life holds many opportunities for demonstrat- ing your views of what is right or wrong. There is no way to escape these ethical chal- lenges. Most occur daily and without much fanfare, but cumulatively they compose our personal approach to morality. Thus our belief systems, or lack thereof, are revealed by how we respond to this continuous barrage of ethical dilemmas.

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace14

Obviously, not everyone in the same organization—let alone the same industry or profession—has the same ethical beliefs, nor should they. After all, each person’s under- standing of right and wrong flows from individual experiences, upbringing, religious be- liefs, and cultural values. Some ethical relativists even argue that ethics only makes sense as a descriptive study of what people do believe, not a prescriptive study of what they should believe. Yet there are some basic ethical guidelines that, in our view, should be part of the decision-making process in every organization. These guidelines apply to small employers, just as they apply to large multinational organizations. Although they may be displayed in different ways in different cultures, they should transcend national identity, cultural background, and family beliefs. In other words, these guidelines represent what, ideally, should be the core values for employees at international companies.

The guidelines in this section are common in many professional codes of ethics. These are general guidelines and provide a good foundation for ethical behavior in the work- place. However, you should also become familiar with the ethical guidelines specific to your employer and professional organizations.

>> Ethics Guideline 1: Be Honest First, you should relate information accurately and on time—to your colleagues, to cus- tomers, and to outside parties, such as government regulators. This guideline also means you should not mislead listeners or readers by leaving out important information that re- lates to a situation, product, or service, including information about any conflicts of inter- est. You should interpret data carefully and present estimates as accurately as possible. In other words, give those with whom you communicate the same information that you would want presented to you.

>> Ethics Guideline 2: Be Fair You should treat those around you fairly, regardless of differences in race, religion, dis- ability, age, or gender. You should also be aware of, and respect, differences in culture. This is especially important as business becomes more global.

>> Ethics Guideline 3: Be Professional When you are working, you represent your profession. Therefore, you should act in an hon- orable manner and meet deadlines with quality work. You also should keep current on devel- opments in your field, join a professional organization like the Association of Computing Machinery’s Special Interest Group on the Design of Communication (ACM SIGDOC), read journal and magazine articles in your field, and participate in continuing-education activities.

>> Ethics Guideline 4: Honor Intellectual Property Rights Of course you should follow copyright and patent laws, but you should also respect the work that others have put into developing and presenting their ideas. Credit others for ideas, text, or images that you have used. When collaborating with others, show appre- ciation for their contributions, and welcome their input. Offer and accept feedback that will make the final product stronger.

15 Ethics in the Workplace

>> Ethics Guideline 5: Respect Confidentiality

Remember that you are acting on the part of both your employer and your clients. Disclose sensitive informa- tion only with permission, and obtain written releases before you share materials. This guideline is especially important for contract and freelance workers, who must have a portfolio of accomplishments to share with pro- spective clients. If you share confidential information with a prospective client, you show that you cannot be trusted with sensitive material.

>> Ethics Guideline 6: Do No Harm Technical communicators often work in fields that af- fect public health and safety. You should avoid prac- tices, inaccuracies, or mistakes that can harm people or property. You should also support a positive and constructive work atmosphere. One way to achieve such a working environment is to avoid words or ac- tions calculated to harm others. For example, avoid negative, rumor-laden conversations that hurt feel- ings, spread unsupported information, or waste time.

Now let’s examine the manner in which ethical considerations play a part in the writing responsibilities in organizations.

Ethics and Legal Issues in Writing In your career, you should develop and apply your own code of ethics, making certain it fol- lows the six guidelines already noted. Writing—whether on paper, audiotape, videotape, or computer screen—presents a special ethical challenge for demonstrating your personal code of ethics. Along with speaking, there may be no more important way you display your beliefs during your career. The following section (1) lists some ethical questions related to specific documents and (2) provides responses based on the ethical guidelines noted earlier.

Being honest, fair, and professional; honoring intellectual property; respecting confi- dentiality; and doing no harm—all six of these ethical guidelines apply to written com- munication. Following are some typical examples from the working world, followed by some discussion of your legal obligations in writing.

>> Sample Ethics Questions in the Workplace Each of the six situations that follow presents an ethical dilemma regarding a specific document, followed by an answer to each problem.

Lab report: Should you mention a small, possibly insignificant percentage of the data that was collected but that doesn’t support your conclusions?

Ethics Guidelines ■ Be honest

■ Do no harm

■ Be fair

■ Honor intellectual property rights

■ Respect confidentiality

■ Be professional

rgerhardt/Shutterstock

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace16

Answer: Yes. Readers deserve to see all the data, even (and perhaps especially) any information that doesn’t support your conclu- sion. They need a true picture of the lab study so that they can draw their own conclusions.

Trip report: Should you mention the fact that one client you visited expressed dissatis- faction with the service he received from your team?

Answer: Yes. Assuming that your report is supposed to present an ac- curate reflection of your activities, your reader deserves to hear about all your client contacts—good news and bad news. You can counter any critical comments by indicating how your team plans to remedy the problem.

Proposal: Should you include cost information, even though cost is not a strong point in your proposal?

Answer: Yes. Most clients expect complete and clear cost data in a pro- posal. It is best to be forthright about costs, even if they are not your selling point. Then you can highlight features that are exemplary about your firm so that the customer is encouraged to look beyond costs to matters of quality, qualifications, sched- uling, experience, and so on.

Feasibility study: Should you list all the criteria you used in comparing three products, even though one criterion could not be applied adequately in your study?

Answer: Yes. It is unethical to adjust criteria after the fact to accommo- date your inability to apply them consistently. Besides, infor- mation about a project dead end may be useful to the reader.

Technical article: Should you acknowledge ideas you derived from another article, even though you quoted no information from the piece?

Answer: Yes. Your reliance on all borrowed ideas should be noted, whether the ideas are quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. The exception is common knowledge, which is general information that is found in many sources. Such common knowledge need not be footnoted.

Statement of qualifications (SOQ): Should you feel obligated to mention technical areas in which your firm does not have exten- sive experience?

Answer: Probably not, as long as you believe the customer is not expect- ing such information in the statement of qualifications. Ethi- cal guidelines do not require you to tell everything about your firm, especially in a marketing document like an SOQ (State- ment of Qualifications). They require only that you provide the information that the client requests or expects.

Of course, many other types of technical writing require careful ethical evaluation. You might even consider performing an ethical review during the final process of drafting a document. Other parts of this book cover topics that apply to specific stages of such an

17 Ethics in the Workplace

ethical review, as well as to ethics in spoken communication. For ethics in definition and description, see Chapter 7 ; for ethics in instructions and process explanations, see Chap- ter 8 ; for ethics in the research process, see Chapter 9 ; for ethics in the use of graphics, see Chapter 13 ; and for ethics in negotiation, see Chapter 16 .

>> Legal Issues in Writing Some countries, such as the United States, have a fairly well-developed legal context for writing, which means you must pay great attention to detail as you apply ethical princi- ples to the writing process. This section highlights some common guidelines.

■ Acknowledge Sources for Information Other Than Common Knowledge As noted in the technical article example in the previous section, you are obligated to provide sources for any information other than common knowledge. Common knowl- edge is usually considered to be factual and nonjudgmental information that could be found in general sources about a subject. The sources for any other types of informa- tion beyond this definition must be cited in your document. Chapter 9 offers more detail about avoiding plagiarism and the format for citing sources.

■ Seek Written Permission Before Borrowing Extensive Text Generally, it is best to seek written permission for borrowing more than a few hundred words from a source, especially if the purpose of your document is profit. This so-called fair use is, unfortunately, not clearly defined and subject to varying interpretations. It is best (1) to consult a refer- ence librarian or other expert for an up-to-date interpretation of the application of fair use to your situation, and (2) to err on the side of conservatism by asking permission to use information, if you have any doubt. This probably hasn’t been an issue in papers you have written for school because they were for educational use and were not going to be pub- lished. However, this issue should be addressed in any writing you do outside of school.

■ Seek Written Permission Before Borrowing Graphics Again, you probably haven’t been concerned about this issue in projects you have created in school, but you must seek permission for any graphics you borrow for projects created outside of school. This guide- line applies to any nontextual element, whether it is borrowed directly from the original or adapted by you from the source. Even if the graphic is not copyrighted, such as one appear- ing in an annual report from a city or county, you should seek permission for its use.

■ Seek Legal Advice When You Cannot Resolve Complex Questions Some ques- tions, such as the use of trademarks and copyright, fall far outside the expertise of most of us. In such cases it is best to consult an attorney who specializes in such law. Remember that the phrase “Ignorance is bliss” has led many a writer into problems that could have been prevented by seeking advice when it was relatively cheap—at the beginning. Con- cerning U.S. copyrights in particular, you might first want to consult free information provided by the U.S. Copyright Office at its Web site ( www.copyright.gov ).

In the final analysis, acting ethically on the job means thinking constantly about how other people are influenced by what you do, say, and write. Also, remember that what you write could have a very long shelf life, perhaps to be used later as a reference for legal proceedings. Always write as if your professional reputation could depend on it, because it just might.

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace18

>>> The M-Global Case This book uses the fictional company M-Global, Inc., to provide a context for examples, models, and assignments. Even though workplace documents such as procedures or re- ports follow general conventions for organization, writers must also consider the context in which their documents are created and will be read. Effective writers make rhetorical choices to appeal to specific audiences, to clearly communicate information, and to pres- ent a professional image for themselves and the organizations that they represent. ( Chap- ter 2 discusses these rhetorical concerns in greater detail.) The M-Global case provides a rich context for analyzing model documents and responding to writing assignments.

To complete the M-Global assignments, you will be asked to assume a role in the orga- nization. The many M-Global examples and assignments give you a purpose, an audience, and an organizational context that simulate what you will face in your career. Model 1–1 (pp. 25 – 34 ) introduces the organization in a booklet that is part of new-employee orienta- tion at M-Global. The Communication Challenges and Assignments at the end of each chap- ter include the additional information that you will need to analyze your rhetorical situation and create the documents that you have been assigned.

The use of M-Global, Inc., in this textbook is intended to yield two main benefits for you as a student:

■ Real-world context: M-Global provides you with an extended case study in mod- ern technical communication. By placing you in actual working roles, the text pre- pares you for writing and speaking tasks ahead in your career.

■ Continuity: The use of M-Global material lends continuity to class assignments and discussions throughout the term. Your use of this international organization in assignments and class emphasizes the connections among all on-the-job assignments.

>>> Chapter Summary ■ Technical communication refers to the many kinds of writing and speaking you will do

in your career.

■ In contrast to academic writing, technical communication aims to get something done (not just to demonstrate knowledge), relays information from someone more knowl- edgeable about a topic to a reader who is less knowledgeable about it, and presents ideas clearly and simply.

■ Organizations develop their own personality, or culture, which can be influenced by many features, including their history, type of business, and management style.

■ With the growth of the global economy, organizations are becoming more sensitive to differences in cultural communication practices.

■ Companies and their employees should follow some basic ethical guidelines in all their work, including communication with colleagues and customers.

■ This book uses the fictional firm of M-Global, Inc., to lend realism to your study of technical writing.

19 Learning Portfolio

This case study explores cultural issues faced by M-Global,

Inc., as it embraces the global marketplace. It ends with

questions and comments for discussion and an assignment

for a written response to the Challenge. For more informa-

tion about M-Global, see Model 1–1 (pp. 25 – 34 ).

Recently, M-Global’s management has decided to

emphasize the global nature of the organization through

a change management initiative. The goal of this initia-

tive is to create a global, yet cohesive, company culture.

To help achieve this goal, Human Resources has been

asked to create employee orientation and training mate-

rials to be presented at all 16 branches. These training

materials could take the form of information on the com-

pany intranet, messages from M-Global executives to

their employees, and PowerPoint® presentations and

brochures used during training sessions conducted by

Human Resources personnel for M-Global departments

and branches.

Karrie Camp, the Vice-President for Human Resources,

has been with M-Global for 30 years and is serious about the

“resources” part of Human Resources. She believes that en-

suring that employees work efficiently and effectively for

the good of M-Global is an important part of her job. She

believes that a clear, companywide policy guide promotes

efficiency in a large organization like M-Global. The M-

Global policy guide is quite specific about issues such as

work hours (whether regular or flextime), vacation time,

equal opportunity, office dress, required training, and

safety. Karrie sees these policies as the foundation of the

“new” company culture. She wants to use as much existing

material as possible in creating the new orientation and

training materials.

Assume the role of a new employee in the Human

Resources office who has been assigned the task of gath-

ering, comparing, and analyzing all of the current materi-

als used for employee training. Although some branches

in the United States share training materials, others—es-

pecially those in more isolated offices, such as Tokyo and

Nairobi—have their own materials. Some smaller offices

have no formal materials, relying instead on branch

managers to design their own training programs. Your

goal is to identify current materials that can be used to

support M-Global’s international company culture and

to recommend new materials for the training and orien-

tation sessions.

Global Issues in Human Resources Policies Because some countries have specific laws governing vaca-

tions and holidays, some orientation materials are much

more specific than others. However, some policies and

practices that you might take for granted can, in fact, be

problematic; for example, it is important to remember that

not only is the Dammam, Saudi Arabia, office in a differ-

ent time zone, but the Saudi workweek is Saturday through

Wednesday. You will need to address these issues in your

recommendations to Karrie.

One problem you do not have to worry about is read-

ing the existing training materials—the organization has

always had a policy that all internal documents would be

written in English, and M-Global plans to keep this policy.

However, some overseas branch managers have taken the

opportunity presented by this new project to complain

about the English-only policy. They see no reason why

they cannot write internal memos, reports, procedures,

and other documents in the language of the country in

which the office is located. Although most M-Global em-

ployees have a fair reading and writing knowledge of

English, there is the issue of pride at work, and some em-

ployees at lower levels have weak English skills. More-

over, these branch managers argue, if M-Global is going

embrace multiple cultures, why shouldn’t it embrace mul-

tiple languages?

Questions and Comments for Discussion

Answer the following questions from your own point of

view. Before doing so, however, make sure you have care-

fully considered the perspective of the home office and the

branch managers.

1. Is M-Global’s English-only policy justified? Is there any

compromise that would satisfy the overseas branch

managers and the executive management?

2. Elaborate on some of the general language problems

multinational firms can face.

3. The use of English does not by itself break down com-

munication barriers with colleagues and customers

at global firms—that is, English is spoken around the

world by people from many different cultures. Its use

does not mean that people necessarily think, write, or

speak by the same conventions. Examine this view.

Think about how using the same language across an

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge Employee Orientation and Training: Global Dilemmas

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace20

international organization may even mask differences.

How can one’s culture and national background affect

the use of English in writing and speaking?

4. Some of the personnel issues at M-Global are the re-

sult of having branches in both low-context and high-

context cultures. What differences in work rules might

you expect in each type of culture? How can the con-

flicting and confusing work rules be addressed? Give

your opinion on the degree to which common work

rules and practices are important at M-Global’s do-

mestic offices, as well as at its international branches.

5. Identify the recommendations that your supervi-

sor, Karrie Camp, may not be enthusiastic about.

Which issues would you argue strongly for, and

which issues would you decide not to include in your

recommendations? How would you support your ar-

guments for changes?

Write About It

As the new employee in Human Resources, write a memo to

the Vice President of Human Resources, Karrie Camp, that

identifies the key issues that you think should be addressed

in the orientation and training materials. Using the Inter-

net, see what information you can find about paid leave and

holidays, management styles, and general business prac-

tices in the countries where M-Global has branches. Then

identify the existing policies that must be addressed before

the materials can be completed. Remember that the goal is

to support the development of an international company

culture for M-Global.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six stu-

dents, (2) will use time inside or outside of class to complete

the case, and (3) will produce an oral or written response. For

guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Assume you and team members work for a communica-

tion consulting firm hired by your school. Your task is to

improve communication at your institution—both external

communication (e.g., to prospective students, prospective

employees, and the community) and internal communi-

cation (e.g., between and among current students, faculty,

and administrators). Before your team can begin to develop

an action plan, you would like to describe the current cul-

ture of the school. (See the definition of culture on page 6 of

this chapter.) When applied to a college or university, the

term culture might include some of the following features:

■ History of the school

■ Type of institution and variety of academic programs

■ Typical background of students

■ Academic structure

■ Types of interaction among faculty and staff

■ Enrollment patterns

■ Extracurricular life on campus

■ Relationship with community outside the school

Team Assignment Your team will choose one or more features of the school’s

culture to describe. (Alternatively, your instructor may assign

specific features to each team, so that the combined descrip-

tions of all teams present a composite of the school’s culture.)

The members of your team should (1) discuss a plan for devel-

oping the description, (2) collect information in the ways that

seem most appropriate (e.g., through interviews, from written

documents, from discussion among your team members), and

(3) assemble information into a cohesive response. Your main

goal is to produce an objective observation, not to argue a point.

Collaboration at Work Outline for a Consulting Report

Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. Your instructor will ask you to prepare a re-

sponse that can be delivered as an oral presentation for dis-

cussion in class. Analyze the context of each assignment by

considering what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context

of technical writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers, and what do they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

Assignments

21 Learning Portfolio

1. Analysis: Features of Academic Writing Option A Select an example of writing that you wrote for

a high school or college course other than this

one. Then prepare a brief analysis in which

you explain (1) the purpose of the writing sam-

ple, (2) the audience for which it was intended,

and (3) the ways in which it differs from tech-

nical writing, as defined in this chapter.

Option B As an alternative to using your own example, complete the assignment by using the follow-

ing example. Assume that the passage was

written as homework or as an in-class essay in

an environmental science class in college.

2. Analysis: Features of Technical Communication

Option A Locate an example of technical communica- tion (such as a user’s guide, an owner’s man-

ual, or a document borrowed from a family

member or an acquaintance who works in a

technical profession) and prepare a brief anal-

ysis in which you explain (1) the purpose for

which the piece was written, (2) the apparent

readers and their needs, (3) the way in which

the example differs from typical academic

writing, and (4) the relative success with which

the piece satisfies this chapter’s guidelines.

Option B Using the following brief example of techni- cal writing, prepare the analysis requested in

Option A.

3. Analysis, M-Global Context: Welcome to M-Global

Read the Welcome to M-Global booklet in Model 1–1 . This

document is given to all new employees at M-Global. What

have you learned about the culture in M-Global? How would

you present a professional image that is consistent with M-

Global’s culture? Is there additional information that you

wish the booklet included? Is there additional information

that you might ask your coworkers about in an informal set-

ting such as the break room?

4. Analysis: Company Profile Having read the information in the Welcome to M-Global book-

let in Model 1–1 , conduct your own profile of a multinational

company in your region. Collect information from such

sources as corporate annual reports, newspaper or maga-

zine articles, or personal contacts. Consider some or all of

the following subtopics: company history, types of projects,

corporate structure, common types of writing produced, and

special features of the company (such as an international

market or workforce). Your instructor will indicate whether

your report should be presented orally or in writing.

5. Practice: E-mail to Your Instructor Assume that you are enrolled in a course in your major. The

syllabus for the class indicates that your professor will only

excuse absences for school activities, but that you are al-

lowed three other absences during the semester. You missed

two class periods earlier in the semester, when you had the

flu. Next month, you will be in your best friend’s wedding, in

another state. You will have to miss two days of classes to

be in the wedding. Write an e-mail to your instructor asking

that you not be penalized for missing four class periods in

the semester. As you compose your e-mail, consider the con-

text—a majors course taught by a professor who is known for

holding students to high standards and who expects school-

work to take precedence over students’ personal lives.

6. Practice, M-Global Context: Letter Requesting Testimonials

As a writer in M-Global’s corporate marketing department,

you spend a good deal of your time preparing materials to

be used in sales letters, brochures, and company proposals.

Many different responses are possible in the event toxic waste contamination is suspected or discovered at a site. First, you

can simply monitor the site by periodically taking soil and/or water samples to check for contamination. This approach doesn’t

solve the problem and may not prove politically acceptable when contamination is obvious to the community, but it does help

determine the extent of the problem. A second approach—useful when contamination is likely or proved—is to contain the toxic

waste by sealing off the site in some fashion, such as by building barriers between it and the surrounding area or by “capping”

it in some manner (as in the case of a toxic waste pit). Basically, this alternative depends on the ability to isolate the toxic sub-

stances effectively. A third strategy, useful when the contamination is liquefied (like toxic groundwater), is to pump the water

from under the ground or from surface ponds and then transport it to treatment systems.

A fourth method is appropriate when toxic substances need to be treated on-site, in which case they can be incinerated or

they can be solidified at the site in some way. Then they can be placed in a landfill at the site. Fifth, waste can be hauled to another

location, where it can be incinerated or placed in some kind of secure landfill—when an off-site disposal approach is needed.

Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace22

Yesterday, you were assigned the task of asking 20 custom-

ers if they will write testimonial letters about their satisfac-

tion with M-Global’s work. In all cases, these clients used

M-Global for many projects and informally expressed sat-

isfaction with the work. Now you are going to ask them to

express their satisfaction in the form of a letter, which M-

Global can use as a testimonial to secure other business.

7. Practice: Memo on Inventory Control For five years, you have supervised an equipment supply

warehouse for a regional moving company. Your main job

is to maintain equipment and see that it is returned after

jobs are completed. When checking out equipment, each

team manager is supposed to fill out part of a project equip-

ment form that lists all equipment used on the job and the

date of checkout. When returning the equipment, the team

manager should complete the form by listing the date of re-

turn and any damage, no matter how small, that must be

repaired before the equipment is used again. This equip-

ment ranges from front-end loaders and pickup trucks to

simple tools like hammers, wrenches, and power drills.

Lately, you have noticed that many forms you receive

are incomplete. In particular, team managers are failing to

record fully any equipment damage that occurred on the

job. For example, if someone fails to report that a truck’s

alignment is out, the truck will not be in acceptable shape

for the next project for which it could be used.

Your oral comments to project managers have not

done much good. Apparently, the team managers do not

take the warehouse problem seriously, so you believe it is

time to put your concerns in writing. The goal is to inform

all technical professionals who manage projects that from

now on the form must be filled out correctly. You have no

authority, as such, over the managers; however, you know

that their boss would be very concerned about this problem

if you chose to bring it to his attention.

DATE: June 15, 2011

TO: Pat Jones, Office Coordinator

FROM: Sean Parker

SUBJECT: New Productivity Software

Introductory Summary

As you requested, I have examined the FreeWork open source productivity suite software we are considering. On the basis of

my observations, I recommend we secure one copy of FreeWork and test it in our office for two months. Then, after comparing

it to the other two packages we have tested, we can choose one of the three productivity packages to use throughout the office.

Features of FreeWork

As we agreed, my quick survey of FreeWork involved reading the user’s manual, completing the orientation disk, and reviewing

installation options. Here are the eight features of the package that seemed most relevant to our needs:

1. Formatting Flexibility: FreeWork includes diverse “style sheets” to meet our needs in producing reports, proposals, letters,

memos, articles, and even brochures. By using just one command on the keyboard, the user can change style sheets—and

the program will automatically place text in a specified format.

2. Mailers: For large mailings, we can take advantage of FreeWork’s “Mail Out” feature, which automatically places names from

mailing lists on form letters.

3. Documentation: To accommodate our staff’s research needs, FreeWork has the capacity to renumber and rearrange foot-

notes as text is being edited.

4. Page Review: This package’s “PagePeek” feature allows users to view an entire written page on the screen without having

to print the document. They can then see how every page of text will actually look on the page.

5. Tables of Contents: FreeWork can create and insert page numbers in tables of contents, by using the headings and sub-

headings in the text.

6. Spreadsheets: FreeWork includes a powerful spreadsheet that can be integrated into documents.

7. Database: FreeWork’s database component can create forms and reports that can be integrated into documents.

8. Graphics: FreeWork includes a basic drawing program that will probably meet our needs.

Conclusion

Though I gave FreeWork only a brief look, my survey suggests that it may be a strong contender for use in our office. If you wish

to move to the next step of starting a two-month office test, just let me know.

23 Learning Portfolio

At this point, you have decided to ask nicely one more

time—this time in writing. Write a memo to emphasize is-

sues of safety and profitability, as well as the need to fol-

low a procedure that has helped you maintain a first-rate

warehouse.

8. Practice, M-Global Context: Memo Report on Flextime

As branch manager of the Atlanta office, you have always

tried to give employees as much flexibility as possible in

their jobs—as long as the jobs get done. Recently, you have

had many requests to adopt flextime. In this arrangement,

the office would end its standard 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.

workday (with a half-hour lunch break). Instead, each em-

ployee would fit her or his eight-hour day within the fol-

lowing framework: 7:00 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. arrival, a half hour

or full hour for lunch, and 3:30 p.m. to 5:30 p.m. departure.

Two conditions will prevail if flextime is adopted. First,

each employee’s supervisor must agree on the hours cho-

sen because the supervisor must ensure that departmental

responsibilities are covered. Second, each employee must

“lock in” a specific flextime schedule until another is nego-

tiated with the supervisor. In other words, an employee’s

hours will not change from day to day.

Before you spend any more time considering this

change, you want the views of the employees. Write an

e-mail that (1) explains the changes being considered and

the conditions (see previous paragraph); (2) solicits their

views in writing, by a certain date; and (3) asks what par-

ticular work hours they prefer, if given the choice. Also,

indicate that later there may be department meetings and

finally a general office meeting on the subject, depending

on the degree of interest expressed by employees in their

reply e-mails to you.

? 9. Ethics Assignment For this assignment your instructor will place you on a

team, with the goal of presenting an oral or written report.

Option A The Society for Technical Communicators (STC) is the main U.S. professional associa-

tion for technical communicators. Its ethical

guidelines, which follow, are intended both

for those who are permanent employees of or-

ganizations and also for communicators who

work as consultants and contractors. Evaluate

the quality, usefulness, and appropriateness

of these guidelines by answering the following

questions:

a. What do the guidelines suggest about the

role of technical communicators in the

workplace?

b. How would you adjust the depth, breadth,

or balance of the items presented, if at all?

c. How does the document satisfy, or fail to

satisfy, the ethical guidelines discussed in

this chapter?

d. Are all guidelines and terms clear to the

reader?

e. How might the role of the U.S. technical

communication professional, as described

in the guidelines, differ from the role of

technical communicators in several other

cultures outside the United States?

Option B Your team is to investigate the ethical climate in one or more organizations that are in the

same type of business. You may decide to (a)

collect organization codes of ethics, (b) do re-

search on ethical guidelines issued by profes-

sional associations to which the organizations

belong, (c) interview employees about ethical

decisions they face on the job, or (d) read any

available information on ethics related to the

companies or profession.

10. International Communication Assignment

Refer to the 10 questions in “The Global Workplace” sec-

tion of this chapter. Using them as the basis for your inves-

tigation, conduct your own research project on the cultural

features of employees of a specific country. Consider using

some or all of the following sources: campus library, travel

agencies, consulate offices, international students’ office

on your campus, or individuals who have worked in or

visited the country. Your instructor will indicate whether

your report should be presented orally or in writing.

ACT NOW 11. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying

C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld) Select an issue of importance to the local or regional com-

munity where you live or attend college. The issue should

be one that aims to improve the culture, environment, or

general livability of the area. In addition, the topic must be

one about which you will be able to gather facts or opin-

ions with relative ease from a newspaper or local library.

After some preliminary research, interview two individuals

to solicit their views on the topic, and then write an essay

in which you (1) objectively describe the two points of view

of the individuals you interviewed, (2) analyze the degree

to which you believe the two opinions satisfy the Ethical

Guidelines in this chapter, and (3) give your own opinion

on the topic.

24

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Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

Welcome To

M-Global

© Yuri_arcurs (Yuri Arcurs)/Dreamstime.com

25 Learning Portfolio

Worldwide Locations of M-Global, Inc., Offices

U.S. Locations

1. Corporate headquarters— Baltimore, Maryland

2. Baltimore, Maryland 3. Boston, Massachusetts 4. Atlanta, Georgia 5. Houston, Texas 6. Cleveland, Ohio 7. St. Paul, Minnesota 8. St. Louis, Missouri 9. Denver, Colorado 10. San Francisco, California

Non-U.S. Locations

1. Caracas, Venezuela 2. London, England 3. Moscow, Russia 4. Munich, Germany 5. Nairobi, Kenya 6. Dammam, Saudi Arabia 7. Tokyo, Japan

U.S. Offices

CORPORATE OFFICE

OVERSEAS OFFICE

Baltimore, Maryland

London, England Munich, Germany Moscow, Russia

Dammam, Saudi Arabia Tokyo, Japan Caracas, Venezuela

Nairobi, Kenya

Denver, Colorado

Cleveland, Ohio St. Louis, Missouri Houston, Texas Boston, Massachusetts Atlanta, Georgia Baltimore, Marryland

San Francisco, California

St. Paul, Minnesota

■ Model 1–1 ■ Employee orientation guide for M-Global, Inc.

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26 Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

Welcome to M-Global! Although we are an international organiza- tion, we never forget that we started as a small family business. As an organization, we strive to provide the highest-quality ser- vices and equipment to our clients. We want our employees to be of the highest quality, as well. Thus, we will do all we can to help you grow your abilities, gain education for career advancement, and sup- port the high ethical standards held by our organization.

WHO WE ARE M-Global, Inc., was founded in 1963 as McDuff, Inc., by Rob McDuff, as a firm that specialized in soils analysis. From its founding in 1963 until about 1967, the com- pany worked mostly for construc- tion firms in the Baltimore area. By the late 1960s, the firm enjoyed a first-rate reputation. It had offices in Baltimore and Boston and about 80 employees.

McDuff, Inc., kept growing steadily, with a large spurt in the mid-1970s and another in the 1980s. The first growth period was tied to increased oil exploration in all parts of the world. Oil firms needed experts to test soils, especially in offshore areas. The results of these projects were used to position oil rigs at locations where they could withstand rough seas. The second growth period was tied to environ- mental work required by the federal government, state agencies, and private firms. McDuff became a major player in the waste-management business, consulting with clients about ways to store or clean up hazardous waste. The third growth period has moved the firm into diverse service industries, such as security systems, hotel management, and landscaping.

In 2008, Rob McDuff announced his retirement and turned the company over to his son, Jim. With the change in management, McDuff announced a

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name change to reflect its more diversified and global scope, becoming M-Global. Although engineering and environmental services still remain impor- tant to the company, it has expanded its activities in equipment development and business services. Today, after 50 years of business, M-Global, Inc., has about 2,500 employees. There are nine offices in the United States and six over- seas, as well as a corporate headquarters in Baltimore. M-Global performs a wide variety of work. What started as a technical consulting engineering firm has expanded into a firm that does both technical and nontechnical work for a vari- ety of customers.

WHAT WE DO Today, M-Global has grown to be a diversified company, with offices all over the world and a wide range of projects. M-Global in-house and client services generally fit into one of the following project areas:

Soils work on land and at sea: These projects involve making design recommendations for foun- dations and other parts of office buildings, dams, factories, subdi- visions, reservoirs, and mass- transit systems. M-Global is also hired by countries and states that want to preserve the ecologically sensitive offshore environment. By collecting and analyzing data from its ship, the Dolphin, M-Global helps clients decide whether an offshore area should be preserved or developed.

Construction monitoring and management: M-Global monitors construction projects for quality

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and compliance with building codes and other regulations. About 15 years ago, M-Global got into the business of actually supervising projects other than its own jobs. Large construction companies hire M-Global to orchestrate all parts of a project so that it is completed on time. The work involves creating sched- ules, monitoring the work of subcontractors, and creating regular progress reports for clients.

Environmental management: In the late 1970s, Rob McDuff began to realize that garbage—all kinds of it—could mean big business for his firm. Suddenly, the United States and other countries faced major problems caused by the vol- ume of current wastes and by improper disposal of wastes. As M-Global's fast- est-growing market, environmental management work can involve one or more of these tasks:

• Testing surface soil and water for toxic wastes • Drilling borings to see if surface pollution has filtered into the groundwater • Designing cleanup plans • Predicting the impact of proposed projects on the environment • Analyzing the current environmental health of wetlands, beaches, national for-

ests, lakes, and other areas

Equipment design: The Equipment Design Lab was originally created for in-house development of equipment for M-Global's own use. Today, the EDL team, as it is

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M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

known, designs and builds special- ized equipment both for M-Global's own project needs and for its clients.

Document development: To sup- port its equipment development, M-Global has put together a Publi- cations Development team (known in-house as The Pub). This team was originally established to cre- ate documentation for the equip- ment designed by the EDL team, but it grew to house the writing of proposals and RFPs (Requests for Proposals). Members of The Pub are assigned to project teams throughout the company, often participating in the earliest stages of development of project design. Recently, the Publications Devel- opment team began offering documentation services to clients, creating online and print documentation and helping clients set up content management systems.

Training: M-Global entered the training business about five years ago, when it real- ized that there was a good market for technical training in skills represented by the firm. Recently, the Training Department also started offering nontechnical training in areas such as report writing, because the company employs several writers who are excellent trainers.

Miscellaneous service industries: Once it had achieved growth in fields clearly related to its original mission, M-Global began seeing opportunities for starting or buying out companies that provide services related only indirectly to civil engi- neering. The three most prominent examples are corporate and residential land- scaping, security (both systems and staff), and hotel management. These businesses have grown rapidly and created a more diverse group of employees at M-Global.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

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Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

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WHERE TO FIND US Headquarters M-Global, Inc., has 16 branch offices and a corporate headquarters. Although not a large company by international standards, it has become well known within its own fields. The company operates as a kind of loose confederation. Each branch office enjoys a good measure of independence, yet some corporate structure is required for these purposes:

1. To coordinate projects that involve employees from several offices 2. To prevent duplication of the same work at different offices 3. To ensure fairness, consistency, and quality in the handling of human resources

issues throughout the firm (salaries, benefits, workload, etc.)

The corporate office gives special attention to problems related to international communications. Among its non-U.S. clients and employees, it must respond to differences in cultures and ways of doing business. This effort can mean the differ- ence between success and failure in negotiating deals, completing projects, hiring employees, and so forth.

The corporate headquarters in Baltimore is housed in a building across the street from the Baltimore branch office.

Branches Each M-Global branch is unique in its particular combination of technical and non- technical positions, but all 16 branches include a common management structure, as shown below: a branch manager, who reports to one of two corporate vice

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presidents and supervises a team of four or more department managers; these managers, in turn, supervise the technical and nontechnical employees at the branch.

YOUR FUTURE AT M-GLOBAL M-Global encourages employees to develop professionally. We reimburse employ- ees for dues for professional organizations and conference registration. M-Global is a leader in its fields, so we encourage employees to present at national and inter- national conferences, as well as to publish articles in professional journals. Be- cause we want our employees to grow in their careers, we support continuing education through tuition reimbursement and by covering costs for professional seminars, workshops, and certifications.

The following table will help you understand what your coworkers' duties are, as well as show you the opportunities at M-Global.

Position Minimum Education Main Duties

Department Manager

Bachelor's degree and experience Master's degree

Oversees entire department, including budgets and personnel

Human Resources Manager

Bachelor's degree Oversees benefits, safety, employment, compensation

Project Manager Bachelor's degree Oversees projects in fields of expertise

Research Engineer B.S. in engineering or design

Designs new tools, mechanisms, or other equipment at EDL

Computing Engineer

B.S. in Computer Science

Develops and maintains hard- ware and software

Technical Commu- nicator

B.S. or B.A. in technical communication

Helps write and edit reports, proposals, and other branch documents

Training Specialist B.S. or B.A. in education or in liberal arts

Works with corporate office to plan in-house training and external training for clients

Marketing Specialist

B.S. or B.A. in business Writes to and visits potential clients, helps with proposals

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Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

Field Engineer B.S. in engineering or engineering technology

Completes site work for projects

Field Scientist B.S. in biology, chemis- try, environmental science, etc.

Completes site work for hazardous waste projects

Landscape Architect

B.A. or B.S. in landscape architecture

Designs and oversees construc- tion of landscape plans

Office Services Manager

B.S. or B.A. in business Oversees accounting, purchas- ing, physical plant, etc.

Research Technician

Vo-tech or associate's degree

Assists research engineers in the EDL

Field/Lab Technician

Vo-tech or associate's degree

Recovers samples from site, completes lab tests

Field Hand High school diploma Operates and maintains equipment orders and picks up supplies

Secretary Associate's degree Handles paperwork for profes- sional workers, has some client contact

Training Assistant High school diploma Helps orchestrate training activi- ties of all kinds

Receptionist High school diploma Greets visitors and directs them to offices

Library Assistant High school diploma Helps librarian with cataloging, ordering books, etc.

So welcome to the M-Global family! We hope this booklet starts you on a reward- ing career with us. This is just a starting place, however. Your supervisor and fellow employees are happy to help you learn “who's who” at your branch. It is important that our new employees learn how to find what they need to complete their job assignments with quality and efficiency. On the back of this booklet, you will also find a list of some of the valuable resources that are available on M-Global-Net, our company intranet system.

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Chapter 1 Technical Communication in the Workplace

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Find it on M-Global-Net Many resources are accessible from all over the world through M-Global's intranet. Use your e-mail and computer login name and password to access these useful resources. From Human Resources • Forms for insurance, reimbursement • M-Global Employee Policy Guide • M-Global Employee Directory • Guidelines for global business

From the Publications Department (The Pub) • A Guide to M-Global Style • FAQs about writing at M-Global • Templates for memos, letters, proposals, and reports • Digital letterhead

Blogs • From the President's Office • Branch news

Folders for Work Groups and Project Teams

© Justmeyo/Dreamstime.com

Process in Technical Communication

In this chapter, students will

■ Be introduced to the Planning Form, which will help them prepare to write effective documents

■ Learn to identify the purpose of their technical communication

■ Learn to identify the characteristics of their audience

■ Learn how to collect and organize information for their audience

■ Learn how good planning can make the drafting process easier

■ Learn the importance of revision and editing

>>> Chapter Objectives

35

Chapter 2

Photo © Filipwarulik/Dreamstime.com

36 Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication

Kate Paulsen works as a training supervisor for the Boston office of M-Global, Inc., a firm de-scribed in more detail in Chapter 1 . As a member of a professional training organization, Kate subscribes

to an electronic discussion list. One day, she reads an

announcement of a workshop sponsored by the orga-

nization. M-Global company is growing so quickly that

the hiring, training, and retraining of employees have

become major goals. Kate decides that the workshop

could be helpful to M-Global, so she writes a memo to

her supervisor. Kate plans carefully. She knows that to

convince her supervisor to pay for the workshop, she

must clearly explain its value to M-Global, and to her

department, so she gathers as much information as she

can about the workshop and about the recent changes

at M-Global. She must organize her memo so that her

supervisor will easily be able to find the information he

needs. Finally, she must make sure that the memo is

well written and projects a professional image, suggest-

ing that she will present a professional image when she

represents M-Global at the workshop.

Technical communication, like academic writing,

is composed of three main steps: planning, drafting,

and revising. These are steps you are probably famil-

iar with from your academic writing. As shown on the

Figure 2–1 flowchart, these main steps are further di-

vided into eleven substeps that you follow in complet-

ing most technical communication. This chapter will

explain the steps of the writing process in technical

communication.

Determining the purpose

Analyzing your readers

Collecting information

Completing an outline

Planning layout and graphics

Editing for mechanics

Reviewing layout and graphics

Editing for grammar

Editing for style

Adjusting content

Writing initial drafts

Planning Drafting Revising

■ Figure 2–1 ■ Flowchart for the technical communication process

37 Determining the Purpose

>>> Determining the Purpose If you have already taken a basic composition course, you will see similarities between rhe- torical aims studied in that course and those in technical communication. Writing assign- ments you have had in school have probably asked you to inform your reader about an event or object, to analyze a process or idea, or to argue the strength or weakness of an interpretation or theory. Technical communication has the same rhetorical aims as all other good writing.

Information: When readers pick up a technical communication document, they may want to know how to perform an operation or follow an established procedure. They may want to make an informed decision. Clear, reliable infor- mation is the basis of analysis and argument.

Analysis: At first, it may not seem that analysis is an important pur- pose of workplace writing, but it is essential to problem solving and decision making. You may be asked to analyze options for a supervisor who will make a recommendation to a client, or you may be asked to use analysis to make your own recommendation.

Argument: Good argument forms the basis for all technical com- munication. Some people have the mistaken impression that only recommendation reports and proposals argue their case to the reader, and that all other writing should be objective rather than argumentative. Even something as neutral as a set of instructions is implicitly arguing that it is presenting the safest, most effective way of accomplishing a task.

Kate Paulsen’s supervisor approved her trip to Cleveland to attend the professional workshop. The workshop emphasized a new in-house procedure for surveying the training needs of a company’s employees. After returning to Boston, Kate must write her manager a trip report that describes the survey technique. She ponders three different ap- proaches to the report:

■ Giving an overview of the survey procedure she studied during the three-day work- shop, stressing a few key points so that her manager can decide whether to inquire fur- ther (informing)

■ Providing details of exactly how the survey procedure can be applied to her firm, with enough specifics for her manager to see exactly how the survey can be used at M-Global (analyzing)

■ Proposing that the procedure for conducting the needs survey be used at M-Global, in language that argues strongly for adoption (arguing)

For Kate, the first step is to decide what she wants to accomplish. Likewise, every piece of your writing should have a specific reason for being. The purpose may be dictated by some- one else or selected by you. In either case, it must be firmly understood before you start writ- ing. Purpose statements guide every decision you make while you plan, draft, and revise.

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Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication38

Kate Paulsen’s three choices indicate some of your options, but there are others. Your choice of purpose will fall somewhere within this continuum:

Neutral, objective statement Persuasive, subjective statement

For example, when reporting to your boss on the feasibility of adding a new wing to your office building, you should use objective language. You must provide facts that can lead to an informed decision by someone else. If you are an outside contractor proposing to construct such a wing, however, your purpose is more persuasive. You will be trying to convince readers that your firm should receive the construction contract.

When preparing to write, therefore, you must ask yourself two related questions about your purpose.

>> Question 1: Why Am I Writing This Document? This question should be answered in a purpose statement of just one or two sentences, even in complicated projects. Purpose statements guide every decision you make while you plan, draft, and revise. Often the resulting purpose statement can be moved, as is, to the beginning of your outline and later to the first draft.

For example, Kate Paulsen finally decides on the following purpose statement, which becomes the first passage in her trip report:

This memo will highlight main features of the training needs survey introduced at the workshop I attended in Cleveland. I will focus on several possible applica- tions you might want to consider for our office training.

Note that Kate’s purpose rests about halfway across the persuasive continuum shown earlier. She will be giving information that suggests the company might benefit by using the survey, rather than strongly advocating its use.

>> Question 2: What Response Do I Want from Readers? The first question, about purpose, leads inevitably to the second, about results. Again, your response should be only one or two sentences long. Although brief, it should pin- point exactly what you want to happen as a result of your document. Are you just giving data for the file? Will information you provide help others do their jobs? Will your docu- ment recommend a major change?

In Kate Paulsen’s case, she decides on this results statement:

Although I’m not yet sure if this training survey is worth purchasing for M- Global, I want my boss to consider it.

Unlike the purpose statement, the results statement may not go directly into your document. Kate’s statement hints at a desired outcome that may be implicit in her trip report but will not be stated explicitly. This statement, written for her own use, becomes an essential part of her planning. It is a concrete goal for her to keep in mind as she writes.

These two questions about purpose and results are included on the Planning Form your instructor may ask you to use for assignments. Figure 2–2 on pages 39 and 40 includes

39 Determining the Purpose

PLANNING FORM

Name: ___________________________ Assignment ___________________________

I. Purpose: Answer each question in one or two sentences.

A. Why are you writing this document?

B. What response do you want from readers?

II. Audience A. Reader Matrix: Fill in names and positions of people who may read the document

Decision Makers Advisers Receivers

Managers

Experts

Operators

General Readers

B. Information on individual readers: Answer these questions about the primary audience for this document. If the primary audience includes more than one reader (or type of reader) and there are significant differ- ences between the readers, answer the questions for each (type of) reader. Attach additional sheets as necessary.

C. Primary audience

1. What is this reader's technical or educational background?

2. What main question does this person need answered?

3. What main action do you want this person to take?

4. What features of this person's personality might affect his or her reading?

III. Document A. What information do I need to include in the

1. Abstract?

2. Body?

3. Conclusion?

B. What organizational patterns are appropriate to the subject and purpose?

C. What style choices will present a professional image for me and the organization I represent?

■ Figure 2–2 ■ Planning Form for all technical documents

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication40

Instructions for Completing the Planning Form

The Planning Form is for your use in preparing assignments in your technical communication course. It focuses only on the planning stage of writing. Complete it before you begin your first draft.

1. Use the Planning Form to help plan your strategy for all writing assignments. Your instructor may or may not require that it be submitted with assignments.

2. Photocopy the form on the back page of this book or write the answers to questions on separate sheets of paper, whatever option your instructor prefers. (Your instructor may ask you to use an electronic version or enlarged, letter- sized copies of the form that are included in the Instructor's Resource Manual.)

3. Answer the two purpose questions in one or two sentences each. Be as spe- cific as possible about the purpose of the documents and the response you want—especially from the decision makers.

4. Note that the reader matrix classifies each reader by two criteria: (a) technical levels (shown on the vertical axis) and (b) relationship to the decision-making process (shown on the horizontal axis). Some of the boxes will be filled with one or more names, whereas others may be blank. How you fill out the form depends on the complexity of your audience and, of course, on the directions of your instructor.

5. If your document is based on a simulated case from M-Global, Inc., refer to Model 1–1 for any M-Global positions and titles you may want to use in the reader matrix.

6. Note that the section Information on Individual Readers can be filled out for one or more readers, depending on what your instructor requires.

7. Answer the document questions in one or two sentences each. Refer to Chap- ter 4 for information about the ABC format and organizing patterns that can be used in documents. Refer to Chapter 17 for information about style.

■ Figure 2–2 ■ continued

41 Analyzing Your Readers

a copy of the form, along with instructions for using it. The last page of this book contains another copy you can duplicate for use with assignments.

Having established your purpose, you are now ready to consider the next part of the writing process: audience analysis.

>>> Analyzing Your Readers One cardinal rule governs all on-the-job writing:

Write for your reader, not for yourself.

This rule especially applies to science and technology because many readers may know little about those subjects. In fact, experts on writing agree that most technical communication assumes too much knowledge on the part of the reader. The key to avoiding this problem is to examine the main obstacles readers face and to adopt a strategy for overcoming them.

This section (1) highlights problems that readers have understanding technical com- munication, (2) suggests techniques to prevent these problems, and (3) describes some main classifications of technical readers. At first, analyzing your audience might seem awkward and even unproductive. You are forced out of your own world to consider that of your reader before you even begin drafting. The payoff, however, is a document that has clear direction and gives the audience what it wants.

Obstacles for Readers As purchasing agent for M-Global, Inc., Charles Blair must recommend one automobile sedan for fleet purchase by the firm’s sales force and executives. First, he will conduct research—interviewing car firm representatives, reading car evaluations in consumer magazines, and inquiring about the needs of his firm’s salespeople. Then he will submit a recommendation report to a selection committee consisting of the company president, the accounting manager, several salespeople, and the supervisor of company maintenance. As Charles will discover, readers of all backgrounds often have these four problems when reading any technical document:

1. Constant interruptions

2. Impatience finding information they need

3. A different technical background from the writer

4. Shared decision-making authority with others

If you think about these obstacles every time you write, you will be better able to under- stand and respond to your readers.

>> Obstacle 1: Readers Are Always Interrupted As a professional, how often will you have the chance to read a report or other docu- ment without interruption? Such times are rare. Your reading time will be interrupted by

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication42

meetings and phone calls, so a report often gets read in several sittings. Aggravating this problem is the fact that readers may have forgotten details of the project.

>> Obstacle 2: Readers Are Impatient Many readers lose patience with vague or unorganized writing. They think, “What’s the point?” or “So what?” as they plod through memos, letters, reports, and proposals. They want to know the significance of the document right away.

>> Obstacle 3: Readers Lack Your Technical Knowledge In college courses, the readers of your writing are professors, who usually have knowl- edge of the subject on which you are writing. In your career, however, you will write to readers who lack the information and background you have. They expect a technically so- phisticated response, but in language they can understand. If you write over their heads, you will not accomplish your purpose. Think of yourself as an educator; if readers do not learn from your documents, you have failed in your objective.

>> Obstacle 4: Most Documents Have More than One Reader If you always wrote to only one person, technical communication would be much easier than it is. Each document could be tailored to the background, interests, and techni- cal education of just that individual. However, this is not the case in the actual world of business and industry. Readers usually share decision-making authority with others who may read all or just part of the text. Thus you must respond to the needs of many individuals—most of whom have a hectic schedule, are impatient, and have a technical background different from yours.

Ways to Understand Readers Obstacles to communication can be frustrating, yet there are techniques for overcoming them. First, you must try to find out exactly what information each reader needs. Think of the problem this way: Would you give a speech without learning about the background of your audience? Writing depends just as much, if not more, on such analysis. Follow these four steps to determine your readers’ needs:

>> Audience Analysis Step 1: Write Down What You Know about Your Reader

To build a framework for analyzing your audience, you need to write down—not just casually think about—the answers to these questions for each reader:

1. What is this reader’s technical or educational background?

2. What main question does this person need answered?

3. What main action do you want this person to take?

4. What features of this person’s personality might affect his or her reading?

The Planning Form in Figure 2–2 includes these four questions.

43 Analyzing Your Readers

>> Audience Analysis Step 2: Talk with Colleagues Who Have Written to the Same Readers

Often your best source of information about your readers is a colleague where you work. Ask around the office or check company files to discover who else may have written to the same audience. Useful information could be as close as the next office.

>> Audience Analysis Step 3: Find Out Who Makes Decisions Almost every document requires action of some kind. Identify decision makers ahead of time so that you can design the document with them in mind. Know the needs of your most important reader.

>> Audience Analysis Step 4: Remember That All Readers Prefer Simplicity

Occasionally, you could be in the unenviable position of knowing little or nothing about your readers. Despite your best efforts, you either cannot find information about them or may be prohibited from doing so. For example, a proposal writer sometimes is not permitted to contact the intended reader of the proposal, for legal reasons. Even if you uncover little specific information about your readers, however, you can always rely on one basic fact: Readers of all technical backgrounds prefer concise and simple writing. The popular KISS principle (Keep It Short and Simple) is a worthy goal.

Types of Readers You have learned some typical problems readers face and some general solutions to these problems. To complete the audience-analysis stage, this section shows you how to clas- sify readers by two main criteria: knowledge and influence. Specifically, you must answer two questions about every potential reader:

1. How much does this reader already know about the subject?

2. What part will this reader play in making decisions?

Then use the answers to these questions to plan your document. Figure 2–3 (adapted from the Planning Form in Figure 2–2 ) provides a reader matrix by which you can quickly view the technical levels and decision-making roles of all your readers. For complex documents, your audience may include many of the 12 categories shown on the matrix. Also, you may have more than one person in each box; that is, there may be more than one reader with the same background and decision-making role.

Technical Levels On-the-job writing requires that you translate technical ideas into language that non- technical people can understand. This task can be very complicated because you often have several readers, each with a different level of knowledge about the topic. If you are to “write for your reader, not for yourself,” you must identify the technical background of each reader. Four categories help you classify each reader’s knowledge of the topic.

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication44

■ Figure 2–3 ■ Reader matrix

Managers

Experts

Operators

General Readers

Technical Level

Decision-Making Level

Decision Makers Advisers Receivers

>> Reader Group 1: Managers Many technical professionals aspire to become managers. Once into management, they may be removed from hands-on technical details of their profession. Instead, they manage people, set budgets, and make decisions of all kinds. Thus you should assume that man- agement readers are not familiar with fine technical points, have forgotten details of your project, or both. These managers often need

■ Background information

■ Definitions of technical terms

■ Lists and other format devices that highlight points

■ Clear statements about what is supposed to happen next

In Chapter 4 , we discuss an all-purpose ABC format for organization that responds to the needs of managers.

>> Reader Group 2: Experts Experts include anyone with a good understanding of your topic. They may be well edu- cated—like engineers and scientists—but that is not necessarily the case. In the example mentioned earlier, the maintenance supervisor with no college training could be con- sidered an expert about selecting a new automobile for fleet purchase. That supervisor understands the technical information about car models and features. Whatever their educational levels, most experts in your audience need

■ Thorough explanations of technical details

■ Data placed in tables and figures

■ References to outside sources used in writing the report

■ Clearly labeled appendixes for supporting information

>> Reader Group 3: Operators Because decision makers are often managers or technical experts, these two groups tend to get most of the attention. However, many documents also have readers who are

45 Analyzing Your Readers

operators. They may be technicians in a field crew, workers on an assembly line, sales- people in a department store, or drivers for a trucking firm—anyone who puts the ideas in your document into practice. These readers expect

■ A clear table of contents for locating sections that relate to them

■ Easy-to-read listings for procedures or instructions

■ Definitions of technical terms

■ A clear statement of exactly how the document affects their jobs

>> Reader Group 4: General Readers General readers often have the least amount of information about your topic or field. For example, a report on the environmental impact of a toxic waste dump might be read by general readers who are homeowners in the surrounding area. Most will have little techni- cal understanding of toxic wastes and the associated environmental hazards. Do not assume that general readers are not well educated. They may be engineers or research chemists who are unfamiliar with the topic about which you are writing. These general readers often need

■ Definitions of technical terms

■ Frequent use of graphics, such as charts and photographs

■ A clear distinction between facts and opinions

Like managers, general readers must be assured that (1) all implications of the document have been put down on paper, and (2) important information has not been buried in overly technical language.

Decision-Making Levels Figure 2–3 shows that your readers, whatever their technical level, can also be classified by the degree to which they will make decisions based on your document. Pay special at- tention to those most likely to use your report to create change. Use the following three levels to classify your audience during the planning process:

>> First-Level Audience: Decision Makers The first-level audience, the decision makers, must act on the information. If you are pro- posing a new fax machine for your office, first-level readers will decide whether to accept or reject the idea. If you are comparing two computer systems for storing records at a hospital, the first-level audience will decide which unit to purchase. If you are describing electrical work your firm completed in a new office building, the first-level audience will decide whether the project has fulfilled the agreed-on guidelines.

In other words, decision makers translate information into action. They are usually, but not always, managers within the organization. One exception occurs in highly techni- cal companies, where decision makers may be technical experts with advanced degrees in science or engineering. Another exception occurs when decision-making committees consist of a combined audience. For example, the directors of a homeless shelter may be charged with the task of choosing a firm to bring a donated building up to code.

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication46

>> Second-Level Audience: Advisers This second group could be called influencers. Although they don’t make decisions them- selves, they read the document and give advice to those who make the decisions. Often, the second-level audience is composed of experts, such as engineers and accountants, who are asked to comment on technical matters. One increasingly important type of second-level audience is regulators and auditors, who evaluate procedural documents to ensure compliance with laws and best practices. After reading the summary, a decision- making manager may refer the rest of the document to advisers for their comments.

>> Third-Level Audience: Receivers Some readers do not take part in the decision-making process but only receive information contained in the document. For example, a report recommending changes in the hiring of

fast-food workers may go to the store managers after it has been approved, just so they can put the changes into effect. This third-level audience usually includes readers defined as operators in the previous section— that is, those who may be asked to follow guidelines or instructions contained in a report.

Using all this information about technical and de- cision-making levels, you can analyze each reader’s (1) technical background with respect to your document and (2) potential for making decisions after reading what you present. Then you can move on to the re- search and outline stages of writing.

>>> Collecting Information Having established a clear sense of purpose and your readers’ needs, you’re ready to col- lect information for writing. Although you may want to use a scratch outline to guide the research process, a detailed outline is normally written after you have collected the necessary research to support the document.

This section lays out a general strategy for research. Details about research are in- cluded in Chapter 9 (“Technical Research”).

>> Research Step 1: Decide What Kind of Information You Need There are two types of research—primary and secondary. Primary research is what you collect on your own, whereas secondary information is generated by others and found in books, peri- odicals, or other sources. Figure 2–4 gives examples of both types. Use the kind of research that will be most helpful in supporting the goals of your project. Following are two examples:

■ Report context for using primary research: A recommendation report to purchase new CAD (Computer-Assisted Design) software for the design department is supported by your survey of the designers, who will be using the software that you recommend.

© Temis/Dreamstime.com

47 Collecting Information

■ Report context for using secondary research: Your report on CAD software depends on data found in several written sources, such as an article in a mechanical engineering journal that contrasts features of three programs. On the basis of this article, you recommend a particular software package.

>> Research Step 2: Devise a Research Strategy Before you start surfing the Internet or searching through libraries, you need a plan. In its sim- plest form, this plan may list the questions that you expect to answer in your quest for informa- tion. For example, a research strategy for a report on office chairs might pose these questions:

■ What kind of chair design do experts in the field of workplace environment recommend?

■ Are there any data that connect the design of chairs with the efficiency of office workers?

■ Have any specific chair brands been recommended by experts?

■ Is there information that suggests a connection between poor chair design and specific health problems?

>> Research Step 3: Record Notes Carefully See Chapter 9 for the variety of resources available to you at a well-stocked library. Once you have located the information you need in these sources, you must be very careful incorporating it into your own document. As Chapter 9 points out, you must clearly dis- tinguish direct quotations, paraphrasing, and summaries in your notes. Then, when you are ready to translate these notes into a first draft, you know exactly how much borrowed information you used and in what form.

>> Research Step 4: Acknowledge Your Sources The care that you took in Step 3 must be accompanied by thorough acknowledgment of your specific sources. Chapter 9 explains how to use several citation systems.

>> Research Step 5: Keep a Bibliography for Future Use Consider any research you do for a writing project to be an investment in later efforts. Even after your research for a project is complete and you have submitted the report, keep active files on any subjects that relate to your work. Update these files every time

Primary

1. Interviews 2. Surveys 3. Laboratory Work 4. Field Work 5. Personal Observation

1. Bibliographies (lists of possible sources— in print or on computer data bases) 2. Periodical Indexes (lists of journal and magazine articles, by subject) 3. Newspaper Indexes 4. Books 5. Journals 6. Newspapers 7. Reference Books (encyclopedias, dictionaries, directories, etc.) 8. Government Reports 9. Company Reports

Secondary ■ Figure 2–4 ■ Research sources

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication48

you complete a research-related project, such as the two mentioned previously on CAD software and chair design. If you or a colleague wants to examine the subject later, you have developed your own database from which to start.

>>> Completing an Outline After determining purpose and audience and completing your research, you are ready to write an outline. Outlines are one method for planning a piece of writing, especially long documents. They do not have to be pretty; they just have to guide your writing of the draft. If you conscientiously use outlines now, you will find it easier to organize and write documents of all kinds throughout your career. Figures 2–5 and 2–6 show the outline process in action. Refer to the following steps in preparing functional outlines:

Problems/Solutions: M-Global ’ s Cafeteria

- High prices - Poor selection - Soft drinks - $1.39 $1.99 each - Hamburgers are now $3.19 - Average lunch now $7 - $8 - Offer lease to another vendor

- Only one hot meal entree each day - No low-fat milk products - No options for those on restricted diets

- Inflexible current staff - Haven’t changed hours to accommodate “flextime” Not responsive to suggestions

- Excel - good regional reputation - APG - local with good price

- Sally Ann s, Country Corner, Mother’s Palace, Peaceful Platter all expressed interest

- Operated by M-Global, it would be non-profit -- Would hire food service manager and use students in food service management from Maryland Shore C.C.

- Have M-Global take over restaurant

Talked with Good Food, Inc. - does several other M-Global offices in U.S.

Curre nt con

tract

expire s in 2

month s

Dont handle

specia l

event s

S 2 Have m

eals

cate red in

Now hav

e ch ance

to de velop

cont ract

cond itions

turn ed

down by c

urre nt

comp any

Higher quality likely with these restaurants

-PBJ/Tuna/E gg salad

are only sandw iches

no bread choice s besides

white

3P

1S

2 1P

3S

P

■ Figure 2–5 ■ The outlining process: Early stage

49 Completing an Outline

>> Outline Step 1: Record Your Random Ideas Quickly At first, ideas need not be placed in a pattern. Just jot down as many major and minor points as possible. For this exercise, try to use only one piece of paper, even if it is over- sized. Putting points on one page helps prepare the way for the next step, in which you begin to make connections among points.

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS: CURRENT CAFETERIA IN BUILDING

I. Problem #1: Poor selection A. Only one hot-meal entree each day B. Only three sandwiches—PBJ, egg salad, and tuna C. Only one bread—white D. No low-fat milk products (milk, yogurt, LF cheeses, etc.) E. No options for those with restricted diets

II. Problem #2: High prices A. Soft drinks from $1.39 to $1.99 each B. Hamburgers now $3.19 C. Average lunch now $7–$8

III. Problem #3: Inflexible staff A. Unwilling to change hours to meet M-Global's flexible work schedule B. Have not acted on suggestions C. Not willing to cater special events in building

IV. Solution #1: End lease and make food service an M-Global department A. Hire food service manager B. Use students enrolled in food service management program at Maryland

Shore Community College C. Operate as nonprofit operation—just cover expenses

V. Solution #2: Hire outside restaurant to cater meals in the building A. Higher quality likely B. Initial interest by four nearby restaurants 1. Sally Ann's 2. Country Corner 3. Mother's Palace 4. Peaceful Platter

VI. Solution #3: Continue leasing space but change companies A. Initial interest by three vendors 1. Excel—good regional reputation for quality 2. APG—close by and local, with best price 3. Good Food, Inc.—used by two other M-Global offices with good results B. Current contract over in two months C. Chance to develop contract not acceptable to current company

■ Figure 2–6 ■ The outlining process: Later stage

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication50

>> Outline Step 2: Show Relationships Next, connect related ideas. Using your brainstorming sheet, follow these three steps:

1. Circle or otherwise mark the points that will become main sections.

2. Connect each main point with its supporting ideas, using lines or arrows.

3. Delete material that seems irrelevant to your purpose.

Figure 2–5 shows the results of applying Steps 1 and 2 to a writing project at M-Global, Inc. Diane Simmons, office services manager at the Baltimore branch, plans to recommend a change in food service. She uses the brainstorming technique to record her major and minor points. First, she circles the six main ideas. As it happens, these ideas include three main problems and three possible solutions, so she labels them P#1 through P#3 (prob- lems) and S#1 through S#3 (solutions). Second, she draws arrows between each main point and its related minor points. In this case, there is no material to be deleted. Although the result is messy, it prepares her for the next step of writing the formal outline.

Like Diane Simmons, you face one main question as you plan your outline: What pat- tern of organization best serves the material? Chapter 4 presents an ABC format that applies to overall structure. Each document should start with an A bstract (summary), move to the B ody (discussion), and end with a C onclusion.

>> Outline Step 3: Draft a Final Outline Once related points are clustered, it is time to transform what you have done into a somewhat ordered outline ( Figure 2–6 ). This step allows you to (1) refine the wording of your points and (2) organize them in preparation for writing the draft. Although you need not produce the traditional outline with Roman numerals and so on, some structure is definitely needed. Your main points and subpoints may help you identify sections of your document that will be identified by headings and subheadings. Abide by these basic rules when outlining your project:

■ Depth: Make sure every main point has enough subpoints so that it can be developed thoroughly in your draft.

■ Balance: When you decide to subdivide a point, break it down into at least two subheadings (because any object that is divided has at least two parts). This same rule applies to headings and subheadings in the final document. In fact, a good outline pro- vides you with the wording for headings and subheadings. The outline even becomes the basis for a table of contents in formal documents.

■ Parallel Form: For the sake of consistency, phrase your points in either topic or sen- tence form. Sentences give you a head start on the draft, but they may lock you into wording that needs revision later. Most writers prefer the topic approach; topics take up less space on the page and are easier to revise as you proceed through the draft.

>> Outline Step 4: Consider Where to Use Graphics The time to consider using graphics in your document is at the planning stage of the writing process, not at the drafting or revising stage. Graphic communication thus

51 Writing Initial Drafts

becomes an integral part of the document. Too often, graphics such as charts, pictures, and tables appear to be a mere afterthought—because they probably were. Instead, you should use the outline stage to plan a strategy for developing graphics that complement your text.

In the final outline in Figure 2–6 , for example, the writer might discover several op- portunities for reinforcing textual information with visual language. Following are a few possibilities:

■ Chart showing the increase in cafeteria prices over the last three years

■ Table contrasting prices for a few lunch items at the current cafeteria and at the four restaurants mentioned in section V. B of the outline

■ Map showing the location of the four nearby restaurants

■ Chart showing the relative costs for the contract with the vendors listed in section VI. A of the outline

As a side benefit, the exercise of planning graphics at the outline stage may uncover weaknesses in your argument—that is, places where you need to develop further statisti- cal support. Chapter 12 covers the use of graphics in more detail.

>>> Writing Initial Drafts With your research and outline completed, you are ready to begin the draft. This stage in the writing process should go quickly if you have planned well. Yet many writers have trouble getting started. The problem is so wide- spread that it has its own name—“writer’s block.” If you suffer from it, you are in good company; some of the best and most productive writers often face writer’s block.

In business and industry, the worst result of writer’s block is a tendency to delay the start of writing projects, especially propos- als; these delays can lead to rushed final drafts and editing errors. Outlining and other planning steps are wasted if you fail to com- plete drafting on time. The suggestions that follow can help you start writing and then keep the words flowing.

>> Drafting Step 1: Schedule at Least a One-Hour Block of Drafting Time

Most writers can keep the creative juices flowing for at least an hour if distractions are removed. Rather than writing for three or four hours with your door open and thus with constant interruptions, schedule an hour or two of uninterrupted writing time. Most other business can wait an hour, especially considering the importance of good writing to your success. Colleagues and staff members will adjust to your new strategy for drafting reports. They may even adopt it themselves. Thinkstock

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication52

>> Drafting Step 2: Do Not Stop to Edit Later, you will have time to revise your writing; that time is not now. Instead, force yourself to get ideas from the outline to paper or computer screen as quickly as possible. Most writers have trouble getting back into their writing pace once they have switched gears from drafting to revising.

>> Drafting Step 3: Begin with the Easiest Section In writing the body of the document, it isn’t necessary that you move chronologically from beginning to end. Because the goal is to write the first draft quickly, you may want to start with the section that flows best for you. Later, you can piece together sections and adjust content.

>> Drafting Step 4: Write Summaries Last As already noted, the outline used for drafting covers just the body of the document. Only after you have drafted the body should you write overview sections, such as summaries. You cannot summarize a report until you have actually completed it. Be- cause most writers have trouble with the summary—a section that is geared mainly to decision makers in the audience—they may get bogged down if they begin writing it prematurely.

>>> Revising Drafts You may have heard the old saw “There is no writing, only rewriting.” In technical com- munication, as in other types of writing, careful revision breeds success. The term revision encompasses five tasks that transform early drafts into final copy:

1. Adjusting content

2. Editing for style

3. Editing for grammar

4. Editing for mechanics

5. Reviewing layout and graphics

Following are some broad-based suggestions for revising your technical prose. For more details, consult Chapter 17 , “Style in Technical Writing,” or the Handbook at the end of the book.

>> Revision Step 1: Adjust Content In this step, go back through your draft to (1) expand sections that deserve more attention; (2) shorten sections that deserve less attention; and (3) change the location of sentences, paragraphs, or entire sections. The use of word processing has made this step considerably easier than it used to be.

53 Revising Drafts

>> Revision Step 2: Edit for Style The term style refers to changes that make writing more engaging, more interesting, and more readable. Such changes are usually matters of choice, not correctness. For example, you might want to

■ Shorten paragraphs

■ Rearrange a paragraph to place the main point first

■ Change sentences written in the passive voice to the active voice

■ Shorten sentences

■ Define technical terms

■ Add headings, lists, or graphics

One stylistic error deserves special mention because of its frequency: long, convoluted sentences. As a rule, simplify a sentence if its meaning cannot be understood easily the first time it is read. One easy way to do this is to make sure that actions are expressed in verbs, not hidden in nouns. Also, be wary of sentences that are so long you must take a breath before you complete reading them out loud. (See Chapter 17 for more on clear style.)

>> Revision Step 3: Edit for Grammar You probably know your main grammatical weaknesses. Perhaps comma placement or subject–verb agreement gives you problems. Or maybe you confuse words like imply/ infer, effect/affect, or complementary/complimentary. In editing the document for grammar, focus on the particular errors that have given you problems in the past.

>> Revision Step 4: Edit for Mechanics Your last revision of text should be for mechanical errors, such as misspelled words, misplaced pages, incorrect page numbers, missing illustrations, and errors in numbers (especially cost figures). Word-processing software can help prevent some of these er- rors, such as most misspellings, but computer technol- ogy has not eliminated the need for at least one final proofing check.

>> Revision Step 5: Review Layout and Graphics

Finally, you should review the visual elements of your document. Be sure that all illustrations are referred to in the text and that they are placed appropriately. You should also check for consistency in layout and design elements such as headings, list formats, fonts, and use of white space. For more about using layout and graphics correctly and consistently, see Chapter 13 . This five-stage revision process produces final drafts that reflect well on you, the writer. © Studio (Dreamstime Agency)/Dreamstime.com

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication

Next are three final suggestions that apply to all stages of the process:

1. Use computer tools to make the process easier. Some word-processing pro- grams allow you to reformat an outline as a document. You can also use the com- puter to track the changes you have made during revision and to store and manage multiple versions of your documents. If you change your mind about a revision, you can retrieve an earlier version of your document.

2. Depend on another set of eyes besides your own. One strategy is to form a partnership with another colleague, whether in a technical writing class or on the job. In this arrangement, you both agree that you will carefully review each other’s writing. This buddy system works better than simply asking favors of friends and colleagues. Choose a colleague in whom you have some confidence and from whom you can expect consistent editing quality. However, never make changes suggested by another person unless you fully understand the reason for doing so. After all, it is your writing.

3. Remember the importance of completing each step separately. Revising in stages yields the best results.

The writing process discussed in this chapter is the same for all kinds of technical com- munication—from the simplest correspondence to formal reports to Web site content. You may find that you are not working through this process alone. Much workplace writ- ing is done collaboratively. Chapter 3 explains the process when writing is done in teams.

>>> Chapter Summary ■ Technical communication aims to inform readers about a subject, analyze a subject to

help the readers understand it and make decisions about it, and persuade readers about the appropriateness of a recommendation.

■ Readers of technical communication are often busy and appreciate documents that are clear and easy to follow.

■ Audiences for technical communication differ in their levels of expertise and their influence over decision making within an organization.

■ Writers should keep their audience’s needs and interest in mind when collecting and organizing information.

■ Thorough planning can make the drafting process easier.

■ Revising and editing will produce a clean document that projects a professional image.

■ This chapter introduces the Planning Form, which will help students prepare to write effective documents for their class and in the workplace.

54

Learning Portfolio

The engineers, programmers, scientists, and other employ-

ees in M-Global’s Boston branch spend a lot of time in their

chairs. Although all the office furniture is new and expen-

sive, employees have experienced regular back pain since

the new chairs arrived. Unfortunately, the furniture was or-

dered through the corporate office, so complaints cannot be

handled in a routine and informal way in the Boston office.

The branch manager, Richard DeLorio, mentioned the prob-

lem to his boss, Jeannie McDuff, Vice President for Domestic

Operations. Predictably, Jeannie asked Richard to “put it in

writing.”

This case study explains Richard’s approach, presents

the analysis of the memo that is part of the proposed strat-

egy, and ends with questions and comments for discussion

and an assignment for a written response to the Challenge.

Gathering Evidence Richard knows that he must thoroughly and objectively

document the problems associated with the arrival of the

new chairs. He asks one of the engineers to gather informa-

tion that supports his memo. The engineer creates an elab-

orate spreadsheet with accompanying charts that identifies

the employees who have received the new chairs, as well

as the frequency, types, and timing of specific complaints

about back pain.

Richard knows that Jeannie does not have the time or

interest to work her way through all the data. What is more,

as he looks at it, he realizes that he can’t draw a direct cor-

relation between the data and the back pain that he and his

fellow employees have been experiencing. He asks the en-

gineer to revise the information and to write a discussion of

the data so that Jeannie can quickly and easily see the point

being made. At the same time, Richard researches informa-

tion about office chairs and back pain.

Writing the Memo Richard creates the following analysis to help him plan his

memo:

Purpose: This memo will review the problems that have been observed since the arrival of the chairs, including the

costs in lost time and medical treatment. It will also rec-

ommend chairs that meet ergonomic recommendations.

Results: My boss, Jeannie McDuff, will authorize the pur- chase of new chairs for the Boston branch.

Readers: Jeannie McDuff is the primary reader and deci- sion maker. Other readers may include the purchasing

officer, who can use this information to select chairs (as-

suming Jeannie agrees to replace them).

Information About Jeannie McDuff: Jeannie joined M- Global as a civil engineer. Even though her grandfather

founded the company, she has been expected to work her

way up through the ranks. However, as VP for Domestic

Operations, she doesn’t have much to do with the day-to-

day branch operations and probably didn’t have much to

do with actually selecting the chairs that we have been

given. The most important point to make to her is that

these chairs are hurting our productivity (through absences

and distraction as a result of the discomfort) and could cost

M-Global money (through increased use of medical insur-

ance—which could lead to increased insurance premiums).

Jeannie prefers clean, clear documents—as elaborate

as necessary, but following the guidelines for Plain English

style recommended by the federal government. (See Chap-

ter 17 for more on Plain English.)

Questions and Comments for Discussion

1. How could Richard have helped the engineer create

usable information when he first assigned the writing

task?

2. From Richard’s planning sheet, what strategies do you

think will help him convince Jeannie to replace the

chairs? What information should he emphasize? How

should he organize his points?

3. What other information could have been useful to

help Richard make his case?

4. Even though the document written by the engineer

and the document that Richard wrote include some

of the same information, the documents are different

because they have different purposes and audiences.

How are they different? How do purpose and audience

contribute to those differences?

Write About It

You are one of the employees who has had back problems

because of the new chairs, and Richard has asked you to

create a document of no more than one page that identi-

fies the most important concerns for safe, comfortable,

and ergonomically correct computer stations. Research the

recommendations for workplace health and computer use,

and write your recommendation in a memo of one page.

Include a list of your sources so that Richard can find ad-

ditional information, if he wants to.

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge Bad Chairs, Bad Backs

55

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication56

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six

students, (2) use team time inside or outside class to com-

plete the case, and (3) produce an oral or written response.

For guidelines about writing in teams, see Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Assume you and your team members comprise one of sev-

eral teams from a private consulting firm. The firm has

been hired to help plan a hotel/conference center to be built

on your campus. Although the center will cater to some pri-

vate clients, most customers will be associated with your

institution—for example, parents of students, candidates

for teaching or administrative positions, and participants in

academic conferences.

Obviously, a project of this sort requires careful plan-

ning. One step in the process is to assess the needs of vari-

ous people and groups that will use the center.

Following are listed just a few of the many groups or

departments whose needs should be considered:

Accounting Landscaping Registration

Catering Maintenance Sales and marketing

Computing Procurement Security

Housekeeping Recreation Training

The range of topics is broad because the facility will

have multiple purposes for a diverse audience.

Team Assignment The consulting firm—of which your team is a part—will

issue a joint report that describes the needs of all groups

who will work in the new hotel/conference center. As-

sume that your team’s task is to produce just a portion

of the outline—not the text—of the report. Your outline

will address one or more of the needs reflected in the pre-

vious list or other needs of your choosing that have not

been listed.

Collaboration at Work Outline for a Consulting Report

Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a

response that can be delivered as an oral presentation for

discussion in class.

Analyze the context of each assignment by considering

what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context of techni-

cal writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

Assignment 8 is an ongoing assignment.

1. Analysis: Purpose and Audience The following examples deal with the same topic in four

different ways. Using this chapter’s guidelines on purpose

and audience, determine the main reason for which each

excerpt was written and the technical level of the intended

readers.

A. You can determine the magnitude of current flowing through a resistor by use of this process:

■ Connect the circuit (power supply, resistor, ammeter,

voltmeter).

■ Set the resistor knob to a setting of “1.”

■ Turn the voltage-adjusting knob to the left until it

stops rotating.

■ Switch the voltmeter to “On” and make sure it reads

“0.00 volts.”

■ Switch the power supply to “On.”

■ Slowly increase the voltage on the voltmeter from 0

to 10 volts.

■ Take the reading from the ammeter to determine the

amount of current flowing through the resistor.

B. After careful evaluation of several testers, I strongly rec- ommend that Langston Electronics Institute purchase

100 Mantra Multitesters for use in our laboratories in

Buffalo, Albany, and Syracuse.

Assignments

Learning Portfolio

C. Selected specifications for the Ames Multitester are as follows:

■ Rangers .............. 43

■ DC Voltage ........ 0–125–250mV 1.25–2.5–10–5–125–500–

1000V

■ AC Voltage ........ 0–5–25–125–250–500–1000V

■ DC Current ........ 0–25–50μA–2.5–5–25–50–250–500mA–

10amperes

■ Resistance ......... 0–2K–20K–200K–20 Mega ohms

■ Decibels ............. −20 to +62 in db 8 ranges

■ Accuracy ........... ±3% on DC measurements

±4% on AC measurements

±3% on scale length on resistance

■ Batteries ............ one type AA penlight cell

■ Fuse .................... 0.75A at 250V

Note that the accuracy rate for the Ames is within our

requirements of ±6% and is considerably lower than the

three other types of testers currently used by our staff.

D. Having used the Ames Multitester in my own home laboratory for the last few months, I found it ex-

tremely reliable during every experiment. In addition,

it is quite simple to operate and includes clear instruc-

tions. As a demonstration of this operational ease,

my 10-year-old son was able to follow the instructions

that came with the device to set up a functioning

circuit.

2. Analysis: Audience Find a commercial Web site (the Web site of a manufacturer

or retailer) designed for children. Sites that promote cereal,

toys, or snack foods are good choices.

■ Is the site designed to inform, provide analysis, or per-

suade? How do you know?

■ What have the designers of the Web site done to appeal

to their audience? What do their choices tell you about

the results of their audience analysis?

■ Is there a section on the Web site specifically targeted to

parents? How does it differ from the Web pages for chil-

dren? How is it similar to the pages for children?

3. Analysis: Contrasting Styles Find two articles on the same topic in a professional field

that interests you. One article should be taken from a

newspaper or magazine of general interest, such as one

you would find on a newsstand; the other should be from

a magazine or journal written mainly for professionals in

the field you have chosen. Now contrast the two articles ac-

cording to purpose, intended audience, and level of techni-

cality.

4. Analysis, M-Global Context: Diverse Audiences

Carefully examine the employee orientation guide in Model

1–1 in Chapter 1 . This guide is to be given to all new employ-

ees at M-Global, so it has been created for readers of various

technical and educational backgrounds. Consider the strat-

egies that a writer might use to create a document for such

a diverse audience. Explain why you think the author of the

orientation guide has been successful or unsuccessful in de-

signing a document that is appropriate to its audience.

5. Practice, M-Global Context: Audience Analysis

Review the information on pages 48 – 50 in this chapter about

Diane Simmons’ project proposing solutions to the prob-

lems related to the cafeteria at the M-Global branch in

Baltimore. Because the Baltimore branch is also the home

office, Diane will submit her proposal to Karrie Camp,

Vice President for Human Resources. Karrie has been with

M-Global for 30 years and is serious about the “resources”

part of human resources. She believes that ensuring that

employees work efficiently and effectively for the good of

M-Global is an important part of her job. Because Karrie

started as a secretary at M-Global, and has worked her

way up to her current position, she likes to think of her-

self as “just another employee.” However, she can be in-

timidating, and she brags that she “won’t put up with any

nonsense.”

Assume the role of Diane, and complete a Planning

Form, assuming that Karrie Camp is your primary audience.

See page 39 or the inside back cover for the Planning Form.

6. Practice: Rewrite for a Different Audience Locate an excerpt from a technical article or textbook, pref-

erably on a topic that interests you because of your back-

ground or college major. Rewrite all or part of the selection

so that it can be understood by readers who have no previ-

ous knowledge of the topic.

7. Practice: Collecting and Organizing Information

Most word-processing programs include a feature that

allows users to track the changes that are made to docu-

ments, as well as insert questions, comments, and advice

for revision. This feature is especially useful for collabora-

tive projects because it allows team members to see who

recommended various changes, as well as allowing several

people to comment on drafts.

A. Identify the reviewing features that are available in your word-processing program and how they are accessed.

57

Chapter 2 Process in Technical Communication

Create a list of the features that you believe would be

most useful for students working on team projects.

B. Organize the information you have collected into a single-page reference for students who want to use the

reviewing features in your word-processing program.

8. Practice: Revision As noted in the chapter, it is helpful to become aware of the

problems that occur most frequently in your writing. One

way to do this is to keep a record, or log, of the problems

that appear most often. Create a log by listing the most

common broad categories of errors:

■ Sentence boundary errors (fragments, run-ons, comma

splices)

■ Agreement (subject/verb, pronoun/reference, changes in

tense)

■ Word choice

■ Punctuation

■ Spelling

To begin collecting information about your most common

problems, look at papers that your teachers have returned

to you. In your log, record problems that have been marked

on these papers. After you have recorded information from

four or five papers, you may be able to see patterns de-

veloping. For example, are most of your entries “sentence

boundary errors”? If so, are they all similar—maybe run-on

sentences? Once you have identified your common prob-

lems, develop strategies for proofreading for them. To find

run-on sentences, for example, try looking for sentences

with two verbs. If you often have problems with punctua-

tion—commas, for example—make sure you look them up

in the handbook in the back of this book, learn the rules,

and check them when you proofread your papers.

9. Ethics Assignment In college, you are encouraged to create new material for

each class and every assignment. In fact, turning in the

same material for more than one class is considered unethi-

cal. In the workplace, you may find that attitiudes about the

reuse of text are quite different. Search the Internet for in-

formation on “boilerplate” text, “single sourcing,” and text

“reuse” in technical communication. With this background

information, interview a friend, relative, or recent college

graduate who works as a technical professional or manager

to ask about the reuse of text in his or her organization. Pre-

pare to share your results with the class.

10. International Communication Assignment

World cultures differ in the way they organize informa-

tion and in the visual cues they use for readers. Using a

resource like http://newspapers.com , find Web sites for

newspapers from three different countries and analyze

each Web site for the way information is presented. If

possible, analyze the Web site that is in the language in

which the newspaper is published. (For example, use the

Japanese language site for a Japanese newspaper.) Do you

notice any differences in how information is arranged on

the pages of the site? For example, are the Web site’s top-

ics arranged vertically on the left of the page, as they are

on most English-language Web sites? How are graphics

treated? What other differences do you see? Write a brief

essay about what you have learned about how these Web

sites present information, and what issues companies

that are creating Web sites for global audiences need to

be aware of.

ACTNOW 11. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

As part of the annual Earth Day celebration (April 22), you

and several classmates have been asked to propose an event

to the Student Affairs Office on your campus. It is supposed

to be an “environmentally friendly” activity conducted on

campus by campus staff, students, faculty, or individuals

from outside the campus community. Following the guide-

lines in this chapter, develop an outline of the project you

plan to propose.

58

Collaboration and Writing

In this chapter, students will

■ Learn different approaches to collaborative writing

■ Be introduced to guidelines for successful writing teams

■ Learn the importance of planning for collaborative projects

■ Be introduced to the roles that individual team members can play

■ Learn techniques for effective meetings

■ Be introduced to guidelines for effective collaboration between writers and subject matter experts

■ Learn about planning software for managing projects

■ Learn about electronic tools for easy communication among team members

■ Learn about electronic tools for the collaborative writing process

>>> Chapter Objectives

59

Chapter 3

Photo © Avava (Jonathan Ross)/Dreamstime.com

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing60

As the leader of an engineering team in M-Global’s Equipment Design Lab (also known as EDL), Scott Montgomery guided the design of a new sensor that generates quicker and more accu-

rate results from on-site tests for soil contamination.

Now, he has been asked to write a white paper about

the new sensor. In some industries, white papers are a

common way to share information about new devel-

opments as well as to publicize the organization. Scott

is preparing to write such a paper. 1 (For more on white

papers, see Chapter 12 .)

Scott begins by gathering documents that have al-

ready been written about the sensor. The Equipment

Design Lab team has kept meticulous records during

the development and testing of the sensor, and now

that M-Global is preparing to offer the new sensor to

its clients, the marketing team has created additional

documents that Scott has access to through the com-

pany intranet. He gathers the written materials, cre-

ates a framework, and decides how the existing text

will fit into his plan. He writes some new sections

himself, connecting the existing text and revising it

for a unified voice and purpose. Scott then asks two of

his team members, engineers who have written much

of the documentation for the sensor, to serve as co-

authors. The three of them review and revise drafts

until they are satisfied and are ready to pass the paper

along to the vice president for research and training

and to the legal department to ensure that the paper

does not make any unsubstantiated claims.

By the time it is presented at a conference and pub-

lished on the M-Global Web site, the white paper will

include the work of dozens of people, even though only

three will be listed as authors.

Your writing experience in school may reinforce

the image of the solitary writer—with sweat on brow—

toiling away on research, outlines, and drafts. In fact,

this description does not typify much writing in the

working world outside college. In many professions

and organizations, writing in teams is the rule rather

than the exception.

In the workplace, correspondence and some short

documents may be written by a single author, but

most documents are the result of some kind of col-

laboration between writers. In one study, technical

communication managers listed collaboration with

subject matter experts and collaboration with co-

workers as the two most important competencies for

technical communicators. 2 This collaboration may be

as simple as asking a co-worker to read through a re-

port before turning it in to a supervisor, or as complex

as being part of a standing team that creates multiple

documents. You may collaborate with others in the

development and delivery of products or services,

in the marketing of those products or services, or in

creating documentation to support those products or

services. Collaborative writing (also called team writing )

can be defined as follows:

This chapter focuses on collaboration strategies as

they are used in the writing process, but many of these

strategies can contribute to the success of any team

project.

Collaborative writing: The creation of a document by two or more people. Documents are created collaboratively to meet the common purposes and goals of a community of writers, editors, and readers.

1 This scenario draws on a case study published by D. A. Winsor. (1989). An engineer’s writing and the corporate construction of knowledge. Written Communication, 6, 270–285. 2 K. T. Rainey, R. K. Turner, & D. Dayton. (2005). Do curricula correspond to managerial expectations? Core competencies for technical communicators. Technical Communication, 52 (3), 323–352.

61 Approaches to Collaboration

>>> Approaches to Collaboration The scope of the writing project, the setting in which it is written, and the number of people involved can all influence the form that collaborative writing takes. There are five common approaches to writing collaboratively.

■ Divide and conquer: When the writing project is large and has clearly defined sections, it may be helpful to assign individual sections of the document to specific writ- ers. Later in the process, the parts of the document are brought together and combined. Many documents today are produced with a version of this approach that depends on modular writing, discussed later in this chapter.

■ Specialization: Often referred to as “writing in cross-functional teams,” this is a version of divide and conquer in which parts of the project are assigned to team members because of their specialty. On a proposal-writing team, for example, an engineer might write the technical descriptions and specifications; an accountant might write up the bud- get projections; someone from marketing who is familiar with the potential client might write the final sections of the proposal; and a technical communicator might develop the overall plan for the document, assemble the parts, and provide the document design and final editing work.

■ Sequence: In this approach, several people are involved in creating a document, but instead of working on it at the same time, they pass it from one person to the next. An engineer may write a description of a new product and then pass that along to a documentation specialist, who revises the description for readers who don’t have the engineer’s expertise. The documentation specialist may then pass the document along to a marketing communication writer, who uses it to create a description of the product for the company’s Web site.

■ Dialogue: When two writers are working together on a project, they may work  best by sending drafts back and forth to each other, commenting and revis- ing until they are both pleased with the final draft. This is a common practice in settings where supervisors suggest revisions in the documents that their employees write, or when a writer is collaborating with an editor. When writing in this back- and-forth dialogue, it is important to keep versions of each draft separate, in case the writers decide that an earlier version was more appropriate for the document’s purpose.

■ Synthesis: This approach to team writing works best with two or three writers, and with shorter documents. The team sits together and writes together, adding ideas and commenting on the work as it progresses. This is the most seamlessly collabora- tive approach to writing, and it is most successful when the members of the team have worked together long enough to know each other well.

No matter which of these approaches you use, some common practices will improve any collaborative writing project and will produce a document with a unified voice. The next section describes these practices.

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing62

>>> Collaboration and the Writing Process

Writing collaboratively uses the same steps in the writing process as those introduced in Chapter 2 . The team must identify the purpose of the document and the needs of its audience. It must collect information, plan the document, draft it, and revise it. And the team must do this task together, creating a cohesive and useful document. The following guidelines for successful team writing can be used in this course and throughout your career.

Guidelines for Team Writing >> Team Guideline 1: Get to Know Your Team Most people are sensitive about strangers evaluating their writing. Before collaborating on a writing project, learn as much as you can about those with whom you will be working. Drop by their offices before your first meeting, or talk informally as a group before the writing process begins. In other words, establish a personal relationship first. This familiarity helps set the stage for the spirited dialogue, group criticism, and collaborative writing to follow.

>> Team Guideline 2: Set Clear Goals and Ground Rules Every writing team needs a common understanding of its objectives and procedures for doing business. Either before or during the first meeting, the following questions should be answered:

1. What is the team’s main objective?

2. Who will serve as team leader?

3. What exactly will be the leader’s role in the group?

4. How will the team’s activities be recorded?

5. How will responsibilities be distributed?

6. How will conflicts be resolved?

7. What will the schedule be?

8. What procedures will be followed for planning, drafting, and revising?

The guidelines that follow offer suggestions for answering the preceding questions.

>> Team Guideline 3: Use Brainstorming Techniques for Planning The term brainstorming means to develop ideas in a nonjudgmental fashion. In this early stage, participants should feel free to suggest ideas without criticism by colleagues in the

© momentimages/fotolia

63 Collaboration and the Writing Process

group. The most important rule for effective brainstorming is that there are no bad ideas in the first stages of the process. Later, the team can sift through the results of a brain- storming session to identify the best ideas for the project. This nonjudgmental approach does not come naturally to most people; therefore, the leader may have to establish ground rules for brainstorming before the team proceeds.

Following is one sample approach to brainstorming:

Step 1: The team recorder takes down ideas as quickly as possible.

Step 2: Ideas are written on large pieces of paper affixed to walls around the meeting room so all participants can see how major ideas fit together.

Step 3: Members use ideas as springboards for suggesting other ideas.

Step 4: Before meeting again, the team takes some time to digest ideas generated during the first session.

Results of a brainstorming session might look much like a nonlinear outline produced during a solo writing project. The goal of both is to generate as many ideas as possible; these ideas can be culled and organized later.

>> Team Guideline 4: Use Storyboarding Techniques for Drafting Storyboarding helps propel participants from the brainstorming stage toward completion of a first draft. It also makes visuals an integral part of the document. Originating in the screenwriting trade in Hollywood, the storyboard process can take many forms, depend- ing on the profession and individual organization. In its simplest form, a storyboard can be a sheet of paper or an electronic template that contains (1) one draft-quality illustration and (2) a series of sentences about one topic ( Figure 3–1 ). As applied to technical writing, the technique involves six main steps:

Step 1: The team or its leader assembles a topic outline from the ideas suggested in the brainstorming session.

Step 2: All team members are given one or more topics to develop on storyboard forms.

Step 3: Each member works independently on the boards, creating an illustration and a series of subtopics for each main topic (see Figure 3–1 ).

Step 4: Members meet again to review all completed storyboards, modifying them where necessary and agreeing on key sentences.

Step 5: Individual members develop draft text and related graphics from their own storyboards.

Step 6: The team leader or the entire group assembles the draft from the various storyboards.

DOCUMENT TITLE: M-Global’s Training Needs STORYBOARD TOPIC: Results of employee survey STORYBOARD WRITER: Susan Hernandez 1. In one sentence, summarize this section of the

document.

The recent survey of employees showed a strong preference for nontechnical over technical training.

2. In sentence form, include the key points to be developed in this document section. Put the points in the same order in which they will appear in the document. A. The greatest interest was in the area of sales and

marketing training—engineers, in particular, feel deficient here.

B. Many employees also wanted further train- ing in project management—with an emphasis on scheduling, accounting practices, and basic management.

C. The third-most-called-for training area was communication skills—that is, report writing, grammar, and oral presentations.

D. Many employees want training in stress management to reduce or manage on-the-job pressures and make work more enjoyable.

100

Percentage of respondents expressing strong interest in various types of training

90% Sales & marketing training

70% Project management

55% Communication skills

45% Stress management

25% Technical training

Caption: Training Interests of M-Global Employees

(The five most popular training topics, according to company-wide employee survey.)

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

E. The fifth area of interest was technical training in the respondents’ own area of expertise.

3. Include an illustration that supports the text in this document section.

■ Figure 3–1 ■ Completed storyboard

64

65 Collaboration and the Writing Process

>> Team Guideline 5: Agree on a Thorough Revision Process As with drafting, all members usually help with revision. Team editing can be difficult, however, as members strive to reach consensus on matters of style. Following are some suggestions for keeping the editing process on track:

■ Avoid making changes simply for the sake of individual preference.

■ Search for areas of agreement among team members, rather than areas of disagreement.

■ Make only those changes that can be supported by accepted rules of style, grammar, and use.

■ Ask the team’s best all-round stylist to do a final edit.

This review will help produce a uniform document, no matter how many people work on the draft.

>> Team Guideline 6: Use Computers to Communicate

When team members are at different locations, computer technology can be used to complete part of the project or even the entire project. Team members must have personal com- puters and the software to connect their machines to a net- work, which allows members to send and receive information online. See pages 75–76 in this chapter for information about tools for communication among teams.

Planning Like any writing project, team projects must be planned carefully. The classic project triangle includes three elements: time, money, and scope (see Figure 3–2 ). The triangle shows how elements of a project are connected. If one of the elements changes, the oth- ers must change as well. For example, if the time allotted to a project is shortened, but the scope of the project is to remain the same, then the money spent on the project will have to increase, as more team members are brought in to complete the project in the new, shorter time frame.

The scope of the project includes its quality, as well as its size. As part of the plan- ning process, you must state clearly the desired outcome of the project. How will you know if you have completed it successfully? Your team’s goal should be more than simply producing the required deliverables, or products to be submitted at the end of the project. You should decide which outcomes will measure the success of the project, how best to create deliverables that have the characteristics of the successful project, and which tasks are necessary to complete each deliverable. Figure 3–3 illustrates how these elements of a project are related.

The Planning Form in the back of this book can be used for team writing in the same way that you use it for individual writing projects. Begin by identifying your audience. Who will be reading this document? What will they expect to learn from it? You should

Team Writing Guidelines

■ Get to know your team

■ Set clear goals and ground rules

■ Use brainstorming techniques for planning

■ Use storyboarding techniques for drafting

■ Agree on a thorough revision process

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing66

also identify the stakeholders in your team project. Obviously, the team members them- selves have a stake in the success of the project, but there are others who will be inter- ested in its success as well. They may include members of management, employees in other departments, and the organization as a whole. Clients are important stakeholders, especially if they have hired your organization for the project that your team is working

MoneyTime

Scope

■ Figure 3–2 ■ The Project Triangle

Outcome

Deliverable Deliverable Deliverable

Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task

Project

Outcome

■ Figure 3–3 ■ Elements of a successful project

67 Teamwork

on. If a client hired your organization for a project such as creating a Web site or training materials, you should work closely with the client and consider the client’s representative a member of your team.

Budgeting Time and Money Once the team has identified the tasks to be accomplished, it should identify benchmarks — the deadlines for specific tasks that keep the project focused and on schedule. These benchmarks vary from project to project, but common benchmarks for writing projects include the following:

■ Completion of preliminary research

■ Organization of collected information

■ Planning of graphics

■ Completion of first draft

■ Editing of late draft

■ Document design

■ Publication of document

After identifying the benchmarks, your team can plan the calendar for the project. It is rare for a team to be able to set its own deadline. The deadline for a team project has usually been imposed from outside, so it is helpful to backplan the schedule for the project. Backplanning begins with the due date and works backward. For example, if a project is due July 1, the project coordinator may ask how long it will take to complete the final edit on your document. If the final edit will take two days, then the benchmark to have the draft ready is June 28. Working backward through the benchmarks that the team has identified, the project manager plans the rest of the schedule.

A team may also have to work within a monetary budget. From the beginning of the project, it should know how much it has to spend on its project. If team members must travel to collect information, the project manager must make sure that the needed funds are available. Team members should also be familiar with their organization’s policies concerning copying expenses, meals, and so on. A team may have to work within a bud- get for publication of the final document, especially if the document is being created for a client. From the early stages of planning the project, the document’s format and use of color should be planned with the budget in mind.

>>> Teamwork Some organizations have standing teams for common types of projects such as proposal writing, or for ongoing projects such as compliance with regulations. Teams may also be temporary, coming together for one project and then separating, each member mov- ing on to another project. Whether you are an engineer creating a document with other engineers, a technical communicator assigned to a company branch, or a documentation

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing68

specialist on a cross-functional team (a team that includes people from different depart- ments, each contributing his or her own expertise to the project), you should understand and stay focused on the project goals.

Roles for Team Members Whether the team is a permanent (or standing) team or one that has been brought to- gether for a single project, it is important to be aware of the roles that team members play. Begin by identifying the skills that each member can contribute to the project and assign tasks based on those skills. Don’t just assume that skills are limited to the team members’ job titles. In the example at the beginning of this chapter, Scott is an engineer, but he has moved into a supervisory position in Research and Development because of his creativity and his communication skills. Effective teams include the following roles:

■ The team leader is the central contact person for team members and is also the contact for people who aren’t on the team. This person may also be working as the man- ager for the project.

■ The planning coordinator is responsible for managing communication among team members, for keeping track of benchmarks and deadlines, and for preparing for

meetings. On small teams, the team leader may serve as the plan- ning coordinator.

■ The archivist keeps minutes of meetings, copies of all writ- ten communication, and copies of all written material related to the project. At the end of the project, the archivist creates the material that is stored in the organization’s library or archives.

■ Devil’s advocate is a role that often occurs spontaneously, as one member of a team raises concerns or points out problems. This is an important role, and the devil’s advocate helps prevent groupthink, which occurs when the members of a group stop looking critically at the work they are doing and begin to echo each other. Some teams formally assign this role, rotating it from meeting to meeting. If you find yourself raising concerns about a project dur- ing a meeting, it is helpful to announce, “I’m just playing devil’s advocate here, but . . .” as a way to keep the focus on the project and avoid making disagreements personal.

Running Effective Meetings Like formal presentations, meetings are a form of spoken communication that go hand in hand with written work. Important reports and proposals—even many routine ones— are often followed or preceded by a meeting. For example, you may meet with your col- leagues to prepare a team-written report, with your clients to discuss a proposal, or with your department staff to outline recommendations to appear in a yearly report to man- agement. This section will make you a first-class meeting leader by (1) highlighting some

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69 Teamwork

common problems with meetings, along with their associated costs to organizations, and (2) describing guidelines for overcoming these problems.

Common Problems With Meetings Following are six major complaints about meetings held in all types of organizations:

1. They start and end too late.

2. Their purpose is unclear.

3. Not everyone in the meeting really needs to be there.

4. Conversations get off the track.

5. Some people dominate, and others do not contribute at all.

6. Meetings end with no sense of accomplishment.

As a result of these frustrations, career professionals waste much of their time in poorly run meetings.

Because they waste participants’ time, bad meetings also waste a lot of money. To find out what meetings cost an organization, do this rough calculation. Use information about an organization for which you work or for which a friend or family member works.

1. Take the average weekly number of meetings in an office.

2. Multiply that number by the average length of each meeting, in hours.

3. Multiply the result of Step 2 by the average number of participants in each meeting.

4. Multiply the result of Step 3 by the average hourly salary of the participants or the amount billable for their time.

The result, which may surprise you, is the average weekly cost of meetings in the office that you investigated. With these heavy costs in mind, the next section presents some simple guidelines for running good meetings.

Guidelines for Good Meetings When you choose (or are chosen) to run a meeting, your professional reputation is at stake—as are the costs just mentioned. Therefore, it is in your own best interests to make sure meetings run well. When you are a meeting participant, you also have an obligation to speak up and help accomplish the goals of the meeting.

The guidelines that follow help create successful meetings. They fall into three main stages:

Stage 1: Before the meeting (Guidelines 1–4)

Stage 2: During the meeting (Guidelines 5–9)

Stage 3: After the meeting (Guideline 10)

These 10 guidelines apply to working meetings—that is, those in which participants use their talents to accomplish specific objectives. Such meetings usually involve a lot

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing70

of conversation. The guidelines do not apply as well to informational meetings, where a large num- ber of people are assembled primarily to listen to announcements.

>> Meeting Guideline 1: Involve Only Necessary People

Necessary means those people who, because of their position or knowledge, can contribute to the meet- ing. Your goal should be a small working group; an ideal size is four to six people. If others must know what occurs, send them a copy of the minutes after the meeting.

>> Meeting Guideline 2: Distribute an Agenda Before the Meeting A meeting agenda should identify the objectives of the session ( Model 3–1 , on page  85 ) clearly and should include a report by each team member, sharing what he or she has accomplished since the last meeting. The agenda also gives you, as leader, a way to keep the meeting on schedule. If you are worried about having time to cover the agenda items, consider attaching time limits to each item. This technique helps the meeting leader keep the discussion moving.

>> Meeting Guideline 3: Distribute Readings Before the Meeting Jealously guard time at a meeting, making sure to use it for productive discussion. If any member has reading materials that committee members should review as a basis for these discussions, such readings should be handed out ahead of time. Do not use meeting time for reading. Even worse, do not refer to handouts that all members have not had the op- portunity to go over.

>> Meeting Guideline 4: Have Only One Meeting Leader To prevent confusion, one person should always be in charge. The meeting leader should be able to perform the following tasks:

■ Listen carefully so that all views get a fair hearing.

■ Generalize accurately so that earlier points can be brought back into the discussion when appropriate.

■ Give credit to participants so that they receive reinforcement for their efforts.

■ Move toward consensus so that the meeting does not involve endless discussion.

>> Meeting Guideline 5: Start and End on Time Nothing deadens a meeting more than a late start, particularly when it is caused by people arriving late. Tardy participants are given no incentive to arrive on time when a meeting leader waits for them. Even worse, prompt members become demoralized by

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71 Teamwork

such delays. Latecomers will mend their ways if you make a practice of starting right on time.

It is also important to set an ending time for meetings so the members have a clear view of the time available. Most people do their best work in the first hour of a meeting. After that, productive discussion reaches a point of diminishing returns. If working meetings must last longer than an hour, make sure to build in short breaks and stay on the agenda.

>> Meeting Guideline 6: Keep Meetings on Track By far, the biggest challenge for a meeting leader is to encourage open discussion while still moving toward the resolution of agenda items. As a leader, you must be assertive yet tactful in your efforts to discourage the following three main time wasters:

■ Long-winded digressions by the entire committee

■ Domination by one or two outspoken participants

■ Interruptions from outside the meeting

>> Meeting Guideline 7: Strive for Consensus Consensus means agreement by all those present. Your goal should be to orchestrate a meeting in which all members, after a bit of compromise, feel comfortable with a deci- sion. Such a compromise, when it flows from healthy discussion, is far preferable to a decision generated by voting on alternatives. After all, you are trying to reach a conclu- sion that everyone helps produce, rather than one only part of the committee embraces.

>> Meeting Guideline 8: Use Visuals Graphics help make points more vivid at a meeting. They are especially useful for record- ing ideas that are being generated rapidly during a discussion. To this end, you may want someone from outside the discussion to write important points on a flip chart, a white- board, or an overhead transparency.

>> Meeting Guideline 9: End With a Summary Before the meeting adjourns, take a few minutes to summarize what items have been discussed and agreed to. Review the team’s progress toward benchmarks and project outcomes. This wrap- up gives everyone the opportunity to clarify any point brought up during the meeting. Also, identify clearly what each team mem- ber is responsible for accomplishing before the next meeting.

>> Meeting Guideline 10: Distribute Minutes Soon Write and send out minutes within 48 hours of the meeting ( Model 3–2 , on page 86). It is important that there be a re- cord of the meeting’s accomplishments, even if it is a routine meeting. Meeting minutes should include the date and loca- tion of the meeting, list attendees and absences, and summarize

Meeting Guidelines

■ Involve only necessary people

■ Distribute an agenda before the meeting

■ Distribute readings before the meeting

■ Have only one meeting leader

■ Start and end on time

■ Keep meetings on track

■ Strive for consensus

■ Use visuals

■ End with a summary

■ Distribute minutes soon

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing72

discussions and decisions. If any discussion items are particularly controversial, consider having committee members approve the minutes with their signature and return them to you before final distribution.

Writers and Subject Matter Experts Many articles have been written about the importance of collaboration between techni- cal communicators and the engineers, programmers, scientists, and other specialists that they work with. These subject matter experts ( SMEs, often pronounced “smees”) often contribute the technical content of documents, just as technical communicators con- tribute their expertise in document design, writing, and editing. Good communication is important from the beginning of any project on which technical communicators and SMEs are collaborating. A SME’s misunderstanding of what technical communicators contribute to a project is one common cause of frustration for documentation special- ists. However, a lack of technical knowledge on the part of the technical communica- tors can frustrate the SMEs. By keeping a few important guidelines in mind, technical communicators and SMEs can collaborate more effectively.

Guidelines for Collaborating With SMEs >> Technical Communicator Guideline 1: Use the SME’s

Time Wisely Do your background research before contacting the SME. Don’t waste the specialist’s time with questions that can be answered through other sources.

>> Technical Communicator Guideline 2: Put Questions in Writing When Possible

Make sure that e-mail questions are clear. You won’t get use- ful answers if your questions are ambiguous or confusing.

>> Technical Communicator Guideline 3: Prepare for Interviews and Meetings

Have clear goals. If you want to ask for feedback on documentation, send it to the SME beforehand and bring a copy with you.

>> Technical Communicator Guideline 4: Treat the SME With Respect

When you are making changes in text that has been supplied by a technical specialist, remember that you are reading a draft, not a polished document. Never make negative comments to other employees (includ- ing fellow writers) about the writing ability of SMEs.

Guidelines for Collaborating With Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)

■ Use the SME’s time wisely

■ Put questions in writing when possible

■ Prepare for interviews and meetings

■ Treat the SME with respect

© Tan4ikk/Dreamstime.com

73 Tools for Collaboration

Guidelines for Being a Collaborative SME >> SME Guideline 1: Keep Technical Communicators Informed Provide technical communicators with the information they need, even if they don’t ask for it. This includes keeping them informed of changes or updates of products or projects that they are documenting.

>> SME Guideline 2: Respond to E-mails and Phone Calls Promptly If you aren’t sure what is being requested, ask for clarification. If you are being asked to a meeting or an interview, make time for it. Delays in providing necessary information to a documentation specialist can delay an entire project.

>> SME Guideline 3: Prepare for Interviews and Meetings Find out ahead of time what you are going to be asked to explain or provide. Have all appropriate prototypes, samples, or products on hand, if possible. If something comes up that you can’t answer right away, make a note of it and respond as soon as possible.

>> SME Guideline 4: Treat the Technical Communicator With Respect

A technical communicator’s revision of text that you provided is not a criticism of your writing ability. The changes were probably made to shift the focus of the text to the users’ needs. Clearly written documenta- tion is an important part of a well-run organization, as well as of the products or services that your organiza- tion provides to its clients.

The principles discussed in this section of the chapter will help your team work smoothly to achieve its goals. The next section of the chapter explains how your team can use technology to make collaboration easier.

>>> Tools for Collaboration Technology for collaboration is changing rapidly. It seems as if new ways to communicate and collaborate are being introduced every week. Whatever tools your team is using, the principles of good collaboration remain the same. This section explains technology tools for planning, communicating, and writing in teams.

Planning Tools Project coordinators have long used schedule charts to check team progress on tasks, benchmarks, and outcomes. They have also tracked budgets and recorded activities of team members. Today, you can use project management software to help you plan your

Guidelines for Being a Collaborative Subject Matter Expert

■ Keep technical communicators informed

■ Respond to e-mails and phone calls promptly

■ Prepare for interviews and meetings

■ Treat the technical communicator with respect

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing74

project, create schedule charts, and keep track of the progress toward the benchmarks that your team has set.

Schedule charts provide a graphic representation of a project plan. Many documents, especially proposals and feasibility studies, include schedule charts to show readers when specific activities will be accomplished. Often called a milestone or Gantt chart (after Henry Laurence Gantt, 1861–1919), the schedule chart usually includes these parts ( Figure 3–4 ):

■ Vertical axis, which lists the various parts of the project, in sequential order

■ Horizontal axis, which registers the appropriate time units

■ Horizontal bar lines (Gantt) or separate markers (milestone), which show the starting and ending times for each task

Follow these basic guidelines for constructing effective schedule charts for your projects:

>> Schedule Chart Guideline 1: Include Only Main Activities Keep readers focused on no more than 10 or 15 main activities. If more detail is needed, construct a series of schedule charts linked to the main “overview” chart.

Project phases

Gantt

Milestone

Select team

Hold meetings

Select software

Design system

Test system

1

Project parts

1 2 3 4 5 6

Days

7 8 9 10 11 12

2 3 4 5

Weeks

6 7 8 9 10

On-site research

Off-site research

Outline work

Drafting process

■ Figure 3–4 ■ Gantt and milestone schedule charts

75 Tools for Collaboration

>> Schedule Chart Guideline 2: List Activities in Sequence, Starting at the Top of the Chart

As shown in Figure 3–4 , the convention is to list activities from the top to the bottom of the vertical axis. Thus the readers’ eyes move from the top left to the bottom right of the page, the most natural flow for most readers of English.

>> Schedule Chart Guideline 3: Create New Formats When Needed Figure 3–4 shows only two common types of schedule charts; you should devise your own hybrid form when it suits your purposes. Your goal is to find the simplest format for helping team members know when a task will be completed, when a product will be delivered, and so forth. Figure 3–5 includes one such variation.

>> Schedule Chart Guideline 4: Be Realistic About the Schedule

Schedule charts can come back to haunt you if you do not include feasible deadlines. As you set dates for activities, be realistic about the likely time in which something can be accomplished. Your managers and cli- ents understand delays caused by weather, equipment breakdowns, and other unforeseen events. However, they will be less charitable about schedule errors that result from sloppy planning.

Communication Tools Face-to-face meetings are the best way to keep a team running smoothly. Today, how- ever, many teams are spread across different company branches and even different coun- tries, so face-to-face meetings aren’t always possible. However, it is beneficial if teams can meet in person at least once at the beginning of a project and once near the end of a project. This section describes three specific computer applications that can improve communication among the members of a team-writing project: e-mail, computer confer- ences, and groupware.

Computers can be used to overcome many obstacles for writers and editors in differ- ent locations. Indeed, electronic communication can help accomplish all the guidelines in

January February March

Receive RFP

Distribute RFP

Finish 1st draft

Finish 2nd draft

Hold brainstorming

meeting

Hold review

meeting

Hold review

meeting

Do final edit

Submit proposal

Start Red Team process

Print and bind

■ Figure 3–5 ■ Schedule chart variation

Schedule Chart Guidelines

■ Include only main activities

■ List activities in sequence, starting at the top of the chart

■ Create new formats when needed

■ Be realistic about the schedule

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing76

this chapter. Specifically, (1) e-mail can be used by group members to get to know each other; (2) e-mail or a computer conference can be used to establish goals and ground rules; and (3) computer conferences, combined with groupware, can approximate the storyboard process.

■ Electronic mail (e-mail): Team members can send and receive messages from their office computers or from remote locations. They can also attach documents in a variety of forms. When attaching a document to an e-mail, you should identify it by file name and type of document (e.g., as a PDF) in the e-mail.

■ Computer conference: Members of a team can make their own comments and respond to comments of others on a specific topic or project. Computer conferences may be conducted through text (instant messaging or discussion group), audio, video, or a combination of these. They may be open to all interested users or open only to a par- ticular group. For the purposes of collaborative writing, the conference will probably be open only to members of the writing team. A leader may be chosen to monitor the con- tributions and keep the discussion focused. Contributions through a discussion list may be made over a long period, as opposed to a conventional face-to-face meeting, where all team members are present at the same time. Comments accumulated in the conference can be organized or indexed by topic. The conference may be used to brainstorm and thus to generate ideas for a project, or it may be used for comments at a later stage of the writing project.

■ Groupware: Computer conferences may take place with the help of group- ware, or software programs that create an electronic space where members can com- municate, and where all communications are recorded for future reference. Groupware may provide access to e-mail, electronic announcements, calendars, discussion lists, and chat rooms with electronic whiteboards where participants can write and sketch together.

Granted, such techniques lack the body language used in face-to-face meetings. Yet when personal meetings are not possible, computerized communication allow writers in different locations to work together to meet their deadline.

Writing Tools Although it may be useful for all members of a writing team to meet together to review drafts, technology makes it possible for members of a team to work on the same copy of a document. Thus keeping track of changes and ensuring that everyone has the most recent version of a document ( version control ) become much easier. This section describes four specific computer applications that can improve communication among members of a team writing project: reviewing tools, wikis, groupware, and modular writing.

■ Reviewing tools: Chapter 2 describes how writers can use the reviewing tools in most word-processing programs to track the changes during the editing process. Teams can use the same tools in their collaborative projects. These tools can be used in a sequen- tial approach to writing, as one writer passes the document along to another, or they

77 Tools for Collaboration

can be used on documents that are stored in a common space, such as a shared folder on a company intranet, or stored offsite through a cloud computing service. When writers set their user information in their word-processing program, the reviewing tools will tag changes and comments with each writer’s identification. Figure 3–6 shows two writers’ changes and comments in the same document.

■ Groupware: In addition to being useful for communication, groupware can provide a space for creating documents. Team members using this software can work at the same time, or different times, on any part of a specific document. Groupware that permits contributions at the same time is called synchronous; groupware that permits contributions at different times is called asynchronous. Because team members are at dif- ferent locations, they may also be speaking on the phone at the same time they are writ- ing or editing with synchronous groupware. Such sophisticated software gives writers a much greater capability than simply sending a document over a network for editing or comment. They can collaborate with team members on a document at the same time, almost as if they were in the same room. With several windows on the screen, they can view the document itself on one window and make comments and changes in another window.

■ Wikis: Wikis allow multiple users access to text through a Web site. Wikis can in- clude a single document with multiple sections or multiple related documents. These are seen by readers as pages on a Web site. Wikis may have open access, or access may be re- stricted for editing, or even for reading the contents of the Web site. Wikis can be used for drafting a document that will eventually be published in another form, or they can be used for information that is constantly being updated. Wiki sites can be set up with some of the same project management tools found in groupware: schedules, meeting minutes, and working drafts. Some organizations even use wikis as a sort of off-site intranet, storing data, reports,

■ Figure 3–6 ■ Text showing team members’ markups and comments

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing78

resources, and document templates. This type of storage can be especially useful when sev- eral loosely joined local organizations work together on regional or national projects.

■ Modular Writing: In the past, team members of a collaborative writing project could assume that before the final version of the document was released, they would have a chance to review the entire document. Today, however, the writing process in orga- nizations is changing. Documents are broken into small sections, with different people responsible for each section. Variations of this practice go by many names: single sourc- ing, structured authoring, or content management. In this book we refer to the general process as modular writing .

For example, in a company that produces a number of owner’s manuals for maintenance equipment, several people may share responsibility for all of the documents at once. Figure 3–7 is a representation of how topics are moved into the content database, extracted from the database, and assembled into the final product. One writer may be responsible for

technical descriptions and another for instructions. An engineer may be responsible for technical specifications and a graphic artist may be responsible for schematics and illustra- tions. Each person saves his or her work in a database where it can be accessed by anyone who uses it in a document. If the company sells its products overseas, translators in other countries can begin working on sections of a user’s manual as soon as the individual sec- tions are saved to the server, instead of waiting to receive the whole document before translation begins.

These modules are then assembled into final, polished documents. The Web master may use modules to create product descriptions, “About us” pages, and a list of Frequently Asked Questions. Someone writing a proposal to sell the equipment to a client may use the technical description and specifications. A user’s manual can be assembled from the elements that are specific to the equipment and to the user’s needs.

In its simplest form, modular text is boilerplate, text that can be reused in a number of contexts and applications. Organizations have long used boilerplate text to make the creation of documents efficient and to ensure consistency in all documents. Model 3–3 , on page 87 is an example of modular writing at M-Global. The information about the

Modular writing: A process in which large documents are broken down into smaller elements, and different people are given responsibility for each element. These smaller elements are usually stored electronically so that they can be retrieved and edited or assembled into larger documents, help files, or Web pages as they are needed.

Sales Proposal

User’s Guide

Web site

Text

Spec sheets

Text

Translators

Schematics Artists

Engineers

Writers

Database of

modules

■ Figure 3–7 ■ Movement of modules in a Content Management System

79 Tools for Collaboration

organization’s history is used in sales brochures, proposals, and annual reports, and on the company Web site.

Modules can also be created with conditional text, text that is tagged for specific con- texts. Figure 3–8 is an example of modular writing with conditional text. This introduc- tion to the company includes conditional text that is coded for use in different types of documents. The information that appears in blue can be used in marketing materials like sales brochures or the company Web site. The information that appears in red is used in more formal documents like reports and proposals.

Modular writing requires careful planning. The writing team must identify all the elements needed in the final project and must assign those elements to different writers. Individual writers may never see a draft of the complete document. In order to ensure consistency throughout all documents created from the separate elements, the writing team must create a thorough style guide and adhere to it, even if the team includes an edi- tor whose job is to check all documents for consistency.

Although organizations that begin using modular writing face many challenges, it has benefits that make the effort worthwhile. If a product is improved, the elements that are affected by the change can be updated easily. Then, any documentation about the prod- uct includes accurate information automatically. In the M-Global history in Model 3–3 , new information about the organization’s accomplishments can be added to the source element, and then all documents that use this history are automatically updated before they

About Us M-Global, Inc., was founded in 1963 as McDuff, Inc., by Rob McDuff, as a firm that specialized in soils analysis. Since then, [we have][M-Global has] added hazardous waste management and cleanup, equipment development, business services, and documentation services.

[Our][M-Global’s] teams [ensure][have ensured] compliance with construction codes and quality of materials in road, dam, and building construction projects such as the Nevada Gold Dome, with a savings to[our][the] client of $100,000. [We protect][M-Global has protected] threatened and endangered ecosystems by conducting rigorous environmental impact studies. [We help][M-Global’s con- sultants have helped] organizations improve their internal operations and client services—in 2008, Kansans for Security and Privacy awarded [us][M-Global] the Peace of Mind Award for [our][its] work with the Kansas Department of Social and Health Services security protocols.

Today, after 50 years of business, M-Global, Inc., has about 2,500 employees. There are nine offices in the United States and six overseas, as well as a corporate headquarters in Baltimore. What started as a technical consulting engineering firm has expanded into a firm that does [quality][both] technical and nontechnical work for a variety of customers.

■ Figure 3–8 ■ Example of a module with conditional text

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing

are printed or published electronically. Because all the updates are kept in one file, no one can miss an important update.

Of course, if you are not careful, computers can create problems during a collabora- tive writing project. When different parts of a document have been written and stored by different writers, your team must be vigilant during the final editing and proofreading stages. Before submitting the document, review it for consistency and correctness.

>>> Chapter Summary

■ Team members may choose from various approaches to writing collaboratively, including divide and conquer, specialization, sequential writing, writing in dialogue, or using synthesis. The choice depends on the number of team members, the working style of the team members, and how much experience a team has together.

■ To be effective, teams should get to know each other; set clear goals and ground rules; agree on the prewriting, drafting, and revising processes; and use electronic tools for communication.

■ Collaborative projects require thorough planning to identify the goals of the project and the tasks necessary to reach those goals. Time and money should be carefully bud- geted as part of the planning process.

■ Every project needs an effective team leader, as well as a planning coordinator, an archivist, and a devil’s advocate. One team member may take on multiple roles.

■ Effective meetings are essential to successful team projects. The goal of each meeting should be clear beforehand, meetings should be organized and focused on specific tasks, and meeting minutes should be distributed to all team members as soon as possible following the meeting.

■ Writers and subject matter experts (SMEs) can improve their collaboration by treating each other with respect and understanding each other’s needs for completion of their project.

■ Software for project planning includes tools for creating, following, and revising schedules and calendars quickly and easily.

■ E-mail, computer conferences, and groupware can make communication among team members easier and can provide a record of all communications.

■ Reviewing tools, groupware, wikis, and modular writing provide new ways for writers to collaborate throughout the writing process.

80

Learning Portfolio

The Research and Training Division of M-Global is respon-

sible for all in-house documentation, especially docu-

mentation of new equipment that has been created by the

Equipment Design Lab teams. This documentation is usually

written by cross-functional teams that are brought together

for a specific project. (A cross-functional team includes people

from different departments, each contributing his or her own

expertise to the project.) A documentation team has been as-

sembled to create a user’s manual for a new Lab-in-A-Box.

This case provides background about the equipment, infor-

mation about the team members, and information from the

team’s first meeting. It ends with questions and comments

for discussion and an assignment for a written response to

the Challenge.

Background on Soils LABs The new Lab-in-A-Box (LAB) improves field testing for con-

taminated soils. The Soils LAB includes equipment for col-

lecting soil samples and analyzing them chemically, a new

sensor for measuring for volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

at and below the surface (see page 60 at the beginning of this

chapter), and a notebook computer equipped with GPS and

satellite communication capabilities so that the data gath-

ered in the field can be analyzed and reports can be easily

sent to M-Global labs, government agencies, and clients.

Documentation Team The documentation team consists of team leader Rob Mc-

Culley, a documentation specialist; Mike Sealy, an engi-

neer who helped develop the new sensor and who is the

coauthor of a white paper about the sensor; Shauna Hill, an

M-Global chemist; and Joe Freeman, an editor from the Pub-

lications Development Department.

The First Meeting After all the team members have introduced themselves

at the first meeting, they begin brainstorming about what

should be included in the manual. Mike wants to include

detailed descriptions of the equipment in the Soils LAB.

He argues that the people using it in the field must have a

thorough understanding of the new sensor, including how

it was developed and its improvements over older equip-

ment. With this information, Mike argues, the users will

understand how to take care of the equipment, how to use

it, and how to fix it if something goes wrong. Shauna ar-

gues that because the Soils LAB will be used in the field, a

complete user’s manual isn’t necessary. All that is needed

is a sort of quick reference to remind people what steps

to take to make sure that the tests are accurate and the

results are reliable. After all, she argues, the technicians

using the LAB will have been trained on it, and with the

notebook computer, it will be easy to contact a specialist

for troubleshooting help. Joe agrees with Shauna that a

large user’s manual doesn’t make much sense, and he sug-

gests that they begin by deciding what format they will use

for the information in the manual. He suggests a booklet,

or maybe a quick reference sheet attached to the lid of the

box. He adds that a help file can be installed on the note-

book computer for more complete information about topics

such as maintenance and troubleshooting. Mike likes the

help file idea because it doesn’t have the size limitations of

a printed manual.

After an hour of discussion, Rob hands out assignments

for the next meeting. Joe will create a framework for the

help files, Mike will draft information about the sensor, and

Shauna will draft instructions for the gathering and analysis

of data. After a little more discussion, the team decides that

it would be helpful to watch the Soils LAB used on-site and to

be able to use it themselves. Rob knows that he has a limited

budget for this project, but he might be able to argue that

one or two people should be sent to a brownfield or other

site with known soil contamination to try out the Soils LAB

themselves.

Questions and Comments for Discussion

As Rob sits down to read through his notes and write up

the minutes of the first meeting, he thinks about the dis-

cussion during the meeting. Although the members of the

team have very different backgrounds (and priorities), they

seem to get along well, and they respect each other. They

even built on each other’s ideas during the brainstorming.

However, he wonders if he should have started the meet-

ing by discussing the contents of the manual, as the team

hasn’t discussed that issue yet.

Consider the following questions, questions that Rob

begins asking himself as he prepares his minutes and the

agenda for the next meeting:

1. What should the team focus on first as they are

planning this project? The users? The equipment? The

physical context in which the Soils LAB will be used?

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge A Field Guide: Planning a User’s Manual

81

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing82

The format that the manual will take? The timeline and

budget? Whichever focus you choose, explain why it

should be the first step in planning the user’s manual.

2. What should the team know about the people who will

be using the Soils LAB, and where they will be using it,

in order to decide what should go in the user’s guide?

3. What is each member of the team advocating for?

What does this reveal about each person’s interest in

the project? How should the team leader deal with the

competing interests?

4. Identify all of the stakeholders in this project. Think

about everyone who will have an interest in the

successful use of the Soils LABs. Which of these

stakeholders is most important to the documentation

team? Why?

5. Think about user’s guides that you have seen for

portable equipment. How and where were they

meant to be used? What was the effect on the

content and design of the guide? How might lessons

from the guides you have seen be applied to the

M-Global situation?

Write About It

Assume the role of Rob McCulley. Write minutes for the

meeting that your team has just finished, and write an

agenda for your next team meeting.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six stu-

dents, (2) will use time inside or outside of class to complete

the case, and (3) will produce an oral or written response. For

guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Academic advising can be one of the most important, as

well as the most confusing, activities for college students,

especially for students who are going through the process

for the first time. Students depend on advice from other

students, from seminars and workshops, and from teach-

ers. This advice may not always fit the student’s situation,

or the steps for advising and enrollment may change. This

assignment asks you to create a document or Web page to

help your fellow students get the most out of advising.

Team Assignment In your teams, brainstorm the questions that you have

had about advising and enrollment. What advice would

you give to fellow students? Identify what the steps are in

the process, where information is currently available, and

what the other sources of information are (such as faculty

members, the Registrar’s Office, or Student Services). Your

instructor may assign a team leader or ask each team to

choose its own leader. Decide what information you must

gather, how you will gather it, and how you are going to

make it available to fellow students. Your team should also

decide what approach it will take to gathering and writing

the information—divide and conquer, writing in sequence,

or working at the same time (see page 61 ).

Your instructor may decide to make this an assignment

in modular writing. If so, the class can brainstorm about the

content and sources of information, and then teams will

be assigned specific tasks. One team will be responsible for

creating style guidelines and a document template to en-

sure a uniform voice and appearance throughout the docu-

ment. This team, or another team (depending on how large

the class is), will also have responsibility for the final edit-

ing on the project. Other teams will be assigned to gather

information from various sources and to write specific sec-

tions of the document. Your instructor will help you decide

how your project will be made available to students.

Collaboration at Work Advice About Advising

Assignments Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. Your instructor will ask you to prepare a re-

sponse that can be delivered as an oral presentation for dis-

cussion in class. Analyze the context of each Assignment by

considering what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context

of technical writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be

written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

Learning Portfolio 83

1. Analysis: Survey—Your Experience With Teams

Answer the following questions about your experience col-

laborating on projects, either in school or at work. In teams

of five or more, compile and present information in a mean-

ingful way. Discuss the responses.

A. Briefly describe your experiences with the following:

■ Divide and conquer: The team planned the project together and randomly assigned tasks to each

member.

■ Specialization: The team planned the project together and assigned tasks according to each

person’s expertise.

■ Sequence: One person drafted the project, passed it along to the next person who revised the

project, who passed it along to the next person,

and so on.

■ Dialogue: Two people worked on the project; one drafted it and gave it to the other, who revised it and

returned it for more revisions, until both partners

were happy with the result (or until the deadline).

■ Synthesis: Two or three people created the project together, working side by side. Every responsibility in

the project was shared completely.

B. What makes a good member of a project team?

C. What problems have you encountered in collaborative projects?

2. Analysis: Boilerplate Text This book uses boilerplate text in multiple passages in each

Learning Portfolio. Analyze the material in the Learning

Portfolio sections of several chapters to identify the boiler-

plate. Why do you think the authors chose to reuse these

passages in each chapter?

3. Analysis: Wiki Rules for Contributors Find and read the rules for contributors for a popular wiki

Web site like Wikipedia or Wiki How. These wiki Web sites

have been criticized for unreliable content. How do the cre-

ators of the wiki Web site try to respond to the criticisms

that the material is not trustworthy?

4. Practice: Schedule Charts Using any options discussed in this chapter, draw a sched-

ule chart that reflects your work on one of the following:

■ A project at work

■ A laboratory course at school

■ A lengthy project in a course such as this one

All of the following assignments should be completed in

teams of four or five students:

5. Practice: Short Report In teams, write a brief evaluation of the teaching effective-

ness of either the room in which your class is held or some

other room or building of your instructor’s choice. In follow-

ing the tasks listed in this chapter, the team must establish

criteria for the evaluation, apply these criteria, and report

on the results.

Your brief report should have three parts: (1) a one-

paragraph summary of the room’s effectiveness, (2) a list

of the criteria used for evaluation, and (3) details of how the

room met or did not meet the criteria you established.

Besides preparing the written report, be prepared to

discuss the relative effectiveness with which the team fol-

lowed this chapter’s guidelines for collaborative writing.

What problems were encountered? How did you overcome

them? How would you do things differently next time?

6. Practice, M-Global Context: Computer Communication

For this assignment you will (a) work in teams established

by your instructor, (b) use the materials in the Welcome to

M-Global booklet in Model 1–1 on pages 25–34 to write a one-

page background information document (a backgrounder)

that will be placed in the “Press Room” section of the

M-Global Web site.

In addition, you are to conduct at least part of your

team business by e-mail. The degree to which your team

uses e-mail depends on the technical resources of the team

members and the campus. At a minimum, you should plan

for each member to send a message to every other mem-

ber concerning, for example, the drafting or editing process.

At a maximum, and if computer resources permit, you may

develop on-screen windows where you conduct a conver-

sation with each fellow member in one window and make

changes in text in another window. The point of this assign-

ment, in other words, is for team members to use e-mail

substantively to communicate with each other during the

completion of team projects.

7. Practice: Computer Communication If your campus computer facilities permit, set up a group-

ware folder with members of a writing team to which you

have been assigned by your instructor. Decide on a topic on

which you and your team members will write. Each team

member should post one short document to the folder,

and each team member should contribute to the other

documents in the folder. Print the contents of the team’s

folder and submit it to your instructor. Depending on the

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing84

instructions you have been given, this assignment may be in-

dependent or it may be related to a larger collaborative writing

assignment.

8. Practice: Research and Presentation Using the working teams your instructor has established,

collect information on collaborative learning and then make

a brief oral presentation on your findings to the entire class.

Your sources may involve print media or Internet sources.

9. Ethics Assignment Create an evaluation sheet that could be used for any col-

laborative projects that your instructor assigns. Decide if

the whole team should sign one document or if individu-

als should write their own. Explain your decision in a cover

memo to your instructor.

10. International Communication Assignment

This chapter offers guidelines on team writing because col-

laborative communication is essential for success in most

careers. However, world cultures differ in the degree to

which they use and require collaboration on the job. For

this assignment, interview someone who is from a culture

different from your own. Using information supplied by this

informant, write a brief essay in which you (1) describe the

importance of collaboration in the individual’s home cul-

ture and workplace, (2) give specific examples of how and

when collaborative strategies are used, and (3) modify or

expand this chapter’s “Guidelines for Team Writing” to suit

the culture you are describing, on the basis of suggestions

provided by the person you interviewed.

ACTNOW 11. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Find out what resources your campus offers to help stu-

dents find opportunities for community service. Does the

student employment office or another office on campus

keep a list of organizations that are looking for help? Is

there an office in student government that helps cam-

pus and community organizations connect? If so, work-

ing with the campus office, develop materials that help

publicize the student government’s services. If the office

hosts a campuswide initiative, such as a weekend of

cleaning up area parks, create materials to help publicize

the event. If your campus does not have such a resource,

create a proposal for such an office, using the guidelines

in Chapter 12 .

85 Learning Portfolio

■ Model 3–1 ■ Meeting agenda

Slide Presentation Software Training Team Meeting Agenda

To Attend: Sally Harkin, Bill Samuelson, Jody Simmons

From: Jody Simmons

Meeting Date: May 8, 2012

Time: 2:00 p.m.

Place: Conference Room 2

Objective: Compile results of research

Reports: Sally—results of library research

Bill—examples of current M-Global PowerPoint presentations

Jody—results of survey

Action: Begin preparing material for slide presentation workshops

Chapter 3 Collaboration and Writing86

■ Model 3–2 ■ Meeting Minutes

M-Global Slide Presentation Software Training Team Meeting Minutes

Thursday, May 10, 2012 2:00–3:00 Conference Room 2

Attendees: Sally Harkin, Bill Samuelson, Jody Simmons (All members of the M-Global Training Group) Absentees: — Objective: Compile results of research on effective slide presentations to begin

planning of workshops

Sally reported that several published articles make suggestions for effective computer slide presentations. She handed out a summary of the main findings and a bibliography of the articles that she read. She recommended that M-Global use the sentence/graphic design described by Michael Alley and Kathryn A. Neeley in their article “Rethinking the Design of Presentation Slides: A Case for Sentence Headlines and Visual Evidence” in Technical Communication’ s November 2005 issue.

Bill shared 10 examples of past and current slide presentations given by a variety of M-Global divisions, branches, and departments. Four were chosen to use as good examples to build on during the training workshops. It was decided that it would be more productive to focus on good examples instead of singling out bad examples.

Bill recommended that the team create an M-Global slide presentation template to be placed on the company server and made available to all employees.

Jody shared the results of a survey of M-Global managers. The survey revealed that slide presentation software was used most commonly in North America and in Europe. It was used for internal meetings about 70% of the time, and for presentations to potential or existing clients about 30% of the time. Most external presentations were made at meetings of fewer than 20 people. About 15 percent of internal presentations were made to large groups of 50 or more.

The majority of managers agreed that presentation slides were commonly bulleted lists and seemed to be used more for the reference of the speaker than to provide infor- mation for the audience.

Postmeeting actions:

Sally will begin planning activities for the workshops.

Bill will develop the presentation software template.

Jody will begin drafting an introduction to the workshops that explains why effective presentation slides are important to M-Global.

Next meeting:

Wednesday, May 16, 2012, 2:00 p.m. in Conference Room 2

History M-Global, Inc., was founded in 1963 as McDuff, Inc., by Rob McDuff, as a firm that specialized in soils analysis. From its founding in 1963 until about 1967, the company worked mostly for construction firms in the Baltimore area. By the late 1960s, the firm enjoyed a first-rate reputation. It had offices in Baltimore and Boston and about 80 employees.

McDuff, Inc., kept growing steadily, with a large spurt in the mid-1970s and another in the 1980s. The first growth period was tied to increased oil exploration in all parts of the world. Oil firms needed experts to test soils, especially in offshore areas. The results of these projects were used to position oil rigs at locations where they could withstand rough seas. The second growth period was tied to environmental work required by the federal government, state agencies, and private firms. McDuff became a major player in the waste management business, consulting with clients about ways to store or clean up hazardous waste. The third growth period has moved the firm into diverse service industries, such as security systems, hotel management, and landscaping.

In 2008, Rob McDuff announced his retirement and turned the company over to his son Jim. With the change in management, McDuff announced a name change to reflect its more diversified and global scope, becoming M-Global. Although engineer- ing and environmental services still remain important to the company, it has expanded its activities in equipment development and business services. Today, after 50 years of business, M-Global, Inc., has about 2,500 employees. There are nine offices in the United States and six overseas, as well as a corporate headquarters in Baltimore. M-Global performs a wide variety of work. What started as a technical consulting engineering firm has expanded into a firm that does both technical and nontechnical work for a variety of customers.

■ Model 3–3 ■ Example of M-Global Modular Writing

87 Learning Portfolio

88

In this chapter, students will

■ Learn how to organize documents to meet their readers’ needs

■ Learn principles that apply to organizing all documents

■ Learn the ABC format for documents

■ Learn how to use common patterns of organization in document sections

■ Learn how to write cohesive, well-organized paragraphs

■ Learn about the special problems of organizing digital documents

■ Read and analyze model workplace correspondence

>>> Chapter Objectives

Chapter 4 Organizing Information

Photo © Velychko/Shutterstock

89 Importance of Organization

>>> Importance of Organization Poorly organized documents cost time and money at all stages of the writing process. A writer who hasn’t planned the structure of a document wastes valuable time trying to decide what to include, how to divide information into meaningful sections, and how the document will focus on the readers’ needs. A supervisor who receives a poorly organized document knows that he or she won’t be able to send it on but must ask the writer to spend more time revising it. Finally, a poorly organized document wastes the time of readers because they must wade through pages of information, trying to make sense of what they are reading. If they can’t, they will probably set the document to one side, un- read, as a waste of their time.

As you learned in Chapter 2 , your documents will be read by varied readers with diverse technical backgrounds. Given this reader diversity, this chapter aims to answer one essential question: How can you best organize information to satisfy so many different people?

Figure 4–1 shows you three possible options for organizing information for the tech- nical expertise of a mixed technical audience, but only one is recommended in this book. Some writers, usually those with technical backgrounds themselves, choose Option A. They direct their writing to the most technical people. Other writers choose Option B. They respond to the dilemma of a mixed technical audience by finding the lowest com- mon denominator—that is, they write to the level of the least technical person. Each option satisfies one segment of readers at the expense of the others.

Option C is preferred in technical writing for mixed readers. It encourages you to organize documents so that all readers—both technical and nontechnical—get what they need. The rest of this chapter provides strategies for developing this option. It describes general principles of organization and guidelines for organizing entire documents, indi- vidual document sections, and paragraphs.

Tom Kent sets his phone to go to voice mail. Closing his door, he reaches for the report draft written by one of his staff members and sits down to read it. As an M-Global manager for 10 years,

he has reviewed and signed off on every major report

written by members of his department. Of all the prob-

lems that plague the drafts he reads, poor organization

bothers him the most.

This problem is especially annoying at the begin-

ning of a document and the beginning of individual

sections. Sometimes he has no idea where the writer

is going. His people don’t seem to understand that they

are supposed to be “telling a story,” even in a techni-

cal report. Grammar and style errors are annoying to

him, but organization problems are much more trou-

blesome. They require extensive rewriting and time-

consuming meetings with the report writer. Reaching

for his red pen, Tom hopes for the best as he begins to

read yet another report.

You will face internal reviewers like Tom Kent

when you write on the job. To help you avoid organi-

zation problems, this chapter offers strategies for orga-

nizing information as you plan, draft, and revise your

writing. It builds on the discussion of the three stages

of writing covered in Chapter 2 . Then Chapter 5 com-

pletes your introduction to technical communication

by showing you how to use effective page design to

keep readers’ attention.

Chapter 4 Organizing Information90

>>> Three Principles of Organization Good organization starts with careful analysis of your audience. Most readers are busy, and they skip around as they read. Think about how you examine a news organization’s Web site or read a maga- zine. You are likely to take a quick look at articles of special interest to you; then you might read them more thoroughly, if there is time. That approach also resembles how your audience treats technical reports and other work-related documents. If important points are buried in long paragraphs or sections, busy readers may miss them. Three principles respond realistically to the needs of your readers:

>> Principle 1: Write Different Parts for Different Readers The longer the document, the less likely it is that anyone will read it from beginning to end. As shown in Figure 4–2 , they use a speed-read approach that includes these steps:

Step 1: Quick scan. Readers scan easy-to-read sections like executive summaries, introductory summaries, introductions, tables of contents, conclusions, and recommendations. They pay special attention to beginning and ending sections, especially in documents longer than a page or two, and to illustrations.

Step 2: Focused search. Readers go directly to parts of the document body that give them what they need at the moment. To find information quickly, they search for navigation devices like subheadings, listings, and white space in margins to guide their reading. (See Chapter 5 for a discussion of page design.)

Step 3: Short follow-ups. Readers return to the document, when time permits, to read or reread important sections.

Experts Operators Managers General Readers

Optioon A Organize information for technical readers

Optioon B Organize information for less-technical readers

Optioon C Organize informattion for all readers

■ Figure 4–1 ■ Options for organizing information

Burke/Triolo Productions

91 Three Principles of Organization

Your job is to write in a way that responds to this nonlinear and episodic reading process of your audience. Most important, you should direct each section to those in the audience most likely to read that particular section. Shift the level of technicality as you move from section to section within the document to meet the needs of each section’s specific readers. On the one hand, managers and general readers favor less technical lan- guage and depend most heavily on overviews at the beginning of documents; on the other hand, experts and operators expect more technical jargon and pay more attention than others to the body sections of documents.

Of course, you walk a thin line in designing different parts of the document for dif- ferent readers. Although technical language and other stylistic features may change from section to section, your document must cohere as one piece of work. Common threads of organization, theme, and tone must keep it from appearing fragmented or pieced together.

>> Principle 2: Emphasize Beginnings and Endings Suspense fiction relies on the interest and patience of readers to piece together impor- tant information. The writer usually drops hints throughout the narrative before finally revealing who did what to whom. Technical writing operates differently. Busy readers expect to find information in predictable locations without having to search for it. Their first-choice locations for important information are as follows:

■ The beginning of the entire document

■ The beginnings of document sections

■ The beginnings of paragraphs

The reader interest curve in Figure 4–3 reflects this focus on beginnings, but the curve also shows that the readers’ second choice for reading is the ends of documents, sections, and paragraphs—that is, most readers tend to remember best the first and last things they read. The ending is a slightly less desirable location than the beginning because it is less accessible, especially in long sections or documents. Of course, some readers inevitably read the last part of a document first, for they may have the habit of fanning pages when first seeing a document. Thus, although there is no guarantee that the first document section will be read first, you can be fairly sure that either the beginning or the ending gets first attention.

1: Quick Scan

3: Short Follow-Ups Can involve any section, especially the Introductory Summary

2: Focused Search

Introductory Summary

ConclusionBackground Methods Costs Liability

STEP

STEP

STEP

■ Figure 4–2 ■ Sample speed-read approach to short proposal

Chapter 4 Organizing Information92

Emphasizing beginnings and endings responds to the reading habits and psychologi- cal needs of readers. At the beginning, they want to know where you’re heading. They need a simple road map for the rest of the passage. In fact, if you don’t provide something important at the beginnings of paragraphs, sections, and documents, readers will start guessing the main point themselves. It is in your best interest to direct the reader to what you consider most important in what they are about to read, rather than to encourage them to guess at the importance of the passage. At the ending, readers expect some sort of wrap-up or transition; your writing shouldn’t simply drop off. The following para- graph begins and ends with such information (italics added):

Forests are Missouri’s greatest renewable resource, providing many economic, environmental, and social benefits. They protect hillsides from erosion, keeping streams and rivers clean. They filter the air, soften the extremes of the weather, and add beauty to cities and towns. Much of Missouri’s recreation and tourism industry is centered in the forested regions of the state . And forests are a diverse resource of plants, animals, birds, and other life forms. [Missouri Department of Conservation. Forests|MDC. http:// mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/habitats/forests ]

The first sentence gives readers an immediate impression of the topic to be covered in the paragraph. The paragraph body explores details of the topic. Then the last sentence flows smoothly from the paragraph body by reinforcing the main point about the value of forests.

Why is this top-down pattern, which seems so logical from the readers’ perspective, frequently ignored in technical writing? The answer comes from the difference between the way you complete your research or fieldwork and the way busy readers expect you to convey the results of your work in a report, as shown in Figure 4–4 . Having moved logically from data to conclusions and recommendations in technical work, many writers assume they should take this same approach in their document. They reason that the read- ers want and need all the supporting details before being confronted with the conclusions and recommendations that result from these data.

Such reasoning is wrong. Readers want the results placed first, followed by details that support your main points. Of course, you must be careful not to give detailed conclusions

Beginning of document, section, or paragraph

Higher

Lower In

te re

st L

ev el

Middle of document, section, or paragraph

End of document, section, or paragraph

■ Figure 4–3 ■ Reader interest curve

93 Three Principles of Organization

and recommendations at the beginning; most readers want and expect only a brief summary. This overview provides a framework within which readers can place the details presented later. In other words, readers of technical documents want the “whodunit” answer at the beginning. Recall the motto in Chapter 2 : Write for your reader, not for yourself . Now you can see that this rule governs how you organize information in everything you write.

>> Principle 3: Repeat Key Points You have learned that different people focus on different sections of a document. Some- times no one carefully reads the entire document. For example, managers may have time to read only the summary, whereas technical experts may skip the leadoff sections and go directly to “meaty” technical sections with supporting information. These varied reading patterns require a redundant approach to organization: You must repeat important infor- mation in different sections for different readers.

For example, assume you are an M-Global employee in Denver and are writing a re- port to the University of Colorado on choosing sites for several athletic fields. Having ex- amined five alternatives, you recommend in your report one site for final consideration. Your 25-page report compares and contrasts all five alternatives according to the criteria of land cost, nearness to other athletic locations, and relative difficulty of grading the site and building the required facilities. Given this context, where should your recommenda- tion appear in the report? Following are five likely spots:

1. Executive summary

2. Cost section in the body

3. Location section in the body

4. Grading/construction section of the body

5. Concluding section

Our assumption, you recall, is that few readers move straight through a document. Because they often skip to the section most interesting to them, you must make main sections

Procedure for Technical Work Procedure for Technical Writing

Starting with details Starting with overview

Collect information from field, lab, office,

or other source

Analyze information

Provide supporting details

Give detailed conclusions and

recommendations

Give overview of purpose and most

important information for decision makers

Form conclusions and

recommendations

■ Figure 4–4 ■ Technical work versus technical writing

Chapter 4 Organizing Information94

somewhat self-contained. In the University of Colorado report, that would mean placing the main recommendation at the beginning, at the end, and at one or more points within each main section. As a result, readers of all sections will encounter your main point.

What about the occasional readers who read all the way through your document, word for word? Will they be put off by the restatement of main points? No, they won’t. Your strategic repetition of a major finding, conclusion, or recommendation gives helpful rein- forcement to readers, who are always searching for an answer to the “So what?” question as they read. Fiction and nonfiction may be alike in this respect: Writers of both genres are telling a story. The theme of this story must reappear periodically to keep readers on track.

Now we’re ready to be more specific about how the three general principles of orga- nization apply to documents, document sections, and paragraphs.

>>> ABC Format for Documents You have learned the three principles of organization: (1) write different parts of the document for different readers, (2) emphasize beginnings and endings, and (3) repeat key points. Now let’s move from principles to practice. We next develop an all-purpose pattern of organization for writing entire documents. (The next major section covers document sections and paragraphs.)

Technical documents should assume a three-part structure that consists of a begin- ning, a middle, and an end. This book labels this structure the ABC format (for A bstract, B ody, and C onclusion). Visually, think of this pattern as a three-part diamond structure, as shown in Figure 4–5 :

■ Abstract: A brief beginning component is represented by the narrow top of the diamond, which leads into the body.

■ Body: The longer middle component is represented by the broad, expansive portion of the diamond figure.

■ Conclusion: A brief ending component is represented by the narrow bottom of the diamond, which leads away from the body.

Model 4–1 (pp. 113–114 ) is a memo report that conforms to this structure. The following sections discuss the three ABC components in detail.

ABSTRACT (gives summary of main points)

Corresponding headings in Model 4–1 report

Introductory Summary

Ease of Operation Features of the AIM 500 Dependability of the AIM 500

Conclusion

BODY (supplies supporting details)

CONCLUSION (gives readers what they need to act )

A B C ■ Figure 4–5 ■

ABC format for all documents

95 ABC Format for Documents

Document Abstract: The “Big Picture” for Decision Makers Every document should begin with an overview. As used in this text, abstract is defined as follows:

Abstract: Brief summary of a document’s main points. Although its makeup varies with the type and length of the document, an abstract usually includes (1) a clear purpose statement for the document, (2) the most important points for decision makers, and (3) a list or description of the main sections that follow the abstract. As a capsule version of the entire document, the abstract should answer readers’ typical mental questions, such as “How does this document concern me?” “What’s the bottom line?” “So what?”

Abstract information is given different headings, depending on the document’s length and degree of formality. Some common headings are “Summary,” “Executive Summary,” “Introductory Summary,” “Overview,” and “Introduction.” The abstract may vary in length from a short paragraph to a page or so. Its purpose, however, is always the same: to provide decision makers with the highlights of the document.

For example, assume you are an engineer who has evaluated environmental hazards for the potential purchaser of a shopping mall site. Here is how the summary (abstract) might read:

As you requested, we have examined the possibility of environmental contamina- tion at the site being considered for the new Klinesburg Mall. Our field exploration revealed two locations with deposits of household trash, which can be easily cleaned up. Another spot has a more serious deposit problem of 10 barrels of industrial waste. However, our inspection of the containers and soil tests revealed no leaks.

Given these limited observations and tests, we conclude that the site poses no major environmental risks and recommend development of the mall. The rest of this report details our field activities, test analyses, conclusions, and recom- mendations.

You have provided the reader with a purpose for the document, an overview of im- portant information for decision makers, and a reference to the four sections that follow. In so doing, you have answered the following questions for the readers:

■ What are the major risks at the site?

■ Are these risks great enough to warrant not buying the land?

■ What major sections does the rest of the document contain?

This general abstract, or overview, is mainly for decision makers. Highlights must be brief, yet free of any possible misunderstanding. On some occasions, you may need to state that further clarification is included in the text, even though that point may seem obvious. For example, if your document concerns matters of safety, the over- view may not be detailed enough to prevent or eliminate risks. In this case, state this point clearly so that the reader will not misunderstand or exaggerate the purpose of the abstract.

Chapter 4 Organizing Information96

Document Body: Details for All Readers The longest part of any document is the body. As used in this book, the body is defined as follows:

Body: The middle section(s) of the document providing supporting information to read- ers, especially those with a technical background. Unlike the abstract and conclusion, the body component allows you to write expansively about items such as (1) the background of the project; (2) field, lab, office, or any other work on which the document is based; and (3) details of any conclusions, recommendations, or proposals that might be highlighted at the beginning or end of the document. The body answers this main reader question: “What support is there for points put forth in the abstract at the beginning of the document?”

Managers may read much of the body, especially if they have a technical background and if the document is short. Yet the more likely readers are technical specialists who (1) verify technical information for the decision makers or (2) use your document to do their jobs. In writing the body, use the following guidelines:

■ Separate fact from opinion. Never leave the reader confused about where opin- ions begin and end. Body sections usually move from facts to opinions that are based on facts. To make the distinction clear, preface opinions with phrases such as “We believe that,” “I feel that,” and “It is our opinion that.” Such wording gives a clear sig- nal to readers that you are presenting judgments, conclusions, and other nonfactual statements. Also, you can reinforce the facts by including data in graphics.

■ Adopt a format that reveals much structure. Use frequent headings and subheadings to help busy readers locate important information immediately. ( Chapter  5 covers these and other elements of page design.)

■ Use graphics whenever possible. Use graphics to draw attention to important points. Today more than ever, readers expect visual reinforcement of your text, particularly in more persuasive documents like proposals. ( Chapter 13 deals with graphical elements in technical documents.)

By following these guidelines, which apply to any document, you will make detailed body sections as readable as possible. They keep ideas from becoming buried in text and show readers what to do with the information they find.

Document Conclusion: Wrap-Up Leading to Next Step Your conclusion deserves special attention, for readers often recall first what they have read last. We define the conclusion component as follows:

Conclusion: The final section(s) of the document bringing readers—especially decision makers—back to one or more central points already mentioned in the body. Occasionally, the conclusion may include one or more points not previously mentioned. In any case, it provides closure to the document and often leads to the next step in the writer’s relation- ship with the reader.

The conclusion component may have any one of several headings, depending on the type and length of the document. Possibilities include “Conclusion,” “Closing,” “Closing

97 Tips for Organizing Sections and Paragraphs

Remarks,” and “Conclusions and Recommendations.” Chapters 7 , 8 , 11 , and 12 of this text describe the options for short and long documents of many kinds. In general, how- ever, a conclusion component answers the following types of questions:

■ What major points have you made?

■ What problem have you tried to solve?

■ What should the reader do next?

■ What will you do next?

■ What single idea do you want to leave with the reader?

Because readers focus on beginnings and endings of documents, you want to exploit the opportunity to drive home your message—just as you did in the abstract. Format can greatly affect the impact you make on decision makers. Although specific formats vary, most conclusions take one of these two forms:

■ Listings: The listing format is especially useful when you are pulling together points mentioned throughout the document. Whereas the abstract often gives readers the big picture in narrative format, the conclusion may instead depend on listings of findings, conclusions, or recommendations. ( Chapter 5 gives suggestions on using bulleted and numbered listings.)

■ Summary paragraph(s): When a listing is not appropriate, you may want to write a concluding paragraph or two. Here you can leave readers with an important piece of information and make clear the next step to be taken.

Whichever alternative you choose, your goal is to return to the main concerns of the most important readers—decision makers. Both the abstract and the conclusion, in slightly different ways, should respond to the needs of this primary audience.

>>> Tips for Organizing Sections and Paragraphs

First and foremost, the ABC format pertains to the organization of entire documents. Yet the same beginning-middle-end strategy applies to the smaller units of discourse: docu- ment sections and paragraphs. In fact, you can view the entire document as a series of in- terlocking units, each responding to reader expectations as viewed on the reader interest curve in Figure 4–3 .

Common Patterns of Organization As you are planning your writing projects, you may find it useful to use familiar patterns of organization to arrange the sections, and even paragraphs, of longer documents. Once you have clearly identified how information in the sections of your document will be organized, it will be easier for you to develop your ideas and to make the connections between your ideas clear. Commonly recognized patterns of organization also help your

Chapter 4 Organizing Information98

readers to find the information that they need and to understand that information.

There are several organizational patterns that you may already be familiar with from your previous writing classes. You should use the pattern that is most appropriate to the purpose of your docu- ment and to the topic that you are writing about.

Sequence Documents that emphasize a sequence are usually organized chrono- logically or spatially. Chronological documents, such as instructions and process explanations, identify steps or stages and show how they are related in time. Documents that are organized spatially, such as technical descriptions, identify the parts of an object and show how they are related physically. For example, descriptions of machinery may be organized from front to back, top to bottom, or from the outside in. Whether a document uses time or space as an organizing principle, a sequential pattern moves from one section of the subject to the next in a clear, linear system.

Classification Classification helps your reader make sense of diverse but related

items. In technical documents, you often group lists of items into categories. For ex- ample, a report on a department’s activities may group them by client or project. Even a résumé groups experience and knowledge into classifications such as skills and education.

Division Division is often used to identify parts of an object, an organization, or a system. It begins with an entire item that must be broken down or partitioned into its components. Divi- sion is often used to describe mechanisms, but it can be applied to a variety of subjects. A company’s organizational chart, like the one in Model 1–1 (pp. 25–34 ), is an example of division, with the company’s personnel and responsibilities clearly divided into units.

Comparison/Contrast Many writing projects obligate you to show similarities or differences between ideas or objects. (For our purposes, the word comparison emphasizes similarities, whereas the word contrast emphasizes differences.) Although you will emphasize one or the other, you will probably include both similarities and differences in your document. This technique especially applies to situations in which readers are making buying decisions.

General to Specific (or Vice Versa) Often, documents are organized from general statements to supporting details in a process known as deductive reasoning. For example, a description of the function of a department may open with an overview of the department’s responsibilities and then explain how individuals

© Redbaron/Dreamstime.com

99 Tips for Organizing Sections and Paragraphs

in the department contribute to meeting those responsibilities. At other times, the details must be described first, before the results can be understood. This is known as inductive rea- soning. For example, an analysis of a bridge failure may identify flaws in specific structural elements before explaining how they led to the failure of an entire section of the bridge.

Cause and Effect Workplace writing often examines the causes of events or predicts the results of an action. For example, a report of an injury at a job site may identify unsafe practices that led to the incident and suggest changes that will prevent such incidents from happening in the future.

Problem/Solution A large proportion of writing in organizations is designed to identify and analyze prob- lems and offer solutions. Many companies gain clients through proposals, a formal way of presenting solutions to problems.

These patterns can be used in a variety of combinations within a single document. An investigative report about an accident at a plant will probably include a narrative of the accident, organized sequentially; an analysis of the reasons for the accident, with cause- and-effect connections spelled out clearly; and a recommended solution to the problem that caused the accident. Choose the patterns that help you organize information in the way that will be most useful to your readers.

Document Sections As mentioned earlier, readers often move from the document abstract to the specific body sections they need to solve their problem or answer their immediate question. Just as they need abstracts and conclusions in the whole document, they need mini abstracts and brief wrap-ups at the start and finish of each major section.

To see how a section abstract works, we must first understand the dilemma of readers. Refer to Model 4–2 on page 115 , which contains one section from a long document. Some readers may read it from beginning to end, but others might not have the time or interest to do so in one sitting. Instead, they will look to a section beginning for an abstract and then move around within that section at will. Thus the beginning must provide them with a map of what’s ahead. Following are the two items that should be part of every section abstract:

1. Attention getter: A sentence or more that captures the attention of the reader. The attention getter may be one sentence or an entire paragraph, depending on the overall length of the document.

2. Lead-in: A list, in sentence or bullet format, that indicates main topics to follow in the section. If the section contains subheadings, your lead-in may include the same wording as the subheadings and may be in the same order.

The first part of the section gives readers everything they need to read on. First, you get their attention with an attention getter. Then you give them an outline of the main points to follow so that they can move to the part of the section that interests them most.

Chapter 4 Organizing Information100

As in Model 4–2 on page 115 , the section abstract immediately precedes the first sub- heading when subheads are used.

Sections of documents are usually clearly identified by headings, but you also ensure that your readers will recognize important relationships in sections by using cohesive elements in your text. Good cohesive texts include the following elements:

■ Key word repetition. Often inexperienced writers believe that they should avoid using the same word repeatedly. They think that using many synonyms provides vari- ety and interest to writing. In technical documents, synonyms can actually confuse readers. Readers look for key words to identify important issues and concepts in a document. If you are writing for international audiences, you should always use the same word for the same meaning. This makes translation easier.

■ Transitions. Transitional words and phrases can help readers understand the connections between ideas. Remember that transitions indicate relationships between sentences and paragraphs. For a list of common transitions grouped by meaning, see the Handbook in the back of this book.

■ Pointing words. This set of words directs the reader to a previous sentence, reinforc- ing the connection between the ideas. The pointing words are this, that, these, and those .

■ Given/New pattern. In the given/new pattern, information that ends one sentence is used to start the next sentence. This is especially useful when you are introducing new concepts. A writer starts with a familiar, but related, concept in one sentence, then uses that familiar concept to start the next sentence. In the second part of the sentence, the new concept is introduced and is related to the familiar concept. The reader better understands the new concept because it has been related to one that has already been explained, or that is already familiar.

Some of these cohesive elements, especially transitions and the given/new pattern can help unify whole documents. Figure 4–6 shows a text with the cohesive elements marked.

Sections also should end with some sort of closing thought, rather than just dropping off after the last supporting point has been stated. For example, you can (1) briefly restate the importance of the information in the section or (2) provide a transition to the section that follows. Model 4–2 takes the latter approach by suggesting the main topic for the next section. Whereas the section lead-in provides a map to help readers navigate through the section, the closing gives a sense of an ending so that readers are ready to move on.

Paragraphs Paragraphs represent the basic building blocks of any document. Organizing them is not much different in technical writing than it is in nontechnical prose. Most paragraphs con- tain these elements:

1. Topic sentence: This sentence states the main idea to be developed in the para- graph. Usually it appears first. Do not delay or bury the main point, for busy readers may read only the beginnings of paragraphs. If you fail to put the main point there, they may miss it entirely.

101 Tips for Organizing Sections and Paragraphs

In many streams, the level of DO can become critically low

during the warm summer months. When the temperature is

warm, organisms are highly active and consume the oxygen

supply. If the amount of DO drops below 3.0 ppm (parts per

million), the area can become stressful for the organisms. An

amount of oxygen that is 2.0 ppm or below will not support fish.

DO that is 5.0 ppm to 6.0 ppm is usually required for growth

and activity of organisms in the water.

Key words indicate important topics

Given/new pattern links sentences

Transition shows relationship between sentences

■ Figure 4–6 ■ Cohesive elements in a paragraph

2. Development of main idea: Sentences that follow the topic sentence develop the main idea with examples, narrative, explanation, or other details. Give the reader concrete supporting details, not generalizations.

3. Transitional elements: Structural transitions help the paragraph flow smoothly. Use transitions in the form of repeated nouns and pronouns, contrasting conjunc- tions, and introductory phrases.

4. Closing sentence: Most paragraphs, like sections and documents, need closure. Use the last sentence for a concluding point about the topic or a transitional point that links the paragraph with the one following it.

Model 4–3 on page 116 shows two paragraphs from an M-Global recommendation report that follow this pattern of organization. M-Global was hired to suggest ways for a hospital to modernize its physical plant. Each paragraph is a self-contained unit addressing a specific topic, while being linked to surrounding paragraphs (not shown) by theme and transitional elements.

This suggested format applies to many, but not to all, paragraphs included in techni- cal documents. In one common exception, you may choose to delay the statement of a topic sentence until you engage the readers’ attention with the first few sentences. In other cases, the paragraph may be short and may serve only as an attention grabber or a transitional device between several longer paragraphs. Yet for most paragraphs in techni- cal communication, the beginning-middle-end model described here will serve you well. Remember these other points as well as you organize paragraphs:

■ Length: Keep the typical length of paragraphs at around 6 to 10 lines. Many readers won’t read long blocks of text, no matter how well organized the information may be. If you see that your topic requires more than 10 lines for its development, split the topic and develop it in two or more paragraphs.

■ Listings: Use short listings of three or four items to break up long paragraphs. Readers lose patience when they realize information could have been more clearly presented in listings. Chapter 5 offers detailed suggestions on using lists.

■ Use of numbers: Paragraphs are the worst format for presenting technical data of any kind, especially numbers that describe costs. Readers may ignore or miss data

Chapter 4 Organizing Information102

packed into paragraphs. Usually, tables or figures are a clearer and more appropriate format. Also, be aware that some readers may think that cost data couched in para- graph form represent an attempt to hide important information.

>>> Organizing Digital Documents Reports, proposal, manuals, and other technical docu- ments are published digitally for easy access through the Internet. With the growing popularity of e-books and electronic tablets, expect even more documents to be published primarily in digital form. Some of these documents look like print documents and are even published by simply “printing” them as a digital image. But digital documents should meet reader ex- pectations for interactivity and navigability. The first step in taking advantage of the characteristics of digital documents is consistent use of style tags throughout the entire document.

The ability to use style tags well is considered by many technical communicators to be just as important as the ability to write well. Although the process for

creating, editing, and applying styles differs from one software program to the next, the basic principles are the same. Each heading should be tagged with its appropriate level (as Heading 1, Heading 2, and so on). Bulleted and numbered lists should have style tags attached to them. Some software gives you the option of creating style tags for empha- sis, figures, or even specific types of text, such as definitions. Even body text should be tagged as such. (For more about using style tags, see Chapter 5 .) Software programs use these tags to set up navigation tools and topics automatically.

Some digital documents, like PDFs and e-books, are basically print texts converted to digital format. The organization strategies that we have been discussing in the chapter are important in those kinds of documents, but digital documents require additional orga- nizational strategies. Readers of digital documents want to be able to move quickly from one section to the next, they want to be able to find the information that they seek easily, and they want to see connections between sections clearly indicated. To provide these helps for readers, digital documents should include navigation tools that are clearly indi- cated with underlining, color, and navigation panes. Figure 4–7 shows a searchable digital document that has been bookmarked so that readers can easily find sections.

■ Search function: Digital documents should be searchable. Some software programs require you to make a document searchable. The software program may ask you to identify key words that your reader may use for searching.

■ Navigation panel: Some formats, especially Adobe Acrobat, allow you to set up navigation panels that show thumbnails of pages or an outline of bookmarks. Learning

© Nyul/Dreamstime.com

103 Organizing Digital Documents

how to use these tools will make the structure of your digital document clear and will allow your readers to quickly find the section of the document that they want.

■ Table of Contents: Create a Table of Contents with links to the information in the document. Some software programs use the style tags for headings to automatically create a Table of Contents. Others require you to manually bookmark sections of your document that will appear in a Bookmarks pane. When you create a Table of Contents using the tools in your software program, you will probably need to edit their appear- ance after you have created them.

■ Index: Some software programs allow you to automatically generate an index from your document. However, you will probably need to edit the index after you have created it. Indexing tools often index nearly every word in your document. You will need to ensure that the index contains all of the words that a reader might use to search for information, and only the words that a reader might look up. You will also need to add hyperlinked cross-references. If your document is book length, you should consider recommending that your organization hire a professional indexer. This is often more efficient that trying to manage a complex index in-house.

■ Hyperlinks: A navigable document includes internal hyperlinks, in addition to links in the Table of Contents and Index. Every cross-reference should be linked, including references to appendixes and to figures and tables. It may also be useful to link in-text reference citations to the bibliography.

Bookmark linked to heading in document

■ Figure 4–7 ■ Digital document with bookmarks. Source: Adobe Acrobat® screen shot, reprinted with permission from Adobe Systems Incorporated.

Chapter 4 Organizing Information104

Some documents, such as help files and documents published as Web pages, are designed for a digital environment. These documents are written in modules, or individual topics de- signed to be accessed in any order. (For more on the process of creating modular documents, see Chapter 3 . For more on creating Web page content, see Chapter 14 .) When creating these kinds of documents, you must begin your planning by identifying the type of information that your document will include. The most common types of modular topics are listed below:

■ Conceptual information: This includes background information that readers may find useful, especially definitions. (See Chapter 7 for more on writing definitions and physical descriptions.) Some digital interfaces offer the option of providing this infor- mation through hyperlinks or pop-up boxes. (See Figure 4–8 .) Glossaries are a collec- tion of conceptual information.

■ Procedural information: This can include instructions for completing specific tasks and explanations of how processes take place. (See Chapter 8 for more on writing instructions and process explanations.)

■ References: A References list should include the facts that support the information in the document. This may include bibliographic references and recommendations for further reading, or it may include a page of useful links. It may also include schematics, regulations, and other material that might be found in the appendixes of print documents.

■ Troubleshooting information: Tables of common problems, images of error screens, and lists of Frequently Asked Questions are useful in task-focused documents like Help files.

Digital technologies have changed the way we write and read in the workplace. When readers access content on a screen, they do not read in a clearly identified sequence. Instead, they use links and tabs to pick and choose the topics that they want. Readers expect naviga- tion tools in digital documents and will notice if they are missing or poorly done.

Clicking on the link opens a pop- up window

■ Figure 4–8 ■ Conceptual information in a pop-up window. Source: Adobe RoboHelp® screen shot, reprinted with permission from Adobe Systems Incorporated.

Chapter Summary

>>> Chapter Summary ■ Writers should organize documents so that the information is appropriate to all types

of readers.

■ Different parts of documents should be written for different readers.

■ Information to be emphasized should be placed at the beginning and ending of documents, sections, and paragraphs.

■ Key points should be repeated in several places in a document, since most readers read only the parts of a document that they are interested in.

■ The ABC format ( A bstract, B ody, C onclusion) is a useful way to organize all documents.

■ Common ways of organizing document sections include classification, division, comparison/contrast, general-to-specific, cause-and-effect, and problem/solution.

■ Paragraphs in technical documents should have a clear topic. They are usually relatively short and may include lists.

■ Cohesive elements that help unify paragraphs, sections, and entire documents include key word repetition, transition words, pointing words, and given/new information.

■ Digital documents should be organized with interactivity in mind. They may be created as individual modules, or topics, that can be accessed in any order.

105

Chapter 4 Organizing Information106

Calling themselves the “Commute Group,” five managers

at M-Global’s Boston office have been meeting to discuss

telecommuting (i.e., permitting some or all employees to

do part of their work at home). The branch manager, Rich-

ard DeLorio, expressed interest in the group’s work and

suggested that group members write a report proposing a

pilot project at the branch. The report will be read by Rich-

ard and by members of the M-Global corporate staff in Bal-

timore—especially Karrie Camp, Vice President for Human

Resources. It will probably also be read by Jeannie McDuff,

Vice President for Domestic Operations, Richard’s boss. Any

change in branch work schedules must be approved by cor-

porate headquarters.

The Commute Group now must decide (1) what to in-

clude in its report to Richard DeLorio and (2) how to orga-

nize its information for maximum impact. What follows are

some details on the audience for the report, the group’s rea-

sons for favoring telecommuting, some problems discussed

by the group, and questions that remain about the organi-

zation of the report. Although the group has made progress

in discussing telecommuting, it has been unable to decide

on a structure for its report.

This case study explains the group’s approach to pre-

paring the report. It illustrates the problems faced by the

group as they try to organize the information. The case

ends with questions and comments for discussion, as well

as an assignment for a written response to the Challenge.

Report Audience The group has spent much time discussing what points

would be most persuasive with the primary audience, Rich-

ard DeLorio and Karrie Camp. Richard has been open to new

ideas since being chosen for the manager job a year ago. He

meets often with all departments in the office and shows a

genuine interest in creating a more comfortable workplace.

For example, he recently accepted recommendations by

department managers to purchase office chairs and desks

that allow employees to work with less physical strain.

As Vice President of Human Resources, Karrie Camp

sees part of her responsibility as protecting the assets of

M-Global, and making sure that employees work effectively

and efficiently. Indeed, Karrie, who has been with the orga-

nization for 30 years, has a master’s degree in finance and

keeps a close eye on the bottom line of each branch. She is

interested in exploring new work practices only if they may

improve employee productivity. More than likely, she will

be the final decision maker about the pilot project, although

she will inform Jeannie McDuff if there is a change of policy

in the Boston branch.

Jeannie McDuff, Richard’s boss, evaluates branch man-

agers largely on the financial performance of the branches,

but she is interested in innovation and has been one of the

main forces behind the organization’s new image.

Rationale for Pilot Project The Commute Group spent much time discussing two topics:

the branch jobs that would be best suited to telecommuting

and specific arguments in support of a telecommute policy.

Group members agreed that employees who do much

independent work, especially on the computer, would be the

best candidates for a pilot project. In particular, members of

the technical and scientific staff often spend half their days

at personal computers, either performing technical calcula-

tions or drafting sections of reports and proposals.

Next, the group discussed reasons for adopting a tele-

commute pilot project. The group first met to discuss the

issue after a series of horrible rush hours over the holiday

season in December. Bad weather forced most of the 125

branch employees either to miss some workdays during the

period or to arrive up to two hours late several days. Most

employees already have a one-way commute of at least one

hour because there is little affordable housing close to the

office location in downtown Boston. Thus the heavy holiday

traffic prompted the discussion about telecommuting.

In its deliberations, the Commute Group focused

mostly on the kind of work that could be done by employ-

ees at home. What follows are some of the points discussed

by the group, in random order.

■ Telecommuting will save time either by eliminating

commuting (on days the employee works exclusively at

home) or by reducing commuting time (on days when

the employee comes to the office for part of the day and

thus avoids one or both rush-hour periods that day).

■ Employees can write and edit reports and proposals

at home for several hours at a time, without the usual

office interruptions of meetings, phone calls, drop-in

visitors, and so on. Some experts claim that writers are

most productive during the drafting stage if they have

uninterrupted blocks of writing time.

■ Morale will improve as long as there is a clear rationale

for adopting the policy and selecting participants for the

pilot project. Employees chosen should be those who

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge Telecommuting: The Last Frontier?

Learning Portfolio 107

work well independently, whose jobs can be handled

through telecommuting, and who have already made sig-

nificant contributions to their departments.

■ If M-Global adopts a telecommuting policy after the

pilot project, the firm may attract an additional pool of

excellent employees.

■ Telecommuting will improve some employees’ produc-

tivity by allowing them to work when hazardous driving

conditions exist, or when family members are ill—in

other words, times when the employee would be unable

to drive to the office.

■ The company would benefit from the increase in com-

puter literacy among both the telecommuters and those

who work with them back at the office. The firm would

begin to take advantage of the considerable investment

it already has made in computer technology— personal

computers, laptops, networking, groupware, software for

instant messaging, Web cams, and so on. In particular, e-

conferencing and instant messaging would become a way

of life. Until now, many employees have been reluctant to

replace time-consuming meetings, phone calls, and on-

line discussions.

■ If telecommuting were to become a regular way of doing

business, it might reduce the amount of work space

needed at the office and thus reduce overhead. For exam-

ple, several employees could share the same office work

space if much of their work time were spent at home.

■ Even some noncomputer tasks, such as phone calls to

clients, could be done best in the quiet environment of

the home, as opposed to the hectic environment of the

office, where noise and interruptions are a part of doing

business.

■ If a telecommuting policy were adopted, M-Global

would gain public support by showing that it is part of

the solution to the central problems of traffic conges-

tion and air pollution. Some potential clients might

even be attracted by the firm’s progressive policies.

Possible Problems With Telecommuting The Commute Group also addressed problems that might

arise with the pilot project and with telecommuting in gen-

eral. Group members were unsure of how or if the problems

should be woven into the fabric of the report. Following are

some concerns that were discussed:

■ The right employees must be selected for the pilot

project. Whereas some employees might improve their

productivity at home, others might find it difficult to

stay on task, either because of their own work habits or

because of their home environment. Some kind of ap-

propriate screening device would be in order.

■ The branch must determine how to evaluate the

success of the pilot project, perhaps by some combina-

tion of (1) self-evaluation by the employees, (2) per-

formance evaluations by the employees’ supervisors,

(3) productivity assessment by the corporate office, and

(4) opinions gathered by surveying employees who are

not part of the pilot project but who interact regularly

with the employees who are telecommuting.

■ Good communication is central to the project. Employ-

ees must be involved in selecting participants, planning

the study, conducting the project on a day-to-day basis,

and evaluating its success.

Organization of the Report The Commute Group has agreed on the audience for the re-

port, the likely qualifications for participation in the pilot

study, advantages of telecommuting, and some possible

problems with the study and with telecommuting in gen-

eral. However, the group has not resolved two main ques-

tions: (1) what part of the information assembled should be

included in the report, and (2) what order this information

should assume. In other words, the group must wrestle with

matters of organization. Indeed, disagreements about these

two issues created a stumbling block in the group’s work.

Assume the role of a documentation specialist who is

assigned to a standing proposal-writing team at the Boston

branch. You have been called in by the Commute Group to

help create an effective and persuasive argument. Answer

the following questions, remembering that you are not to

be concerned with specific report sections or headings de-

scribed later in this book. Instead, this exercise concerns

only the generic ABC ( A bstract/ B ody/ C onclusion) structure

explained in this chapter.

1. Briefly, how should the ABC structure be used to orga-

nize this report? Your answer should take into account

the intended purpose and audience of the report.

2. More specifically, what points would you suggest be

included in the abstract component? What issues

need not be addressed? Why?

3. What points would you suggest be included in the

body? Why? In what order? Explain the rationale for

the order you suggest. If you have excluded some in-

formation discussed by the committee, explain why.

4. Given what you’ve read so far, what one main purpose

should be served by the conclusion component of the

group’s report? To accomplish this purpose, what in-

formation should be included? Why?

5. What issues, if any, remain to be discussed by the

Commute Group before it writes its recommendation

report?

Chapter 4 Organizing Information108

Write About It

Members of M-Global’s Publications Development team

(The Pub) are assigned to branches throughout the organi-

zation, but all members of The Pub share certain goals and

responsibilities. One of the unofficial duties that they have

agreed on is to help all employees at M-Global become bet-

ter writers. Although you work in Boston, you are a member

of The Pub. You take this opportunity to teach your fellow

employees about organization. Create a general outline for

the body of the report, identifying its key sections. Decide

on patterns of organization for each section. Then write a

memo to the members of the Commute Group. Include your

suggested outline and organization patterns for each sec-

tion and explain your rationale for your suggestions.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes you

(1) have been divided into teams of about three to six students,

(2) will use team time inside or outside of class to complete

the case, and (3) will produce an oral or written response. For

guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Here, the term organization means the arrangement of in-

formation, such as purpose statements, supporting details,

conclusions, and recommendations. As explained in this

chapter, you should aim to choose patterns of organization

that fit the context. In particular, they should respond to

the needs of the specific readers.

Your college or university catalog is an example of a

document that includes varied information, varied readers,

and, in many cases, varied patterns of organization. Stan-

dard topics covered in catalogs often include the following:

■ Accreditation organization, status, and guidelines

■ Mission of the institution

■ Admissions procedures

■ Academic departments

■ Degree programs

■ Course descriptions

■ Financial aid

■ Extracurricular activities

■ Academic regulations

To add to the complexity, different sections of the catalog

may have been written by different writers. However, usu-

ally one or two people are responsible for coordinating and

editing the entire document.

Team Assignment Your team will either choose or be assigned one or more

sections of your institution’s catalog. Your task is to

(1) describe the manner in which information is orga-

nized, (2) speculate about the rationale the writer had for

the pattern(s) selected, and (3) develop an opinion as to

whether the patterns meet the needs of the catalog’s main

readers.

Collaboration at Work Organizing the Catalog

Assignments can be completed either as individual exercises

or as team projects, depending on the directions of your in-

structor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a response that

can be delivered as an oral presentation for discussion in class.

Analyze the context of each Assignment by consid-

ering what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context of

technical writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from your

document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

1. Analysis: Overall Organization Find an example of technical writing that includes multiple

sections, such as an owner’s manual or a report. Prepare

a written or an oral report (your instructor’s choice) that

explains how well the excerpt follows this chapter’s guide-

lines for organization.

2. Analysis: Evaluating an Abstract Read the following abstract and evaluate the degree to

which it follows the guidelines in this chapter.

Assignments

3. Analysis: All Patterns of Organization— Recognition Exercise

For this group assignment, your instructor will provide each

group with a different packet of “junk mail” (catalogs, sales

letters, promotions, etc.) and perhaps other documents,

such as memos or product information sheets. Your group

will search for and evaluate examples of various patterns of

organization in the documents and then report its findings

to the whole class.

4. Analysis: Division Compare syllabi for several different courses. (Your teacher

may ask you to work in groups, so that you have many ex-

amples to study.) How do they divide information about

courses? Identify the divisions that appear most often in

the syllabi. If you note significant differences between the

syllabi—differences between the principle used for dividing

information (e.g., by time or task) or divisions that are used

in one syllabus but not in the others—analyze those differ-

ences. Do the differences seem to be connected to the topic

of the course? To the particular type of course (whether it is

a lecture or a lab course)? To the course level? Write a short

essay that reports your findings.

5. Analysis: Paragraph Organization Select a body paragraph from each of four different articles

taken from periodicals in your campus library. Choose one

from a nationally known newspaper (like the New York Times ),

one from a popular magazine (like Time or Sports Illustrated ),

one from a business magazine (like Forbes or Business Week ),

and one from a technical journal (like IEEE Transactions on

Professional Communication ). Explain in writing how each of the

paragraphs does or does not follow the top-down pattern of

organization discussed in this chapter. If a paragraph does not

follow the top-down pattern, indicate whether you believe the

writer made the right or wrong decision in organizing the para-

graph. In other words, was there a legitimate reason to depart

from the ABC pattern? If so, what was the reason? If not, how

would you revise the paragraph to make it fit the ABC model?

6. Practice, M-Global Context: Section Organization

As a graphics specialist at M-Global, you have written a

recommendation report on ways to upgrade the graphics ca-

pabilities of the firm. One section of the report describes a new

desktop publishing system, which you believe will make M-

Global proposals and reports much more professional looking.

Your report section describes technical features of the system,

the free training that comes with purchase, and the cost.

Write a lead-in paragraph for this section of your re-

port. If necessary, invent additional information for writing

the paragraph.

7. Practice: Classification Many Web sites offer advice to incoming freshmen about what

to pack for their college dorm room. Using at least two lists as

a starting place, create your own list of recommendations. You

may include as many or as few of the recommended items as

you feel worthwhile, and you can add your own items to the

list. Then choose a principle for classifying the items on your

list. Group the items and clearly identify the characteristics

that helped you group the items. When you turn in your lists

or share them with the class (as your teacher instructs), iden-

tify the Internet sites that you used as a starting point.

8. Practice, M-Global Context: Classification: Projects

For this assignment you will use the main technical tasks

listed on the eight projects at the end of Chapter 12 . Perform

a classification exercise by finding a common basis, select-

ing an appropriate number of groups, and placing each of

the technical tasks in one of the groups.

9. Practice, M-Global Context: Paragraph Organization

Below is a list of notes that were created by a writer who is

preparing an internal proposal that suggests ways to improve

work schedules. Using the list, write a paragraph that follows

the organizational guidelines in this chapter. Use all the in-

formation, rearrange the points as needed, change any of the

wording when necessary, and add appropriate transitions.

■ Four-day weeks may lower job stress because employ-

ees have long weekends with families and may avoid

the worst part of rush hour.

ABSTRACT: The objective of this study is to gain a

structural understanding of the Burr arch-truss, specifi-

cally as found in the Pine Grove Bridge. The scope of

the study involves first-order linear elastic analysis of the

truss, but does not include analysis of specific connec-

tions. From our research we found that the loading of

the arch can be as much as three times greater than the

truss, as the arch is more efficient in carrying dead load,

and the truss provides necessary bending rigidity during

concentrated live loads. Maximum stresses are found to

occur at the springing of the arch, and no elements are

overstressed by current design standards. Based on this

we conclude that in the Pine Grove Bridge the arch is

structurally dominant, and the truss provides necessary

reinforcement under large concentrated live loads.

Source: http://www.cr.nps.gov/hdp/samples/HAER/Pine%20Grove% 20Engr%20Report%20-%20Final%20-%20LL.pdf.

Learning Portfolio 109

■ A four-day, 10-hour-a-day workweek may not work for

some service firms, where projects and clients need five

days of attention.

■ Standard five-day, 8-hour-a-day workweeks increase

on-the-job stress, especially considering commuter time

and family obligations.

■ M-Global is considering a pilot program for one office; this

office would depart from the standard 40-hour workweek.

■ M-Global is also considering other strategies to improve

the work schedules of its employees.

■ The 40-hour workweek came into being when many more

families had one parent at home while the other worked.

■ Some firms have gone completely to a four-day week

(with 10-hour days).

■ M-Global’s pilot program would be for one year, after

which it would be evaluated.

10. Practice: Writing an Abstract The short report that follows lacks an abstract that states

the purpose and provides the main conclusion or rec-

ommendation from the body of the report. Write a brief

abstract for this report.

DATE: June 13, 2012 TO: Ed Simpson FROM: Jeff Radner SUBJECT: Creation of an Operator Preventive Maintenance Program

The Problem The lack of operator involvement in the equipment maintenance program has caused the reliability of equipment to decline. Here are a few examples:

◆ A tractor was operated without adequate oil in the crankcase, resulting in a $15,000 repair bill after the engine locked.

◆ Operators have received fines from police officers because safety lights were not operating. The bulbs were burned out and had not been replaced. Brake lights and turn-signal malfunctions have been cited as having caused rear-end collisions.

◆ A small grass fire erupted at a construction site. When the operator of the vehicle nearest to the fire attempted to extinguish the blaze, he discovered that the fire extinguisher had already been discharged.

When the operator fails to report deficiencies to the mechanics, dangerous conse- quences may result.

The Solution The goal of any maintenance program is to maintain the company equipment so that the daily tasks can be performed safely and on schedule. Since the operator is using the equipment on a regular basis, he or she is in the position to spot potential prob- lems before they become serious. For a successful maintenance program, the follow- ing recommendations should be implemented:

◆ Hold a mandatory four-hour equipment maintenance training class conducted by mechanics in the motor pool.This training would consist of a hands-on approach to preventive maintenance checks and services at the operator level.

◆ Require operators to perform certain checks on a vehicle before checking it out of the motor pool. A vehicle checklist would be turned in to maintenance personnel.

The attached checklist would require 5 to 10 minutes to complete.

Conclusion I believe the cost of maintaining the vehicle fleet at M-Global will be reduced when potential problems are detected and corrected before they become serious. Operator training and the vehicle pretrip inspection checklist will ensure that preventable accidents are avoided. I will call you this week to answer any questions you may have about this proposal.

110

Learning Portfolio 111

11. Ethics Assignment Read this chapter’s “Communication Challenge” section en-

titled “Telecommuting: The Last Frontier?” (You may also

want to conduct some library or Internet research on tele-

commuting, or to discuss the concept with someone who

works full time.) Then write a short essay or report that

examines (a) any personal ethical dilemmas that may arise

for M-Global employees if the Boston office adopts a tele-

commuting policy and (b) possible solutions to the ethical

problems you discuss.

12. International Communication Assignment

In the ABC pattern, the beginning of a document (A, or

A bstract) includes a clear purpose statement, a summary of

main points for decision makers, and a brief description or

listing of information to follow in the document. Although

this pattern works in most situations—especially in the

United States and many Western countries—there may be

contexts and cultures in which it is not the best choice. For ex-

ample, the front-end location of important points may appear

Chapter 4 Organizing Information112

abrupt and even offensive in some cultures. Using a country

or culture outside the United States, describe a context in

which you would depart from the strict ABC pattern. (Possible

countries to examine include China, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and

Germany.) Be specific about purpose, readers, and preferred

organizational pattern. Also, give the source upon which you

base your conclusions: family experience, business experi-

ence, interviews, books, Internet research, and so on.

ACTNOW 13. A.C.T. N.O.W Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Find a document (report, article, letter to the editor, poster

with text, editorial, etc.) intended to alert readers to a

health or safety issue. Depending on the instructions you

are given, prepare an oral or a written report in which you

(a) analyze the degree to which the document does or does

not subscribe to the ABC pattern of organization and (b)

offer suggestions for how the document might be reorga-

nized to more effectively model the ABC format. For ex-

ample, you may want to give specifics about the manner

in which existing information may be rearranged or new

information added.

Learning Portfolio 113

MEMORANDUM DATE: September 5, 2011 TO: Danielle Firestein FROM: Barbara Ralston BR SUBJECT: Recommendation for AIM 500 Fax

INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY The purpose of this report is to present the results of the study you requested on the AIM 500 facsimile (fax) machine. I recommend purchase of additional AIM 500 machines because they deliver fast, dependable service and include the features we need most. This report includes the following sections: Ease of Operation, Features of the AIM 500, Dependability of the AIM 500, and Conclusion.

EASE OF OPERATION The AIM 500 is so easy to operate that a novice can learn to transmit a document to another location in about two minutes. Here’s the basic procedure:

1. Press the button marked TEL on the face of the fax machine. You then hear a dial tone.

2. Press the telephone number of the person receiving the fax on the number pad on the face of the machine.

3. Lay the document facedown on the tray at the back of the machine.

At this point, just wait for the document to be transmitted—about 18 seconds per page to transmit. The fax machine will even signal the user with a beep and a message on its LCD display when the document has been transmitted. Other, more advanced operations are equally simple to use and require little training. Included with the machine are two different charts that illustrate the machine’s main functions.

The size of the AIM 500 makes it easy to set up almost anywhere in an office. The dimensions are 13 inches in width, 15 inches in length, and 9.5 inches in height. The narrow width, in particular, allows the machine to fit on most desks, file cabinets, or shelves.

FEATURES OF THE AIM 500 The AIM 500 has many features that will be beneficial to our employees. In the two years of use in our department, the following features were found to be most helpful:

Automatic redial Last-number-redial memory LCD display

M-Global, Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

■ Model 4–1 ■ ABC format in whole document

BODY Headings and sub headings indicate structure.

ABSTRACT Identifies purpose of report and recommendations. Provides overview of structure.

▲ ▲

Chapter 4 Organizing Information114

Ralston to Firestein. 2 Preset dialing Group dialing Use as a phone

Automatic Redial. Often when sending a fax, the sender finds the receiving line busy. The redial feature will automatically redial the busy number at 30-second intervals until the busy line is reached, saving the sender considerable time.

Last-Number - Redial Memory. Occasionally there may be interference on the tele- phone line or some other technical problem with the transmissions. The last number memory feature allows the user to press one button to automatically trigger the ma- chine to redial the number.

LCD Display. This display feature clearly displays pertinent information, such as error messages that tell a user exactly why a transmission was not completed.

Preset Dialing. The AIM 500 can store 16 preset numbers that can be used with one-touch dialing. This feature makes the unit as fast and efficient as a sophisticated telephone.

Group Dialing. After selecting two or more of the preset telephone numbers, the user can transmit a document to all of the preset numbers at once.

Use as a Phone. The AIM 500 can also be used as a telephone, providing the user with more flexibility and convenience.

DEPENDABILITY OF THE AIM 500 Over the entire two years our department has used this machine, there have been no complaints. We always receive clear copies from the machine, and we never hear complaints about the documents we send out. This record is all the more impressive in light of the fact that we average 32 outgoing and 15 incoming transmissions a day. Obviously, we depend heavily on this machine. So far, the only required maintenance has been to change the paper and dust the cover.

CONCLUSION The success our department has enjoyed with the AIM 500 compels me to recommend it highly for additional future purchases. The ease of operation, many exceptional features, and record of dependability are all good reasons to buy additional units. If you have further questions about the AIM 500, please contact me at extension 3646.

■ Model 4–1 ■ continued

CONCLUSION Clear recommendation. Invites contact.

Learning Portfolio 115

ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF MAGCAD This report has presented two main advantages of the MagCad Drawing System: ease of correction and multiple use of drawings. However, there are two other features that make this system a wise purchase for M-Global’s Boston office: the selective print feature and the cost.

Selective Printing Using the Selective Print feature, you can “turn off” specific objects that are in the drawing with a series of keystrokes. The excluded items will not appear in the printout of the drawing. That is, the printed drawing will reflect exactly what you have temporarily left on the screen, after the deletions. Yet the drawing that remains in the memory of the machine is complete and ready to be reconstructed for another printout. The selective print feature is especially useful on jobs where different groups have different needs. For example, in a drawing of a construction project intended only for the builder, one drawing may contain only the land contours and the build- ing structures. If the same drawing is going to the paving company, we may need to include only the land contours and the parking lots. In each case, we will have used the selective print feature to tailor the drawing to the specific needs of each reader. This feature improves our service to the client. In the past, either we had to complete several different drawings or we had to clutter one drawing with details sufficient for the needs of all clients.

Cost of MagCad When we started this inquiry, we set a project cost limit of $12,000. The MagCad system stays well within this budget, even considering the five stations that we need to purchase. The main cost savings occur because we have to buy only one copy of the MagCad program. For additional work stations, we need pay only a $400 licensing fee per station. The complete costs quoted by the MagCad representative are listed below:

1. MagCad Version 5 $ 5,000 2. Licenses for five additional systems 2,000 3. Plotter 2,000 4. Installation 1,000 TOTAL $ 10,000

With the $2,000 difference between the budgeted amount and the projected cost of the system, we could purchase additional work stations or other peripheral equipment. The next section suggests some add-ons we might want to purchase later, once we see how the MagCad can improve our responsiveness to client needs.

■ Model 4–2 ■ ABC format in document section

ABSTRACT Clearly identifies change in topic.

BODY Headings identify structure.

CONCLUSION Suggests benefits.

Chapter 4 Organizing Information116

Conversion to a partial solar heating and cooling system would upgrade the hospital building considerably. In fact, the use of modern solar equipment could decrease your utility bills by up to 50 percent, according to the formula explained in  Appendix B . As you may know, state-of-the-art solar systems are much more efficient than earlier models. In addition, the equipment now being installed around the country is much more pleasing to the eye than was the equipment of 10 years ago. The overall effect will be to enhance the appearance of the building, as well as to save on utility costs. We also believe that changes in landscaping would be a useful improvement to the hospital’s physical plant. Specifically, planting shade trees in front of the windows on the eastern side of the complex would block sun and wind. The result would be a decrease in utility costs and enhancement of the appearance of the building. Of course, shade trees will have to grow for about five years before they begin to affect utility bills. Once they have reached adequate height, however, they will be a perma- nent change with low maintenance. In addition, your employees, visitors, and patients alike will notice the way that trees cut down on glare from the building walls and add “green space” to the hospital grounds.

■ Model 4–3 ■ ABC format in paragraphs

Specifies advantages.

Summarizes result.

Introduces topic.

Introduces topic.

Provides details.

Summarizes result.

Document Design

In this chapter, students will

■ Learn how document design is affected by the context in which documents will be read

■ Learn the importance of consistent design in individual documents, as well as in all documents created within an organization

■ Learn to use color effectively in documents

■ Be introduced to the style and template software tools that can make consistent document design easier

■ Learn the basic elements of page design, including grids, white space, and lists

■ Be introduced to guidelines for choosing fonts

■ Learn to use type effectively to emphasize concepts and words in a text

■ Learn to use running headers and footers and headings to help readers navigate documents

■ Learn about special navigation elements in documents

■ Be introduced to the special considerations of designing digital documents

■ Compare a model document that does not use document design principles to a model document that does use them

>>> Chapter Objectives

117

Chapter 5

Photo © Johnkwan (Yukchong Kwan)/Dreamstime.com

118 Chapter 5 Document Design

The Information Services (IS) Department at M-Global is preparing to introduce new intranet security sign-on procedures for all employees in the organization, and Mark Merrill, one of the pro-

grammers, has been assigned the task of writing the

new sign-on procedures. He sends his draft as an e-

mail attachment to David Carlyle, a documentation

specialist. Mark doesn’t mind writing, but he is glad

that David has been assigned to help make the infor-

mation in IS documents clearer for the readers who

will be using them.

When David opens the e-mail from Mark, he knows

that he won’t have to do much editing on Mark’s text.

Mark is a good writer; his documents are usually writ-

ten clearly and accurately. David’s biggest challenge is

to make sure that employees find the instructions easy

to read and use when they sign onto the company in-

tranet from their desks or from laptops and other elec-

tronic devices in the field. Because employees will be

using the instructions to access the company’s intranet,

David will need to design print documents that can be

accessed off-line. These documents will include only a

few steps, so David decides to create signs that can be

posted at shared terminals and smaller laminated cards

that can be folded to business card size and kept in a

desk, laptop case, or pocket. The next problem he faces

is how to format and arrange the information so that

it is easy to read and use. He must apply principles of

good document design to the sign-on instructions.

Like the organizing principles discussed in Chapter

4 , good document design can help your readers find the

information that they need. This chapter covers docu-

ment design, another basic building block in technical

communication. Here is an operating definition:

In the workplace, readers are busy, and few take

the time to read a document from cover to cover. Some

documents, such as manuals, are used as reference

works and are consulted only to answer questions

or solve problems. As one expert says, the subjects

of technical documents do not invite casual reading:

“Realize that people are lookers first and that they be-

come readers only if you have revealed a good reason

for them to want to.” 1 Your challenge is to make your

documents inviting by making them appear useful and

interesting. A document may offer your reader impor-

tant information but may never be read. Why? Because

it doesn’t look inviting.

This chapter presents guidelines and examples for

document design, as well as an introduction to the use

of computers in the design process.

Document design: The creation of clear, readable, and visu- ally interesting documents through judicious use of white space, headings, lists, color, and other design elements. Many firms combine these elements into style sheets that allow employees to produce documents in uniform and consistent formats.

1 J. White. (2004). Building blocks of functional design. Technical Communication, 52, 37.

>>> Elements of Document Design Just as in your writing, clarity is important in your document design. A document that is cluttered with too many design elements can seem confusing and poorly thought out; however, consistent use of elements such as white space and fonts creates a sense of a unified document. At the same time, document design elements such as headings and lists can help readers identify individual sections of a document.

When you are designing your document’s layout, it is just as important to know your audience as when you are planning your document’s text. The answers to the fol-

119 Elements of Document Design

lowing questions will help you make decisions about how a document will be bound, the page size, the number of pages, and whether the pages will use landscape or portrait orientation.

■ Where will this document be used? At a desk? On a shop floor? In the field? For example, a guide that will be used in the field should be portable, perhaps printed on 5 ½-by-8 ½-inch sheets, and durable, perhaps with a plastic cover.

■ How will the document be used? Will it be kept on a desk as a reference? Read for background information for decision making? For example, a document that will be used as a reference while someone is performing a task should be spiral bound so that it lies flat when open.

■ How do you want readers to perceive the document? As very businesslike? As friendly and easy to use? As complex and authoritative? For example, a formal proposal that presents the case for a contract with a government agency should be presented on standard 8 ½-by-11-inch white paper, with a traditional business font like Times New Roman and a simple, sturdy cover.

The choices you make in format, color, font, and navigation ele- ments can influence how readers will approach a document before they begin reading it.

Think of document design as a quick way of communicating the purpose and style of your document. A document that con- sists of densely packed text seems serious, even boring. A docu- ment that uses white space, headings, and lists seems clear and readable.

Consistent Design Many organizations know the benefits of consistent visual appear- ance, so they develop company style sheets for frequently used documents, including letters, memos, various types of reports, and proposals. Once developed, these style sheets are assembled into a style manual and distributed for general use. To make universal use easier, they are often loaded as templates into the organization’s text-editing software or onto the organization’s intranet. More in- formation about templates and styles appears on pages 121–124 in this chapter.

Using style sheets saves time and reinforces the organization’s image. Their use makes it possible for members of writing teams to work independently while adhering to standard formatting guidelines. Use of style sheets also ensures that readers see a clear relationship among ideas within a document because headers and subheaders, lists, and other design elements are used consistently.

If the company you work for does not use a style manual, use the elements of docu- ment design shown in this chapter to develop your own style sheets: color, grids, white space, fonts, headers and footers, and headings.

© Markstout/Dreamstime.com

120 Chapter 5 Document Design

Color Just as people expect color in photographs, movies, advertisements, and TV, color has emerged as a necessity in technical communications. This tool adds excitement to and stimulates interest in your documents. Most writers have software that lets them simply click on the colors they think are appropriate for a document and, when the job is com- pleted, send them to a color printer. However, these automated color choices—and even the decision to use color—may be inappropriate for a number of reasons.

Because color is so costly and requires a longer time to print, you must know more about its effective use. In this segment, we discuss what you must consider before you use color, including ways to use it effectively.

Once you decide to use color in your documents, you’ll notice a difference in how people react to your messages. Organizations often have color style sheets, such as the one shown in Figure 5–1 , that provide guidelines for the use of color, using CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, black) designations for print documents and RGB (red, green, blue) designations for electronic documents and Web pages. If your company doesn’t already have a color style sheet, develop your own so you can use color uniformly and consis- tently from one project to another.

To develop a style sheet, ask yourself the following four questions:

■ How can I use color to help my audience read and retain the document’s message? You can define the levels of importance in a document by using a different color for different headings, as well as lighter or darker tones of a color to distinguish between subheadings or between major and minor concepts within a heading.

PMS 123 COATED*BLACK

Western ’s Graphic Standards 3

How do I know which logo to use? It depends upon your design, space restrictions and audience.

• If you have limited space use the Western logo with or without the Griffon. If you have very limited space use only the Griffon logo.

• In general if you are appealing to any external audience use the Discover Gold with Western logo.

• Always follow the standards for each logo on size restriction.

O F F I C I A L W E S T E R N C O L O R S

The official colors are black and yellow gold (referred to as Western gold). Due to the difficulty in reproducing the yellow gold on different papers, two different inks should be used depending on the paper choice.

• On coated paper (glossy, shiny paper) the Western gold is (PANTONE®

Matching System) PMS 123C (as shown in this book). • On uncoated paper (such as paper used in an office copier) the Western

gold is PMS 109U. • When four-color process inks are used, Western gold can be produced by

printing: 0C/25M/100Y/0K. • For web publication or audio/visual usage, the Western gold can be

produced by: R=254 G=194 B=10. If desired, it is acceptable to use a metallic gold, such as a foil or gold

metallic ink: • On coated paper and uncoated paper the metallic gold is PMS 871.

■ Figure 5–1 ■ Color style sheet Source: Missouri Western Campus Printing and Design Services. (2007). Graphic standards manual .

121 Computers in the Document Design Process

■ How can I use color to attract attention to important data? Use one color to highlight significant points or to serve a specific function. For example, if you con- sistently use color to frame tables or graphics, you create a visual cue that prompts your reader to look at the graphics. Alternatively, you may want to use one color to consistently emphasize key words, phrases, or specific actions. In so doing, you build continuity in your document and enhance its readability.

■ Will my audience be able to see the differences in color? About 10 percent of the male population has some degree of difficulty seeing differences in colors. Therefore, be sure that graphics use light and dark contrasts effectively. This also ensures that your graphics will still be clear, even if the document is copied in black and white.

■ Will the document be distributed universally in color, or will one or more sections be printed in black and white? If your document will be repro- duced—either all or in part—in black and white, you must place greater emphasis on textural differences as well as use distinctive shading and tinting. Most important, do not use blue images; unless shaded considerably, they do not reproduce well in black and white. You must do everything you can to sharpen the images you want your audi- ence to read.

Avoid overusing color. Too many colors distort your message, confuse your au- dience, cost more, and take more time to produce. You choice of color immediately communicates the tone of your document. Bright neon or primary colors may sug- gest energy. They may be appropriate to a marketing brochure or company news- letter, but they may be distracting and even convey the wrong tone for a formal investigative report.

After you answer questions about the general use of color, you can begin the process of selecting and combining colors to enhance your message and your graphics.

>>> Computers in the Document Design Process

Most word-processing programs include tools to make document design easier and more consistent. They allow you to format running headers and footers; ensure consistency of elements such as headers and lists, through the use of style tags; and save time by using templates for the types of documents that you write most often. They can even automati- cally generate tables of contents and indexes.

Style Sheets When you are writing a long document with many headings or other typographic ele- ments, it may be difficult to remember how you formatted each element. For example, if it has been several pages since you used a third-level heading, you may have to scroll back

Chapter 5 Document Design122

to see what type size you used and whether you put it in bold type or italics. You can solve this problem by using the styles in your word-processing software. A style sheet allows you to assign formatting to specific kinds of elements in your document, such as head- ings, body text, and lists. This formatting is done with tags or codes that your computer attaches to the elements. (If you are familiar with HTML coding, this tagging is similar.) You select the text, such as a first-level heading, select the appropriate style from a pull- down menu, and assign it to the selected text with a single mouse click. Figure 5–2 shows text with tags for headings, body text, and lists visible.

Styles for individual elements, such as different heading levels, bulleted lists, and body paragraphs, are collected on a style sheet, or catalog, which may be attached to one document or may be part of a document template, like the one in Figure 5–3 .

It is a good idea to plan the appearance of your document early in the writing process. Even if you aren’t sure which fonts you will choose, you should tag every text element in your document, including all body paragraphs. Later, if you decide that you want to change the formatting of a text element, you can change it from the Styles menu and apply it to all of the tagged elements at once. For example, if you have set the font size for first-level headings at 12 points and then decide that you want to change it to 14 points, you open the Styles menu, find the style for first-level headings, change the font size, and then apply it to all of the first-level headings. Instead of having to search through the document to find each heading and change it, you change all first-level headings at once. If your document is going to be sent to several other writers, you may want to create your own body text style, even if it uses the same fonts and paragraph settings in the Normal

Style tags

■ Figure 5–2 ■ Microsoft Word document template with style tags displayed Source: Microsoft product screen shot(s), reprinted with permission from Microsoft Corporation.

123 Computers in the Document Design Process

style in your document. The Normal style can vary from computer to computer, and many writers have faced problems when multiple versions of Normal (or other tags) have been added to a document.

The heading tags that you created for your style sheet can also be used to automati- cally generate a table of contents. This process, and the one for creating indexes, can be a bit complicated, so consult your word-processing program’s Help file or a user’s guide for instructions about how to do this.

Templates If you have a type of document that you must create often, such as progress reports, lab reports, memos, or even papers for school, you may find it useful to create a template for that type of document. Your word-processing program probably already has several tem- plates preloaded for memos, letters, and reports. Although these templates are handy, they may not exactly fit your needs. If you need to include a company logo on a letterhead or alter the headings in the report template, you can modify existing templates or you can create your own. Some software publishers also make a large number of templates avail- able for downloading from their Web sites. Templates include a catalog of styles for ele- ments such as headings, lists, and even body text. They may also include passages of text or elements such as tables that appear in the same place in every document. For example, your teacher may use a template for class policy sheets that include the same information (e.g., office hours, contact information) or even the same text (e.g., absence policies, academic honesty statements).

Style catalog

■ Figure 5–3 ■ Microsoft Word document template with style sheet Source: Microsoft product screen shot(s), reprinted with permission from Microsoft Corporation.

Chapter 5 Document Design124

Learning to use the document design tools in your word-processing program can save you time and help you create consistent and professional-looking documents. However, these tools differ among the many word-processing programs (and sometimes from one version of a word-processing program to the next), so take the time to learn how to use the tools that are available in your word-processing software.

>>> Elements of Page Design Good organization, as pointed out in Chapter 4 , can fight readers’ indifference by giving information when and where they want it. However, to get and keep readers interested, you must use effective visual design—on each page of your document. Each page needs the right combination of visual elements to match the needs of your readers and the pur- pose of the document.

Grids It is useful to approach document design by visualizing the elements on a page organized on a grid. 2 Planning your layout as a grid can help you maintain a consistent, unified ap- pearance, especially in longer documents. This technique will also help you decide how to use white space and when elements should break the space, for example, to cover two columns or extend into the margin. When grids are used for page layout, blocks of text are usually represented by gray rectangles, and illustrations are usually represented by white boxes with a large X in them (see Figure 5–4 ), allowing you to focus on the overall visual design of a page. As you design page layouts, focus on using the two basic document design elements that readers notice first:

1. Text: Long lines can be an obstacle to keeping readers’ attention. Eyes get weary of overly long lines, so some writers add double columns to their design options. This “book look” uses white space between columns to break up text and thus reduce line length. You can also shorten line length by using wider margins with a single col- umn of text. Figure 5–4 shows four different ways of arranging text blocks to affect line length.

2. Graphics: Any illustration within the text needs special attention. Figures and tables are discussed in Chapter 13 , but the following are some basic pointers for placing graphics: ■ Make sure there is ample white space between any graphic and the text. If the figure is

too large to permit adequate margins, reduce its size while maintaining readability.

■ When you have the choice, place graphics near the top of the page, where they receive the most attention.

2 Some of the information in this section was taken from C. Sevilla. (2002). Page design: Directing the reader’s eye. Intercom, 49, 7-9, and J. V. White. (2005). Building blocks of functional design. Technical Communication, 52, 37-41.

125 Elements of Page Design

■ When a graphic doesn’t fit well on a page with text, place it on its own page to ensure adequate space and readability. Normally, a separate figure appears on the page fol- lowing the first reference to it.

■ Pay special attention to page balance when graphics are included on multicolumn pages, two-page spreads, or both.

To avoid confusing the reader, make sure that each page has no more than one domi- nant element. You can use more than one basic grid pattern within a document, but if you do, make sure that the patterns are related, and that there is a good reason to use an alternative grid. For example, you could design one grid for most of the pages in a long document, but you could use a second grid for first pages of chapters or major sections within the document.

White Space The term white space simply means the open places on the page with no text or graphics— literally, the white space (assuming you are using white paper). Experts have learned that readers are attracted to text when white space surrounds it, for example, a newspaper ad that includes a few lines of copy in the middle of a white page. Readers connect white space with important information.

Basic two-column grid

Single-column grid with headings extending into margin

Three-column grid with two-column width illustration

Grid for standard business correspondence

■ Figure 5–4 ■ Using grids to plan page layout

Chapter 5 Document Design126

In technical communication you should use white space in a way that (1) attracts at- tention, (2) guides the eye to important information on the page, (3) relieves the boredom of reading text, and (4) helps readers organize information. Here are some opportunities for using white space effectively:

1. Margins: Most readers appreciate generous use of white space around the edges of text. Marginal space tends to frame your document, so the text doesn’t appear to push the boundaries of the page. Good practice is to use 1- to 1 ½-inch margins, with a wider bottom margin. When the document is bound, the margin on the edge that is bound, or the gutter, should be larger than the outside margin to account for the space taken by the binding ( Figure 5–5 .)

2. Hanging indents: Some writers place headings and subheadings at the left mar- gin and indent the text block an additional inch or so, as shown in Figure 5–6 . Headings and subheadings force the readers’ eyes and attention to the text block. Another common use of hanging indents is bulleted and numbered lists.

3. Line spacing: When choosing single, double, or 1 ½-line spacing, consider the document’s length and degree of formality. Letters, memos, short reports, and other documents read in one sitting are usually single-spaced. Longer documents, especially if they are formal, are usually 1 ½-line-spaced or double-spaced, sometimes with extra spacing between paragraphs. Manuscripts or documents that will be typeset profession- ally are always double-spaced ( Figure 5–7 ).

4. Justification: The choice of justification should be based on line length and the formality of the document. In fully justified copy, all lines are the same length—as on this textbook page. In ragged-edged copy, lines are variable length. Some readers prefer ragged-edged copy because it adds variation to the page, making reading easier on the eye. Yet many readers like the professional appearance of fully justified lines, especially in formal documents or documents that use columns of text. However, full justification

■ Figure 5–5 ■ Use of white space: margins

■ Figure 5–6 ■ Use of white space: hanging indents

127 Elements of Page Design

can sometimes result in odd spacing between letters in the last line of a paragraph, as the computer tries to fill an entire line of space with a few words.

5. Paragraph length: New paragraphs give readers a chance to regroup as one topic ends and another begins. These shifts also have a visual impact. The amount of white space produced by paragraph lengths can shape reader expectations. For example, two long paragraphs suggest a heavier reading burden than do three or four paragraphs of dif- fering lengths. Thus, it is helpful to break complex information into shorter paragraphs. Many readers skim long paragraphs, so vary paragraph lengths and avoid putting more than 10 lines in any one paragraph ( Figure 5–8 ).

6. Paragraph indenting: Another design decision involves indenting the first lines of paragraphs. As with ragged-edged copy, most readers prefer indented paragraphs because the extra white space creates visual variety. As shown in Figure 5–7 , indenting can be used in single- or double-spaced text. Reading text is hard work for the eye. You should take advantage of any opportunity to keep your readers’ attention.

7. Heading space and ruling: White space helps the readers connect related infor- mation immediately. Always have slightly more space above a heading than below it. That extra space visually connects the heading with the material it heads. In a double-spaced docu- ment, for example, you would add a third line of space between the heading and the text that came before it. In addition, some writers add a horizontal line across the page above head- ings, to emphasize the visual break. Later, this chapter discusses other aspects of headings.

• Single spacing

• Ragged-right edge (preferred with single spacing)

• Indented paragraphs

• Single spacing

• Justified right edge (optional with single spacing)

• No indenting of paragraphs

• Double spacing

• Ragged-right edge

• Indented paragraphs

_____________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ ______________________ _____________________ ________________________ ______________________ _______________________ ________________________ _____________________ ________________ _____________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ ________________________

Executive Summary

• 1 spacing

• Justified right edge

• No indenting of paragraphs

Executive Summary ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

_______ ______ ______ _____ _____ ______ ______________________ _______________________ ________________________ _______________________ ________________________ __________________ ____________________ ______________________ _______________________ ______________________ _______________________ ___________ ___________________ ______________________ _____________________ ______________________ _____________________ ______________ _______ _____ _______

_______

______ ______ _____ _____ ______ ________________________ ______________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ __________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ _______

_____ _______

2 1–

■ Figure 5–7 ■ Use of white space: line spacing

Chapter 5 Document Design128

In summary, well-used white space can add to the persuasive power of your text. Like any design element, however, it can be overused and abused. Make sure there is a reason for every decision you make with regard to white space on your pages.

Lists Technical communication benefits from the use of lists. Readers welcome your efforts to cluster items into lists for easy reading. In fact, almost any group of three or more related points can be made into a bulleted or numbered listing. Following are some points to consider as you apply this important feature of document design:

1. Typical uses: Lists emphasize important points and provide a welcome change in format. Because they attract more attention than text surrounding them, they are usu- ally reserved for these uses:

Examples

Reasons for a decision

Conclusions

Recommendations

Steps in a process

Cautions or warnings about a product

Limitations or restrictions on conclusions

2. Number of items: The best lists are those that subscribe to the rule of short- term memory; that is, people can retain no more than five to seven items in their short- term memory. A listing of more than seven items may confuse rather than clarify an issue. Consider placing eight or more items in two or three groupings, or grouped lists, as you would in an outline. This format gives the reader a way to grasp the information being presented.

Poor Format: One long paragraph on page

Better Format: Several paragraphs on page

■ Figure 5–8 ■ Use of white space: paragraphs

129 Elements of Page Design

3. Use of bullets and numbers: The most common visual clues for listings are numbers and bullets (enlarged dots or squares like those used in the following listing). Fol- lowing are a few pointers for choosing one or the other: ■ Bullets: Best in lists of five or fewer items, unless there is a special reason for using

numbers.

■ Numbers: Best in lists of more than five items or when needed to indicate an order- ing of steps, procedures, or ranked alternatives. Remember that your readers some- times infer sequence or ranking in a numbered list.

4. Format on page: Every listing should be easy to read and pleasing to the eye. The following specific guidelines cover practices preferred by most readers: ■ Indent the listing. Although there is no standard list format, readers prefer lists that

are indented farther than the standard left margin. A five-space indent is adequate.

■ Hang your numbers and bullets. Visual appeal is enhanced by placing numbers or bullets to the left of the margin used for the list, the format that is followed in this list.

■ Use line spaces for easier reading. When one or more listed items contain more than one line of text, an extra line space between listed items enhances readability.

■ Keep items as short as possible. Depending on purpose and substance, lists can consist of words, phrases, or sentences—such as the list you are reading. Whichever format you choose, pare down the wording as much as pos- sible to retain the impact of the list format.

5. Parallelism and lead-ins: Make the listing easy to read by keeping all points grammatically par- allel and by including a smooth transition from the lead-in to the listing itself. (The term lead-in refers to the sentence or fragment preceding the listing.) Par- allel means that each point in the list is in the same grammatical form, whether a complete sentence, a verb phrase, or a noun phrase. If you change form in the midst of a listing, you take the chance of confusing the reader.

Example: To complete this project, we plan to do the following:

● Survey the site

● Take samples from the three boring locations

● Test selected samples in our lab

● Report the results of the study

The listed items are in active verb form ( survey, take, test, and report ). 6. Punctuation and capitalization: Although there are acceptable variations in

the punctuation of lists, the preferred usage includes a colon before a listing, no punctuation

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Chapter 5 Document Design130

after any of the items, and capitalization of the first letter of the first word of each item. Refer to the alphabetized Handbook at the end of this book under “Punctuation: Lists” for alternative ways to punctuate lists.

>>> Fonts Like the other elements of document design, your choice of font will contribute to the image that your document communicates. It will also affect your readers’ perception of how useful the document is.

Type Size Traditionally, type size has been measured in points, with 72 points to an inch. When you go to the font selection menu, the sizes may be listed this way: 9, 10, 12, 14, 18, and 24.

Despite these many type size options, most technical writing is printed in 10- or 12-point type. When you are choosing type size, however, be aware that the actual size of the letters varies among the font types. Some 12-point type looks larger than other 12-point type. Differences stem from the fact that your selection of a font affects (1) the thickness of the letters, (2) the size of lowercase letters, and (3) the length and style of the parts of letters that extend above and below the line. Figure 5–9 shows the differ- ences in three common fonts. Note that the typeface used in setting the text of this book is 12-point Perpetua.

Before selecting your type size, run samples on your printer so that you are certain of how your copy will look in final form.

Font Types Your choice of fonts may be either prescribed by your employer or determined by you on the basis of (1) the purpose of the document, (2) the image you want to convey, and (3) your knowledge of the audience.

Font types are classified into two main groups:

■ Serif fonts: Characters have “tails” at the ends of the letter lines.

■ Sans serif fonts: Characters do not have tails ( Figure 5–10 ).

If you are able to choose your font, the obvious advice is to use the one that you know is preferred by your readers. A phone call or a look at documents generated by your reader may help you. If you have no reader-specific guidelines, here are three general rules:

■ Use serif fonts for regular text in your print documents. The tails on letters make letters and entire words more visually interesting to the reader’s eye, and they reduce eye fatigue. In this sense, they serve the same purpose as ragged-edge copy: helping your reader move smoothly through the document.

131 Fonts

■ Consider using sans serif fonts for electronic documents. This advice has traditionally been given because of low computer monitor resolutions. Serifs can look blurry and cause eyestrain when used in electronic documents. As computer monitors improve, it may seem that this is no longer a concern. However, documents are now being read on e-readers and handheld devices, so it is still important to choose easy-to- read typefaces.

New Century Schoolbook 9 point 10 point 12 point 14 point 18 point 24 point Times Roman 9 point 10 point

12 point 14 point

18 point

24 point Helvetica 9 point 10 point 12 point 14 point 18 point 24 point

■ Figure 5–9 ■ Type sizes

Serif Type

Sans-Serif Type

extra lines (serifs)

Nn

Nn

■ Figure 5–10 ■ Font types

Chapter 5 Document Design132

■ Consider using another typeface or font variation for headings. Headings benefit from a clean look that emphasizes the white space around the letters. In print documents, sans serif type helps attract attention to these elements of organization within your text. In electronic documents, use the same sans serif font as in the body text, but use combinations of different type size, boldface, and italics to emphasize headings.

■ Avoid too many font variations in the same document. The line between interesting font variations and busy and distracting text is a fine one—but there is a line. Your rule of thumb might be to use no more than two fonts per document: one for text and another for headings and subheadings.

Font Style Guidelines How do you know which fonts to choose? Although there are no hard-and-fast rules, keep the following five guidelines in mind to make the task easier:

>> Font Style Guideline 1: Consider the Reader’s or Company’s Preferences

Give font style the same consideration as you give your message. If your reader has clear preferences, by all means adhere to them. If, however, your audience is receptive to new ideas and images, you can become creative in selecting fonts.

>> Font Style Guideline 2: Consider the Need for Clarity All technical writers recognize the need for their messages to be clear. As you select a font, ask yourself questions such as:

■ Am I using this type font for captions or for long passages of text?

■ Does the material I’ve written contain technical terms or formulas, or was it written for a general audience?

■ Will the font style enhance or detract from the readability of the material?

Clarity of fonts is more than just a matter of size or serif. It also depends on how and where the document will be used. For example, the typeface Clearview was created to solve problems with the legibility of highway signs, especially at night. The existing typeface, Highway Gothic, was inconsistent in the design of its letters, and the reflective let- ters often blurred at night. To solve these problems, Don Meeker and James Montalbano created a font with letters that were more open and easier to read, especially at night. (For a detailed discussion of the design of the Clearview typeface, visit http://www. clearviewhwy.com .)

>> Font Style Guideline 3: Consider the Space Available Although all font styles are measured vertically on the scale of 72 points to an inch, they vary horizontally. If you are writing a long formal proposal, the space available

133 Fonts

might not be important. Adding or deleting one page might not matter. However, if you are writing help text for pop-up boxes in a software program, it may be neces- sary to select a font style that is clear but that—for this special assignment—fits into a 2-by-4– inch field.

Refer to Figure 5–11 . What differences do you see? Wider letters? Thicker strokes? More or less white space between the characters ( kerning )? More or less white space be- tween rows of typed material ( leading )? Each of these criteria varies from one font style to another.

>> Font Style Guideline 4: Consider the Purpose of the Document Before making font style decisions, evaluate how different font styles may reinforce your document’s purpose. Ask yourself the following questions:

■ Will the document be referred to frequently?

■ Does the document present financial or statistical data that must be read and compre- hended easily?

■ Must it be eye-catching enough to make the audience eager to read it?

■ Is it a routine document that needs to be read only once, handled, and filed?

SANS-SERIF FONT STYLES

Bauhaus Md Readability

Basic Sans SF Readability

Bernhard Fashion BT Readability Futura Md BT Readability

Impact Readability

Caslon Bd BT Readability

Americana XBdCn BT Readability

GarmdITC Bk BT Readability

Kuenstler script BT Readability

Serif Font Styles

■ Figure 5–11 ■ Font styles

Chapter 5 Document Design134

Considering these questions will help you choose a font style that serves the purpose of your entire document.

>> Font Style Guideline 5: Consider the Tone You Want to Convey Finally, give careful thought to which font style reinforces the tone of your message.

For example, assume you have worked diligently to develop an annual report re- flecting serious growth problems for the company and for the company’s industry. The document is formal in tone; however, it is also a no-nonsense business document. A font type such as Lydian CSV BT is formal; however, it does not even remotely represent the tone required for this annual report. In this instance, you may want to use Arial or Veranda because of its crisp sans serif image.

In another example, you have been asked to invite management and hourly em- ployees to a retirement party given for a mid-level manager. The tone, you correctly assess, will be informal, warm, and hospitable. As you scroll down the list of font styles, you find several that seem appropriate— Dom Casual BT, Zapfhumnst BT , and Ad Lib —and you wonder which, if any, conveys the right image. The first one looks inter- esting and casual, but it appears too small. The second one looks too impersonal. The third, although a sans serif font, appears casual, large, and powerful—like someone is

shouting, “ Come on in! ” In addition to the diversity of font styles avail-

able for your use, desktop publishing packages today offer you an opportunity to reconfigure your text into arcs, waves, slopes, and even circles. You can outline, shade, print vertically, and do much more whenever it is appropriate. That is the key: Your font styles must be appropriate for the tone you are trying to convey.

In-Text Emphasis Sometimes you want to emphasize an important word or phrase within a sentence. Com- puters give you these options: underlining, boldface, italics, color, and capital letters. Al- though these effects can be combined The least effective are FULL CAPS and underlining. Both are difficult to read within a paragraph and distracting to the eye. The most effective highlighting techniques are italics and boldface ; they add emphasis without distracting the reader. There are two situations in which underlining is preferred. First, in digital documents, readers expect hyperlinks to be underlined, so make sure that any links— and only the links—are underlined. Second, publishers of magazines and journals often request manuscripts in which words to appear in italics, like book titles, are underlined. The reason is that in some typefaces, italics are hard for the typesetter to spot.

Whatever typographic techniques you select, use them sparingly. They can create a busy page that leaves the reader confused about what to read. Excessive in-text emphasis also detracts from the impact of headings and subheadings, which should be receiving significant attention.

Font Style Guidelines

■ Consider the reader’s or company’s preferences

■ Consider the need for clarity

■ Consider the space available

■ Consider the purpose of the document

■ Consider the tone you want to convey

135 Elements for Navigation

>>> Elements for Navigation As noted in Chapter 2 , your audience will be busy and rarely read a longer report or document from the first page to the last. Good document design can work with good organization to help readers find the information that they need in a document. Read- ers can recognize important information by its location on a page, by the use of contrast, or by the repetition of identically format- ted elements, such as warning icons or “tips” boxes. One way that readers can locate the information they need is by using naviga- tional tools. You may be used to thinking of navigational tools in electronic texts, such as tabs on Web pages or bookmarks in PDFs, but print documents also use navigational devices, such as tables of contents, running headers and footers, headings, and even color coding.

Headers and Footers Running headers and footers help readers locate information in a document. They may be as simple as page numbers or much more complex—using chapter titles, project identification numbers, and even colors in the top or bottom margins of the page. At the same time, headers and footers should not clutter up the appearance of the document. Most word-processing programs make the creation of headers and footers easy. In addition to being able to insert automatic page numbering, you can insert other information—such as short titles, your name, or your organization’s name—on each page. You can decide where to position that information and you can hide it on selected pages. Some organiza- tions put information such as the computer file name or project identification number in document footers.

Headings Headings are brief labels used to introduce each new section or subsection of text. They serve as (1) a signpost for the reader who wants to know the content, (2) a grabber to entice readers to read documents, and (3) a visual oasis of white space where the reader gets relief from the text.

As a general rule, there should be at least one heading on every page of any document that is two or more pages long so that readers can find their way through the text. Models throughout this book show how headings can be used in short and long documents. Of course, heading formats differ greatly from company to company and even from writer to writer. With all the typographic possibilities of word processing, there is incredible variety in typeface, type size, and the use of bold, underlining, and capitals. Following are some general guidelines:

1. Use your outline to create headings and subheadings. A well-organized outline lists major and minor topics. With little or no change in wording, outlines can be

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Chapter 5 Document Design136

converted to headings and subheadings within the document. As with outlines, you must follow basic principles of organization. The number of subheadings should be one indica- tion of the relative length or importance of the section. Be consistent in your approach to headings throughout the document.

2. Use substantive wording. Headings give readers an overview of the content that follows. They entice readers into your document; they can determine whether read- ers—especially those who are hurried and impatient—will read or skip over the text. Strive to use concrete rather than abstract nouns, even if the heading must be a bit longer. Note the improvements in the following revised headings:

Original: “Background”

Revised: “How the Simmons Road Project Got Started” or “Background on Simmons Road Project”

Original: “Discussion”

Revised: “Procedure for Measuring Toxicity” or “How to Measure Toxicity”

Original: “Costs”

Revised: “Production Costs of the FastCopy 800” or “Producing on the FastCopy 800: How Much?”

3. Maintain parallel form in wording. Headings of equal value and degree should have the same grammatical form, as shown in the following:

A. Headings That Lack Parallel Form

Scope of Services

How Will Fieldwork Be Scheduled?

Establish Contract Conditions

B. Revised Headings with Parallel Form

Scope of Services

Schedule for Fieldwork

Conditions of Contract

You don’t have to be a grammar expert to see that the three headings in Option A are in different forms. The first is a noun phrase, the second is a question, and the third is an imperative sentence. Because such inconsistencies confuse the reader, you should make headings in each section uniform in wording, like the headings in Option B.

4. Establish a clear hierarchy in your headings. Whatever typographic tech- niques you choose for headings, your readers must be able to distinguish one heading level from another. Visual features should be increasingly striking as you move up the ranking of levels. Figures 5–12 and 5–13 show heading formats recommended by a pro- fessional organization and by a professional publication.

Following are specific guidelines for using typographic distinctions:

■ Use larger type size for higher-level headings. You want readers to grasp quickly the relative importance of heading levels as they read your document.

137 Elements for Navigation

Type size fixes this relative importance in their minds so that they can easily find their way through your material both the first time and upon rereading it. The incre- mental upgrading of type size helps readers determine the relative importance of the information. ■ Use heading position to show ranking. In formal documents, your high-level

headings can be centered. The next two or three levels of headings are at or inside or outside the left margin. Be sure these lower-level headings also use other typographic techniques, such as bolding, to help the reader distinguish levels.

■ Use typographic techniques to accomplish your purpose. Besides type size and position, as previously mentioned, you can vary heading type with such features as

Subheads: All subheads should be flush with the left margin, with one line of space above.

FIRST-LEVEL SUBHEAD (all capitals, boldface, on separate line)

Second-Level Subhead (initial capitals, boldface, on separate line)

Third-Level Subhead (initial capitals, italic, on separate line)

Fourth-Level Subhead (initial capitals, boldface, on same line as text, with extra letter space between subhead and text)

Fifth-Level Subhead (initial capitals, italic, on same line as text, with extra letter space between the subhead and text)

■ Figure 5–12 ■ Required heading formats for Transportation Research Board publications and manuscripts Source: Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. (2011). Information for authors. Retrieved from http://onlinepubs.trb. org/onlinepubs/AM/ InfoForAuthors.pdf . eproduced with permission of the Transportation Research Board.

Use up to three levels of headings and indicate them clearly.

FIRST-LEVEL HEADING (all caps, bold, on a line by itself)

Second-level heading (initial cap only, bold, on a line by itself)

Third-Level heading (initial cap only, bold, followed by two spaces, as part of the first line of the paragraph)

■ Figure 5–13 ■ Required heading formats for manuscripts submitted to Technical Communication Source: Society for Technical Communication. (2007). Author guidelines for technical communication . Retrieved from http:// archive.stc.org/pubs/ techcommGuidelines01.asp .

Chapter 5 Document Design138

Uppercase and lowercase

Bold type

Underlining

Changes in type font

With this embarrassment of riches, writers must be careful not to overdo it and create “busy” pages of print. Use only those features that provide an easy-to-grasp hierarchy of levels for the reader.

■ Consider using decimal headings for long formal documents. Decimal head- ings include a hierarchy of numbers for every heading and subheading listed in the table of contents. Many an argument has been waged over their use. People who like them say that they help readers find their way through documents and refer to subsec- tions in later discussions. People who dislike them say that they are cumbersome and give the appearance of bureaucratic writing.

Unless decimal headings are expected by your reader, use them only in formal documents that are fairly long. Following is the normal progression of numbering in decimal headings for a three-level document:

1 xxxxxxxxxxxxxx

1.1 xxxxxxxxxxx

1.1.1 xxxxxxxxxxx

1.1.2 xxxxxxxxxxx

1.2 xxxxxxxxxxx

1.2.1 xxxxxxxxxxx

1.2.2 xxxxxxxxxxx

2 xxxxxxxxxxxxxx

2.1 xxxxxxxxxxx

2.1.1 xxxxxxxxxxx

2.1.2 xxxxxxxxxxx

2.2 xxxxxxxxxxx

3 xxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Special Navigation Elements If a document is long and contains many sections, or if it will be used as a reference, you may decide to include additional elements to help your readers find information. Within the document, you can use color and graphic lines to separate sections. Icons or symbols can help readers find special features like warnings or advice. Tabs, or bleed indexes like those in Figure 5–14 , can help readers go quickly to sections of large documents. If you use any of these navigation elements, use them consistently. Consider adding information about them to your document style sheet.

139 Designing Digital Documents

>>> Designing Digital Documents How we open and read documents is changing rapidly. With the growing availability of e-book readers, tablet computers, and smart phones, digital documents are no longer confined to computer screens. If you are designing a document that will be read in print and digital formats, Adobe PDF is your best option. With the right software tools, PDFs are easy to create, and with Adobe Acrobat Reader, PDFs can be read on almost any device, and they maintain the look of print. In fact, if you are sending a document as an attachment and formatting is important (for example, a résumé), you should save and send it as a PDF so the document that your recipient gets will look exactly like the one that you sent.

If the document will be published primarily in digital form, you should consider the characteristics of digital media:

■ Page orientation. Most computer monitors use a landscape orientation instead of the portrait orientation of print documents, so keep this in mind as you design docu- ments that will be read on a computer. However, e-readers and tablet computers may give readers the option of choosing the screen orientation, so you should consider which orientation presents your information in the most readable way.

■ Interactivity. Readers expect digital documents to be interactive. They expect cross-references as hyperlinks within the document, and they welcome hyperlinks to materials on the Internet. Digital documents can be produced with videos or with 3D images that can be rotated. When the Society for Technical Communication began publishing its magazine, Intercom, electronically, it chose to offer the magazine as both a PDF and a flip book. The flip book version included advertisements with links to advertisers’ Web sites and with embedded videos that started as soon as the page was “turned.”

■ Color. Because the cost of printing is not a consideration for digital documents, it may be tempting to make them very colorful. Although this approach may be appropriate

PreparationPreparation

■ Figure 5–14 ■ Bleed index marks

140 Chapter 5 Document Design

for brochures and marketing material, most technical documents should use color in the same ways that it is used in print docu- ments: for navigation and emphasis. Remember that your readers may decide to print your document, or they may be accessing it through an e-reader that does not have a color display.

■ Legibility. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, sans serif fonts are usually considered easier on the eyes in digital docu- ments. Your document may be read on a small screen with only medium resolution, so choose fonts that are open and have ade- quate white space between the letters and the words ( kerning ) and set your paragraphs with adequate white space between the lines ( leading ). You may also want to use line drawings instead of photographs.

Also consider an alternative to the traditional print layout pre- sented in a PDF. If your document will be used primarily as a refer- ence by someone completing tasks on a computer, consider creating a Help file. If your document includes many hyperlinks to Web pages, or if it will be read primarily on a computer screen, you may want to format it as a Web site. (See Chapter 14 for more about designing Web sites.)

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>>> Chapter Summary ■ Documents should be designed for the conditions in which they will be used, whether

in an office or in the field.

■ Documents should be designed for the way that readers will use them. Reports that will be read a few times should be designed differently from manuals that will be used often as a reference for how to perform tasks.

■ Consistent design in a document helps readers quickly identify sections in the docu- ment and find the information that they are seeking.

■ Organizations encourage consistent design in all their documents to help reinforce the organization’s image.

■ Color can be used to set the tone of a document, to highlight important information, and to help readers understand data displays.

■ Writers should tag document elements like headings and body text. These style tags are collected in style sheets that make consistent document design easier.

■ Style sheets can be saved in templates that provide consistent document design for the same kinds of documents. Many organizations store a collection of templates on their intranet for all employees to use.

■ Grids are an effective way of visualizing the overall appearance of a document.

■ White space helps readers identify document sections. Used effectively, white space makes documents more readable.

■ Lists are an important element of technical and workplace documents. They use white space and numbers or bullets to draw the readers’ attention to important ideas.

■ Fonts can be divided into two basic categories: serif and sans serif. Fonts with serifs are preferred in print documents; sans serif fonts are preferred in digital documents.

■ Different typefaces and fonts can be used to help readers identify parts of documents, but you should use no more than two fonts in a document.

■ Fonts can be used to reinforce an organization’s image or to convey the tone of a doc- ument.

■ Bold and italic fonts can be used to emphasize words in a text. Underlining is used to indicate hyperlinks in digital text. Underlining may also be preferred in manuscripts that will be typeset.

■ Running headers and footers can help readers navigate large documents.

■ Headers should be informative and should use parallel grammatical form to help read- ers see the relationship between ideas in a document.

■ Special navigation elements, like tabs and bleed indexes, can help readers find sections of large documents.

■ When designing digital documents, you may want to take page orientation into account. Most computer screens use a landscape orientation.

■ Digital documents can take advantage of interactive elements ranging from simple hyperlinks to embedded video.

■ Although it is easy to use color in digital documents, remember that they should retain a professional appearance.

■ It is important to remember that digital documents may be read on screens that are small or have only medium resolution. Choose fonts and images that are easy to read.

Chapter Summary 141

142 Chapter 5 Document Design

Frustrated by inconsistency in report styles, Elaine Johnson,

a department manager at M-Global’s St. Paul office, decided

to take action. This case study explains Elaine’s process as

she tries to create a style guide to ensure a uniform report

style throughout the St. Paul branch of M-Global. It ends

with questions and comments for discussion and an assign-

ment for a written response to the Challenge.

After collecting examples of office reports with diverse

document designs, she met with her friend and branch

manager Randall DiSalvo to complain.

“Enough is enough, Randall,” Elaine said as the meeting

started. “The technical staff produces all kinds of formats,

the administrative support staff doesn’t know what designs

are approved, and the clients get a fragmented image of the

firm. Let’s decide on one document design for reports and

stay with it.”

After an hour’s talk, Elaine and Randall agreed that the

office needed a style sheet to describe the required style for

each document type written at the St. Paul branch. Busy

with many other tasks, Randall told Elaine that he didn’t

have time to supervise the project, so he gave Elaine the

authority to design what he wanted to be called the Style

Guide . However, first, she had to meet with all department

managers and a few other employees about the project.

Also, he asked that her first version of the guide be a mod-

est one that covered only brief letter reports; later, the guide

could be expanded.

What follows are details about (1) Elaine’s process of

gathering information, (2) some actual guidelines she de-

cided to include in the Style Guide, and (3) some problems

that arose with the project.

Soliciting Opinions From Around the Office The same morning she met with Randall, Elaine met with

all five of her fellow department managers in the St. Paul

office. Gathering in a meeting room overlooking the Missis-

sippi River, they agreed immediately that the format prob-

lem needed to be solved.

The managers then concurred with the branch man-

ager’s idea about starting small—that is, covering only short

letter reports now but later adding formal reports, propos-

als, manuals, letters, and memos, along with suggestions

on style and grammar. Knowing that Elaine was one of the

best writers and editors in the office, the managers said

they were comfortable with her writing the manual herself.

She could draw from whatever information she gathered

from around the office and whatever guidelines she col-

lected from her research on the subject. When the draft was

complete, she would run it by them for their comments.

Then it would go to Randall for final approval before distri-

bution to all branch employees.

Elaine could hardly believe it. In one morning, five de-

partment managers and the branch manager had reached

consensus about the nature of the format problem and its

solution. Buoyed by her success, Elaine was almost able to

look beyond the fact that she had been given the job of writ-

ing the manual. Always one to get a job done quickly, how-

ever, she moved to the following steps in the next few days:

■ Notepad in hand, she interviewed all seven adminis-

trative assistants about their preferences in document

design.

■ She e-mailed all members of the professional staff,

asking them to respond in writing in three days if they

had specific preferences about the look they wanted to

achieve in their letter reports.

■ She called a local chapter of the Society for Technical

Communication (STC), asking for references on docu-

ment design.

■ She located the four sources she received from STC

and read them cover to cover.

By the end of the following week, Elaine was ready to begin

writing the first draft of what would become the Style Guide

for M-Global’s St. Paul office.

Elaine’s Format for Informal Reports Elaine quickly developed a clear idea of what features

should be part of M-Global’s informal reports in St. Paul. To

be sure, some of what she heard from department manag-

ers and other employees was at odds with her own views.

For example, her preference for ragged-right margins in

letter reports differed from that of many colleagues. When

there were differences of opinion, she based her decisions

primarily on the basis of the responses she had received

from the employees she surveyed, but also on her research.

The following information summarizes some of the guide-

lines included in her draft:

1. Font choice should be 12-point New Century School-

book.

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge The St. Paul Style Guide: Trouble in the River City

2. There should be 1.2-inch margins on the sides, a

1/2-inch margin on the top, and a 1-inch margin on

the bottom (except for the first page, where letterhead

requires the use of a top margin of 1 inch and a bot-

tom margin of 1 1/2 inches).

3. Paragraphs should be block style without the first line

indented.

4. Text margins should be ragged-right, not fully justified.

5. Text should be single-spaced, with double spacing be-

tween paragraphs.

6. Arrangement of date, inside address, and report title

should follow this format:

Date

Address line 1

Address line 2

Address line 3

ATTENTION: Name of addressee

SPECIFIC TITLE OF PROJECT

M-GLOBAL PROJECT ID NUMBER

LOCATION OF PROJECT

7. Every page after the first page should include a header.

Placed in the top right corner (see margin guideline

above), the header should include three single-spaced

items: the company name and branch (M-Global,

Inc.—St. Paul), the project number (e.g., M-Global

Project #134), and the date (e.g., July 29, 2009).

8. The heading system should follow this pattern:

Level 1 Heading A first-level heading (Futura 14-point bold with initial caps, on a separate line)

Level 2 Heading A second-level heading (Futura 12-point bold with ini- tial caps, on a separate line)

Level 3 Heading. A third-level heading The text follows. (Futura 12-point bold, in line with text)

9. Bulleted and numbered lists should be indented 1/2 inch

from the left margin, with double spacing before and

after the list and between items in the list.

Once her draft was approved by the branch manager, Elaine

had 95 copies printed and distributed to all employees of the

St. Paul office. She wrote a cover memo to accompany the

Style Guide, explaining what it was and how it was to be used.

Questions and Comments for Discussion Having finished her project by her deadline, Elaine was

pleased. There would be clear guidelines for the staff, and

the office would reap the rewards of a more efficient pro-

cess of producing letter reports. As you look back on Elaine’s

activities and the guidelines she developed, consider the

following questions and comments for discussion:

1. Elaine did a good job of seeking opinions of branch

employees before she began her draft. Would it

have been useful to consult with M-Global custom-

ers while the guide was being developed? Why or

why not?

2. Should Elaine have tested the usefulness of the Style

Guide before it was issued to all employees, or was her

pilot draft approach adequate? If you think further

testing was needed, what specifically would you have

suggested?

3. Elaine chose to issue the final Style Guide through the

office mail, with a cover memo. Was this strategy

ideal? If so, why? If not, in what other way might she

have introduced the manual?

4. Elaine based most of her decisions on the responses

from the employees that she surveyed. Do you think

that Elaine’s decision to defer to the employees’ pref-

erences was a good one? Why or why not?

5. Using Elaine’s nine guidelines, edit any short letter

report in the models at the ends of Chapters 10 (pp.

300–349 ) and 11 (pp. 350–397 ). Do you think the revision

is better designed than the original? Why or why not?

6. Elaine’s manual provides a fairly rigid set of guide-

lines, as shown by the guidelines excerpt included in

this case. Do you think a company should require em-

ployees to follow such a narrowly prescribed layout?

Why or why not? Give the advantages and disadvan-

tages of each point of view.

7. One engineer called Elaine to complain that the new

guidelines did not allow him to use decimal-numbered

headings and subheadings in his short report. He said

that he preferred such headings, and he suspected

that his clients did as well. If you were in Elaine’s posi-

tion, how would you respond to this complaint?

8. If you were designing an M-Global Style Guide for short

reports, what are some of the guidelines you would

include, taking your own personal preferences into ac-

count?

Write About It

Taking the role of Elaine, write the cover memo for the Style

Guide, indicating that (1) the guide should be considered the

new model for all letter reports leaving the office, (2) that it

is a pilot draft that the office will review after six months,

and (3) that the guide will be expanded later to include other

documents. In your memo, explain how this style guide will

benefit the St. Paul office and why employees should use it.

Learning Portfolio 143

144 Chapter 5 Document Design

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six stu-

dents, (2) will use time inside or outside of class to complete

the case, and (3) will produce an oral or written response. For

guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Chapter 4 used the term organization to refer to the structure

of ideas in your writing. This chapter introduces the term

document design to refer to the arrangement of all visual el-

ements—including text—on the page. Effective document

design incorporates features such as white space, headings,

lists, font size and type, and color. Choices in document de-

sign can greatly influence the readers’ interest in a document.

This exercise concerns the design of a document with

which you may be familiar: the campus print or online

newspaper. Typical features of a college or university paper

include the following:

■ Campus news and events

■ Local or regional news

■ Updates on academic programs

■ Updates on student organizations and activities

■ Editorials

■ Letters to the editor

■ Advertisements

How these features are presented through effective (or inef-

fective) document design helps determine whether mem-

bers of the campus community read the paper and take it

seriously as journalism.

Team Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate the document

design of your campus newspaper. (If your campus has no

paper, use a similar document available on or near campus.)

Your team has two options for this assignment. Option 1 is

to review a current issue of your campus newspaper, note

elements of its document design, and determine whether

these elements serve a useful purpose. Option 2 is to com-

pare and contrast the effectiveness of the document design

of two different campus newspapers or two different issues

of the same paper.

Collaboration at Work Design of the Campus Paper

Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a

response that can be delivered as an oral presentation for

discussion in class. Analyze the context of each Assign-

ment by considering what you learned in Chapter 1 about

the context of technical writing, and answer the following

questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

1. Analysis: Team Evaluation of Document Design

Model 5–1 on page 148 does not include the elements of

document design that are discussed in this chapter. In

Model 5–2 on pages 150–151 , principles of document de-

sign have been applied to the same text. Working in small

teams, compare Model 5–1 to Model 5–2 . Identify the docu-

ment design elements that have been used. Analyze the

effectiveness of the document design of the document in

Model 5–2 . Your instructor will indicate whether you should

prepare a written or an oral report of your findings. Give

specific support for your praise or criticism.

2. Analysis: Individual Evaluation of Technical Document Design

Locate an example of technical writing, such as a user’s

manual or instructions. Use the guidelines in this chapter to

analyze the document’s document design. Your instructor

will indicate whether your report should be oral or written.

3. Analysis, M-Global Context: Individual Evaluation of Document Design

Use the guidelines in this chapter to evaluate the document

design of Model 1–1 (pp. 25–34 ). Is the “Welcome to M-Global”

Assignments

145 Learning Portfolio

booklet designed appropriately for its audience, and pur-

pose? What image of the company does it communicate?

What could be improved? Be specific in your comments.

4. Practice, M-Global Context: Page Design As a manager at M-Global, you have just finished a major

report to a client. It gives recommendations for transporting

a variety of hazardous materials by sea, land, and air. The

body of your report contains a section that defines the term

stowage plan and describes its use. Given your mixed tech-

nical and nontechnical audience, this basic information is

much needed. What follows is the text of that section. Re-

vise the passage by applying any of this chapter’s principles

of document design that seem appropriate—such as adding

headings, graphics, lists, and white space. If you wish, you

may also make changes in organization and style. Optional:

Share your version with another student to receive his or

her response.

5. Practice: Word-Processing Tools Review the summary of the guidelines in the Communication

Challenge in this chapter (pp. 142–143 ). Use the Styles and

Templates functions in your word-processing program to

create a template that follows the guidelines.

6. Practice: Document Design as a Team Working in small teams, prepare a redesigned version of

the memorandum in Model 5–2 (pp. 150–151 ). If your class

meets in a computer lab, present your team’s version on-

screen. If you are not using a lab, present your version on an

overhead transparency.

7. Practice: Using Computer Communication This assignment is feasible only if you and your classmates

have access to software that allows you to post messages to

team members, edit on-screen, and send edited copy back

and forth. Your task is to add appropriate document design

features to either (a) the stowage plan excerpt in Assignment

3 or (b) any other piece of unformatted text permitted for

use by your instructor. Choose a team leader who will col-

lect and collate the individual edits. Choose another team

member to type or scan the excerpt into the computer and

then e-mail the passage to other team members. Then each

person should add the features desired and e-mail the ed-

ited document to the team leader, who will collate the revi-

sions and e-mail the new version to team members for a

final edit. Throughout this process, participants may con-

duct e-mail conversations about the draft and resolve dif-

ferences, if possible, before sending drafts to the leader. The

In the chemical shipping industry, a stowage plan is a kind of blueprint for a vessel. It lists all stowage tanks and provides in-

formation about tank volume, tank coating, stowed product, weight of product, loading port, and discharging port. A stowage

plan is made out for each vessel on each voyage and records all chemicals loaded. The following information concerns cargo

considerations (chemical properties and tank features) and some specific uses of the stowage plan in industry.

The three main cargo considerations in planning stowage are temperature, compatibility, and safety. Chemicals have

physical properties that distinguish them from one another. To maintain the natural state of chemicals and to prevent altera-

tion of their physical properties, a controlled environment is necessary. Some chemicals, for example, require firm temperature

controls to maintain their physical characteristics and degree of viscosity (thickness) and to prevent contamination of the

chemicals by any moisture in the tanks. In addition, some chemicals, like acids, react violently with each other and should not

be stowed in adjoining, or even neighboring, tanks. In shipping, this relationship is known as chemical compatibility.

The controlled environment and compatibility of chemicals have resulted in safety regulations for the handling and trans-

porting of these chemicals. These regulations originated with the federal government, which based them on research done by

the private manufacturers. Location and size of tanks also determine the placement of cargo. A ship’s tanks are arranged with

all smaller tanks around the periphery of the tank grouping and all larger tanks in the center. These tanks, made of heavy steel

and coated with zinc or epoxy, are highly resistant to most chemicals and thus reduce the chance of cargo contamination.

Each tank has a maximum cargo capacity, and the amounts of each chemical are matched with the tanks. Often chemicals to

be discharged at the same port are staggered in the stowage plan layout so that after they are discharged the ship maintains

its equilibrium.

The stowage plan is finalized after consideration of the cargo and tank characteristics. In its final form, the plan is used as

a reference document with all information relevant to the loading/discharging voyage recorded. If an accident occurs involving

a ship, or when questions arise about discharging operations, this document serves as a visual reference and brings about

quick decisions.

Chapter 5 Document Design146

team may need one or two short meetings in person, but

most business should be conducted via the computer. The

goal is to arrive at one final version for your team.

8. Practice: Organization and Document Design

The list that follows mostly includes exact wording or para-

phrased excerpts from the National Center for Environmental

Health Publication No. 01–0164—March 2001. (Some informa-

tion has been slightly altered to accommodate this assign-

ment, and much information in the publication has been left

out.) Assume that the points are to be included as a section of

a report you are producing. (NOTE: You are not being asked

to produce a complete technical report, a subject covered in

Chapters 10 and 11 .) First, arrange the information in an order

that generally follows the ABC format described in Chapter 4 ,

eliminating any possible redundant information or any items

that do not seem to fit the report section you are producing.

Second, make adjustments in wording or style you consider

appropriate. Third, add appropriate elements of document

design that have been covered in this chapter.

A. This report will be followed by yearly updates. Future reports will attempt to answer the following questions:

1. Are exposure levels increasing or decreasing over time? 2. Are public health efforts to reduce exposure working? 3. Do certain groups of people have higher levels of ex-

posure than others?

B. Cotinine is a metabolite of nicotine that tracks exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) among non-

smokers—higher levels reflect more exposure to ETS.

C. An environmental chemical is a chemical compound or chemical element in air, water, soil, dust, food, or other

environmental media.

D. Biomonitoring is the assessment of human exposure to environmental chemicals by measuring the chemicals

(or their breakdown products) in human specimens,

such as blood or urine.

E. Because the sample size was relatively small and be- cause the sampling was conducted in only 12 locations,

the data cannot be considered conclusive. Additional

studies should be conducted.

F. It should be noted that just because people have an en- vironmental chemical in their blood or urine does not

mean that the chemical causes disease. Research stud-

ies, separate from this report, are required to determine

at what level the chemical may cause disease and what

levels are of negligible health concern.

G. The reduction in cotinine levels reflected in the at- tached table indicates a dramatic reduction in exposure

of the general population to environmental tobacco

smoke since 1988–1991.

H. Special populations of children at high risk for lead exposure (e.g., those living in homes containing lead-

based paint or lead-contaminated dust) remain a major

public health concern.

I. The report provides new data on blood mercury levels among children ages 1–5 years and among women of

childbearing age (16–49 years).

J. This report must be updated each year. The results from all samplings of the 27 chemicals at the 12 locations are

included on the attached table. Most of the data will not

be considered conclusive and therefore will not be com-

mented on until we have results for additional years,

which will give more support for comments on trends.

K. This report measures the exposure (through biomoni- toring) of a sample population to 27 environmental

chemicals, which include 13 metals (antimony, barium,

beryllium, cadmium, cesium, cobalt, lead, mercury, mo-

lybdenum, platinum, thallium, tungsten, and uranium),

6 organophosphate pesticide metabolites, 7 phthalate

metabolites, and cotinine.

L. The results showed that levels of some metabolites in the sample population were considerably higher than

other metabolites, indicating a need for further study.

M. Compared with an adult, the fetus and children are usu- ally more vulnerable to the effects of metals, such as

mercury. One goal of collecting such data is to better es-

timate health risks for the fetus, children, and women of

childbearing age from potential exposures to mercury.

N. One noteworthy conclusion is that lead levels in the blood continue to decline among U.S. children when considered

as a group, highlighting the success of public health ef-

forts to decrease the exposure of children to lead.

O. Because more than half of American youth are still ex- posed to ETS, it remains a major public health concern.

P. Plans are to expand the list of measured chemicals from 27 to approximately 100.

9. Ethics Assignment Document design greatly influences the way people read

documents, no matter what message is being delivered.

Even a product, a service, or an idea that could be consid-

ered harmful to the individual or public good can be made

Learning Portfolio

to seem more acceptable by a well-designed piece of writ-

ing. Find a well-designed document that promotes what is,

in your opinion, a harmful product, service, or idea. Explain

why you think the writers made the design decisions they

did. Although your example may include graphics, focus

mainly on the kind of document design covered in this

chapter.

10. International Communication Assignment

Collect one or more samples of business or technical writ-

ing that originated in—or were designed for—cultures

outside the United States. (Use either print examples or

examples found on the Internet.) Comment on features of

the document design in the samples. If applicable, indicate

how such features differ from those evident in business

and technical writing designed for an audience within the

United States.

ACTNOW 11. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Find a document (report, article, letter to the editor, poster

with text, editorial, etc.) intended to alert readers to a

health or safety issue. Depending on the instructions you

are given, prepare an oral or a written report in which you

(a) analyze the degree to which the document subscribes

to document design guidelines mentioned in this chapter

and (b) offer suggestions about how the document’s design

might be improved so that it accomplishes more effectively

what you believe to be the purpose of the document.

147

Chapter 5 Document Design148

■ Model 5–1 ■ Memorandum without document design

MEMORANDUM DATE: August 19, 2012 TO: Randall Demorest, Dean FROM: Kenneth Payne, Professor and Head KP SUBJECT: BSTC Advisory Board

When we seek support for the college, we have to (1) make people feel that they will get something in return and (2) make them feel comfortable about us and our organization. As businesses have demonstrated, one way we can accomplish these goals is by taking potential donors to lunch. As you and I have discussed, the B.S. in Technical Communication degree program (BSTC) needs to strengthen ties to its Advisory Board. We must ask board participants to provide tangible support for the program and give them meaningful involvement in the work we are doing. The immediate need is to involve members of the Advisory Board in the coming year’s pro- gram. I want to do this in two ways: plan carefully for a fall board meeting, and discuss with each of them individually what we want to accomplish this year. To do the second item mentioned, I request an allocation of $360 so that I can take each member to lunch for an extended one-on-one dis- cussion. I plan to discuss the needs of our program and each member’s capabilities to support it. Each member of the board will be asked individu- ally to consider the following ways to contribute: To continue support for the internship program, to participate in the research project we began a year ago, and to offer cooperative work experiences for BSTC faculty, possibly during the summer of 2013; Financial support for the college’s membership as a sponsoring organization in the Society for Technical Communication; contributions—financial or otherwise–—to library hold- ings in technical writing and the usability testing laboratory; a workshop series bringing to the campus some outstanding technical communicators (for example, Edward Tufte, expert in graphics; JoAnn Hackos, expert in quality management; and William Horton, expert in online documentation). In the long run, board members will get a better BSTC program, which will produce better technical communicators for them to hire. In the short term, they will get meaningful involvement in the program. They will specifically gain training opportunities for their personnel through the workshops men- tioned. My tentative plan for those workshops is to provide a one-day sem- inar for our students and a second seminar for employees of the Advisory Board members. (We will allow them a number of participants based on how much they contribute to the workshops.) Please let me know as soon as possible if money is available for the lunches. I hope to begin scheduling meetings within a week.

Learning Portfolio 149

■ Model 5–2 ■ Document design in memorandum

MEMORANDUM DATE: August 19, 2012 TO: Randall Demorest, Dean FROM: Kenneth Payne, Professor and Head KP SUBJECT: BSTC Advisory Board

What? Lunch meetings between Advisory Board members and me Why? To get more board support for the BSTC degree program Who? Each individual member at a separate luncheon When? Fall 2012 How? Allocation of $360 to pay for the lunches

Rationale When we seek support for the college, we have to (1) make people feel that they

will get something in return and (2) make them feel comfortable about us and our organization. As businesses have demonstrated, one way we can accomplish these goals is by taking potential donors to lunch.

As you and I have discussed, the B.S. in Technical Communication degree program (BSTC) needs to strengthen ties to its Advisory Board. We must ask board participants to provide tangible support for the program and give them meaningful involvement in the work we are doing.

Method The immediate need is to involve members of the Advisory Board in the coming

year’s program. I want to do this in two ways:

1. Plan carefully for a fall board meeting 2. Discuss with each of them individually what we want to accomplish this year

Cost To do the second item mentioned, I request an allocation of $360 so that I can

take each member to lunch for an extended one-on-one discussion. I plan to discuss the needs of our program and each member’s capabilities to support it.

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Chapter 5 Document Design

Payne to Demorest, 2

Specifics Each member of the board will be asked individually to consider the

following ways to contribute: 1. Continuing support for the internship program 2. Participation in the research project we began a year ago 3. Cooperative work experiences for BSTC faculty, possibly during the

summer of 2013. Financial support for the following items: • The college’s membership as a sponsoring organization in the So-

ciety for Technical Communication • Contributions–—financial or otherwise–—to library holdings in

technical writing • Usability testing laboratory • A workshop series bringing to the campus some outstanding tech-

nical communicators (for example, Edward Tufte, expert in graph- ics; JoAnn Hackos, expert in quality management; and William Horton, expert in online documentation)

Benefits What are board members going to get from this?

Long range: A better BSTC program, which will produce better techni- cal communicators for them to hire

Immediately: Meaningful involvement in the program

Specifically: Training opportunities for their personnel through the workshops mentioned

My tentative plan for those workshops is to provide a one-day seminar for our students and a second seminar for employees of Advisory Board members. (We will allow them a number of participants based on how much they contribute to the workshops.)

Response Needed Please let me know as soon as possible if money is available for the

lunches. I hope to begin scheduling meetings within a week.

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

■ Model 5–2 ■ continued

150

Correspondence

In this chapter, students will

■ Learn general guidelines for all correspondence

■ Learn the general ABC format for all correspondence

■ Learn strategies for writing positive, negative, neutral, and persuasive messages

■ Learn special considerations for writing letters: correspondence to readers outside an organization

■ Learn special considerations for writing memos: correspondence within an organization

■ Learn special considerations for writing e-mail: correspondence that can be sent both outside of and within an organization

■ Learn the ABC format for e-mail

■ Learn guidelines for choosing whether to send a memo or an e-mail message

■ Read and analyze model correspondence

>>> Chapter Objectives

151

Chapter 6

Photo © Carroteater/Dreamstime.com

Chapter 6 Correspondence152

>>> General Guidelines for Correspondence Letters convey your message to readers outside your organization, just as memos are an ef- fective way to get things done within your own organization, and e-mail is a way to commu- nicate quickly with readers inside and outside your organization. By applying the guidelines in this chapter, you can master the craft of writing effective correspondence. You must plan, draft, and revise each letter, memo, and e-mail as if your job depends on it—for it may.

Refer to Models 6–1 , 6–2 , and 6–3 on pages 182–185 for M-Global examples that demonstrate the guidelines that follow. Later examples in this chapter illustrate specific guidelines for letters, memos, and e-mail.

Marie Stargill, M-Global’s fire science expert, just returned from a seminar that empha-sized new techniques for preventing inju- ries from job site fires. Within 24 hours of her return,

she has already done three things:

1. Written her manager an e-mail message over the office computer network

2. Sent a letter to an M-Global client suggesting use of fire-retardant gloves she learned about at the

seminar

3. Sent the conference director a letter of apprecia- tion about the meeting

Like Marie, you will write many letters, memos, and

e-mails in your career. In fact, you probably will write

more of this correspondence than any other type of

document.

Letters, memos, and e-mails are short documents

written to accomplish a limited purpose. Letters are di-

rected outside your organization, memos are directed

within your organization, and e-mail can be directed

to either an external or an internal audience. (Longer,

more complicated letters and memos—called letter re-

ports and memo reports —are covered in Chapter 10 .)

Here are some working definitions:

Letter: A document that conveys information to a mem- ber of one organization from someone outside that same

organization. Letters usually cover one major point and fit on one page.

Memo: A document written from a member of an organi- zation to one or more members of the same organization. Memos usually cover just one main point and no more than a few. Readers prefer one-page memos.

E-mail: A document often written in an informal style either to members of one’s own organization or to an external audience. E-mail messages usually cover one main point. Characterized by the speed with which it is written and delivered, an e-mail can include more for- mal attachments to be read and possibly printed by the recipient.

Your ability to write good memos, letters, and

e-mails, like other forms of technical communication,

depends on a clear sense of purpose, thorough under-

standing of reader needs, and close attention to correct

formats. This chapter prepares you for this challenge

by presenting sections that cover

1. General rules that apply to all workplace corre- spondence

2. Specific formats for positive messages, negative messages, neutral messages, and persuasive mes-

sages

3. Guidelines for letters, memos, and e-mail

Job letters and résumés are discussed in a separate

chapter on the job search ( Chapter 16 ).

153 General Guidelines for Correspondence

>> Correspondence Guideline 1: Know Your Purpose Before beginning your draft, write down your purpose in one clear sentence. This ap- proach forces you to sift through details to find a main reason for writing every letter or memo. This purpose sentence often becomes one of the first sentences in the document. Following are some samples:

■ Letter purpose sentence: “As you requested yesterday, I am sending samples of the new candy brands you are considering placing in M-Global’s office vending machines.”

■ Memo purpose sentence: “This memo explains M-Global’s new policy for select- ing rental cars on business trips.”

■ E-mail purpose sentence: “I have attached the most recent draft of the proposal for the PI Corp. pipeline project.”

Some purpose statements are implied; others are stated. An implied purpose statement occurs in the second paragraph of Models 6–1 . This paragraph shows that the writer wishes both to respond to requests for M-Global brochures and, just as important, to seek the professor’s help in soliciting good graduates for M-Global’s Atlanta office. In a sense, one purpose leads into the other. Models 6–2 shows a more obvious purpose statement in the second sentence, directly stating the contents of the memo.

>> Correspondence Guideline 2: Know Your Readers Who are you trying to inform or influence? The answer to this ques- tion affects the vocabulary you choose, the arguments you make, and the tone you adopt. Pay particular attention when correspondence will be read by more than one person. If these readers are from dif- ferent technical levels or different administrative levels within an organization, the challenge increases. A complex audience compels you to either reduce the level of technicality to one that can be un- derstood by all readers or write different parts of the document for different readers.

Models 6–1 is directed to a professor with whom the writer wants to develop a reciprocal relationship—that is, George Lux gives free guest lectures in civil engineering classes, hoping the professor will in turn help him inform potential job applicants about M-Global. Models 6–2 , directed to an in-house technical audience, contains fairly general information about the new technical edi- tor. This information applies to, and should be understood by, all readers. Models 6–3 is typical of e-mail between people who know each other professionally. It has a conversational tone not found in other forms of correspondence.

George Doyle/Thinkstock

Chapter 6 Correspondence154

>> Correspondence Guideline 3: Follow Correct Format Most organizations adopt letter and memo formats that must be used uniformly by all employees. You should learn the formats that your organization uses, but most corre- spondence follows these basic guidelines:

■ Letters: There are three main letter formats—block, modified block, and sim- plified. Figures 6–1 , 6–2 , and 6–3 show the basic page design of each; letter examples throughout the chapter use the three formats. Some letters, like the one in Model 6–6 on page 188 , include a subject line or attention line instead of the salutation line. As noted, you usually follow the preferred format of your own organization.

Addresses on envelopes and in letters should use the format recommended by the U.S. Postal Service. Addresses should include no more than four lines, and should not include punctuation such as commas or periods.

■ Memos: With minor variations, all memos look much the same. The obliga- tory “Date/To/From/Subject” information hangs at the top left margin, in whatever order your organization requires. Figure 6–4 shows one basic format. These four lines allow you to dispense with lengthy introductory passages seen in more formal docu- ments. Note that the sender signs his or her initials after or above the typed name in the “From” line.

■ Letters and memos: Some format conventions apply to both letters and memos. Three of the more important features are:

Reference initials: If the document has been typed by someone other than the writer, place the typist’s initials two lines beneath the signature block for letters and below the last paragraph for memos (e.g., jt). Some organizations prefer that the initials of the writer also be included, followed by those of the typist (e.g., GTY/jt).

Enclosure notation: If attachments or enclosures accompany the letter or memo, type the singular or plural form of “Enclosure” or “Attachment” one or two lines beneath the reference initials. Some writers also list the item itself (e.g., Enclosure: Specifica- tion Sheet B54321).

Multiple-page headings: Each page after the first page often has a heading that in- cludes the name of the person or company receiving the letter or memo, the date, and the page number. Some organizations may prefer an abbreviated form such as “Jones to Bingham, 2,” without the date.

■ E-mail: Computers and e-mail systems handle formatting of texts and special characters differently, so you should format your e-mail so that it can be read on any computer. Use your system’s default font, and avoid highlighting, color, bold, italics, and underlining. E-mails are generally short, a length that can be seen on a computer screen all at once, and paragraphs should be short. Some e-mail systems can’t translate tab indentations at the beginning of paragraphs, so use lines of white space between paragraphs.

155 General Guidelines for Correspondence

Letterhead of your organization

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Date of letter

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Address of reader

One blank line

Greeting

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced (indenting optional)

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced (indenting optional)

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced (indenting optional)

One blank line

Complimentary close

Three blank lines (for signature)

Typed name and title

One blank line

Typist’s initials (optional: Writer’s initials before typist’s initials)

Computer file # (if applicable)

One blank line (optional)

Enclosure notation

One blank line (optional)

Copy notation

■ Figure 6–1 ■ Block style for letters

Chapter 6 Correspondence156

Letterhead of your organization

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Date of letter

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Address of reader

One blank line

Greeting

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced, with first line indented 5 spaces

One blank line

Complimentary close

Three blank lines (for signature)

Typed name and title

One blank line

Typist’s initials (optional: Writer’s initials before typist’s initials)

Computer file # (if applicable)

One blank line (optional)

Enclosure notation

One blank line (optional)

Copy notation

■ Figure 6–2 ■ Modified block style (with indented paragraphs) for letters

157 General Guidelines for Correspondence

In memos and e-mails, give the subject line special attention because it telegraphs meaning to the audience immediately. In fact, readers use it to decide when, or if, they will read the complete correspondence. Be brief, but also engage interest. For example, the subject line of the Model 6–2 memo could have been “Editing.” Yet that brevity would have sacrificed reader interest. The actual subject line, “New employee to help

Letterhead of organization

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Date of letter

Two or more blank lines (adjust space to center letter on page)

Address of reader

Three blank lines

Short subject line

Three blank lines

Paragraph: single-spaced, no indenting

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced, no indenting

One blank line

Paragraph: single-spaced, no indenting

Five blank lines (for signature)

Typed name and title

One blank line (optional)

Typist’s initials (optional: Writer’s initials before typist’s initials)

Computer file # (if applicable)

One blank line (optional)

Enclosure notation

One blank line (optional)

Copy notation

■ Figure 6–3 ■ Simplified style for letters

Chapter 6 Correspondence158

with technical editing,” conveys more information and shows readers that the contents of the memo will make their lives easier.

■ Letters, memos, and e-mail: Some format conventions apply to all three forms of correspondence. Two of the more important features are:

Copy notation: If the correspondence has been sent to anyone other than the recipient, type “Copy” or “Copies” one or two lines beneath the enclosure nota- tion, followed by the name(s) of the person or persons receiving copies (e.g., Copy: Preston Hinkley). Some organizations prefer the initials “c” (for copy ), “cc” (for carbon copy, even though carbons rarely exist anymore), or “pc” (for photo- copy ). E-mail inserts this information automatically. If you are sending a copy but do not want the original letter or memo to include a reference to that copy, write “bc” (for blind copy ) and the person’s name only on the copy—not on the original (e.g., bc: Jim McDuff). (Note: Send blind copies only when you are certain it is appropriate and ethical to do so. See page 170–171 in this chapter for more on sending copies.)

■ Figure 6–4 ■ Memo style

Facsimile reference

One or more blank lines

Date of memo

Reader’s name (and position, if appropriate)

Writer’s name (and position, if appropriate)

Subject of memo

Paragraph: Single-spaced (optional–first line indented)

One blank line

Paragraph: Single-spaced (optional–first line indented)

One blank line

Paragraph: Single-spaced (optional–first line indented)

One blank line

Typist’s initials (optional–writer’s initials before typist’s initials)

One blank line

Enclosure notation

One blank line

Copy notation

One or more blank lines

159 General Guidelines for Correspondence

Postscripts: Items marked “PS” or “P.S.” appear occasionally in letters and rarely in memos. They are considered by many readers to be symbols of poor planning, so use them with caution. If used, they appear as the last item on the document (beneath the copy notation) and can be typed or written in longhand.

>> Correspondence Guideline 4: Follow the ABC Format for All Correspondence

Correspondence subscribes to the same three-part ABC ( A bstract/ B ody/ C onclusion) format used throughout this book. This approach responds to each reader’s need to know “What does this document have to do with me?” According to the ABC format, your correspondence is composed of these three main sections:

■ Abstract: The abstract introduces the purpose and usually gives a summary of main points to follow. It includes one or two short paragraphs.

■ Body: The body contains supporting details and thus makes up the largest part of a letter or memo. You can help your readers by using such techniques as:

Deductive patterns for paragraphs: In this general-to-specific plan, your first sentence should state the point that helps the reader understand the rest of the paragraph. This pattern avoids burying important points in the middle or end of the paragraph, where they might be missed. Fast readers tend to focus on paragraph beginnings and expect to find crucial information there. Note how most paragraphs in Model 6–2 follow this format.

Lists that break up the text: Listed points are a good strategy for highlighting details. Readers are especially attracted to groupings of three items, which create a certain rhythm, attract attention, and encourage recall. Use bullets, numbers, dashes, or other typographic techniques to signal the listed items. For example, the bulleted list in Model 6–1 draws attention to three important points about M-Global that the writer wants to emphasize. Because some e-mail systems can’t read special characters like bullets, use asterisks or dashes for lists in e-mail.

Headings to divide information: One-page letters and memos, and even e-mail, sometimes benefit from the emphasis achieved by headings. The three headings in Model 6–2 quickly steer the reader to main parts of the document.

■ Conclusion: Readers remember first what they read last. The final paragraph of your correspondence should leave the reader with an important piece of information—for example, a summary of the main idea or a clear statement of what will happen next. The Model 6–1 letter makes an offer that helps continue the reader’s association with the university, whereas the Model 6–2 memo gives readers specific issues to study before the next meeting.

Your final paragraph in external correspondence should always continue the business relationship by encouraging future contact. Internal correspondence may also include a statement offering to answer questions or concerns. The final paragraph in the Model 6–1 letter encourages the reader to call, and the final paragraph in the original e-mail in Model 6–3 specifically encourages the recipient to respond with questions or concerns.

Chapter 6 Correspondence160

>> Correspondence Guideline 5: Use the 3Cs Strategy The ABC format provides a way to organize all letters and memos. Another pattern of organization for you to use is the 3Cs strategy —especially when your correspondence has a persuasive objective. This strategy has three main goals:

■ Capture the reader’s attention with a good opener, which tells the reader what the letter, memo, or e-mail can do for him or her.

■ Convince the reader with supporting points, all of which confirm the opening point that this document will help the reader meet his or her goals.

■ Contact solidifies your relationship with the reader with an offer to follow up on the correspondence.

Although neither Model 6–1 nor Model 6–2 is overtly persuasive, each has an under- lying persuasive purpose, as does the original message in Model 6–3 . Note how each uses the 3Cs strategy.

>> Correspondence Guideline 6: Stress the “You” Attitude Begin writing correspondence by looking at the subject from your reader’s perspective. Ask yourself, “What will interest my reader?” and “What does my reader want to accom- plish?” For example, you should perform the following tasks:

■ Anticipate questions your reader might raise and then answer these questions. You can even follow an actual question (“And how will our new testing lab help your firm?”) with an answer (“Now M-Global’s labs can process samples in 24 hours”).

■ Replace the pronouns I, me, and we with you and your. Of course, you must use first- person pronouns at certain points in a letter, but many pronouns should be second person. The technique is quite simple. You can change almost any sentence from writer-focused prose (“We feel that this new service will . . .”) to reader-focused prose (“You’ll find that this new service will . . .”).

Model 6–1 shows this you attitude by emphasizing what M-Global and the writer himself can do for the professor and his students. Model 6–2 shows it by emphasizing that the new editor will make the readers’ jobs easier.

>> Correspondence Guideline 7: Use Attachments for Details Keep text brief by placing details in attachments, which readers can examine later, rather than bogging down the middle of the letter or memo. This way, the supporting facts are available for future reference, without distracting readers from the main message. The memo in Model 6–2 , for example, includes an attached list of possible job tasks for the new M-Global editor. The listing would only clutter the body of the memo, especially because its purpose is to stimulate discussion at the next meeting.

>> Correspondence Guideline 8: Be Diplomatic Without a tactful tone, all of your planning and drafting will be wasted. Choose words that persuade, not demand. Be especially careful with memos written to subordinates. If

161 General Guidelines for Correspondence

you sound too authoritarian, your message may be ignored—even if it is clear that what you are suggesting will help the readers. Generally speaking, negative (or “bad news”) letters often use the passive voice, whereas positive (or “good news”) letters often use the active voice.

For example, the letter in Model 6–1 would fail in its purpose if it sounded too pushy and one-sided about M-Global’s interest in hiring graduates. Similarly, the editing memo in Model 6–2 would be poorly received if it used stuffy and condescending wording, such as “Be advised that starting next month, you are to make use of proofreading services provided in-house by. . . .”

>> Correspondence Guideline 9: Edit Carefully Because letters, memos, and e-mail are short, editing errors may be obvious to readers. Take special care to avoid the following errors:

■ Mechanics

■ Misspelled words of any kind, but especially the reader’s name ■ Wrong job title (call the reader’s office to double-check, if necessary) ■ Old address (again, call the reader’s office to check)

■ Grammar

■ Subject-verb and pronoun agreement errors ■ Misused commas

■ Style

■ Stuffy phrases, such as “Per your request” and “Enclosed herewith” ■ Long sentences with more than one main and one dependent clause ■ Phrases that make presumptions, such as “Thanking you in advance for . . .” ■ Negative tone suggested by phrases such as “We cannot,” “I won’t,” and “Please

don’t hesitate to”

The last point is crucial and gets more attention later in this chapter. Use the editing stage to rewrite any passage that could be phrased in a more positive tone. You must always keep the reader’s goodwill, no matter what the message.

>> Correspondence Guideline 10: Respond Quickly

A letter, memo, or e-mail that comes too late fails in its purpose, no matter how well written. Mail let- ters within 48 hours of your contact with, or request from, the reader. Send memos in plenty of time for your reader to make the appropriate adjustments in schedule, behavior, and so forth. Respond to e-mails the same day you receive them. The first sentence in the Model 6–1 letter, for example, shows that George Lux writes the day after his guest lecture. This respon- siveness helps secure the goodwill of the professor.

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Chapter 6 Correspondence162

>>> Types of Messages in Correspondence

This section gives you specific guidelines for the following documents:

■ Correspondence with a positive message

■ Correspondence with a negative message

■ Correspondence with a neutral message

■ Correspondence with a persuasive message

To be sure, many documents are hybrid forms that combine these patterns. As a technical sales expert for M-Global, for ex- ample, you may be writing to answer a customer question about a new piece of equipment just purchased from M-Global’s Equip- ment Development Lab. Your main task is to solve a problem

caused by a confusing passage in the owner’s manual. At the same time, however, your concern about the customer’s satisfaction can pave the way for purchase of a second ma- chine later in the year. Thus the letter has both a positive message and a persuasive mes- sage. This example also points to a common thread that weaves all four message types together: the need to maintain the reader’s goodwill toward you and your organization.

The next four sections present a pattern for each type of correspondence, based on the ABC format used throughout this text; as well as one or more brief case studies in which the pattern might be used at M-Global.

Positive Messages Everyone likes to give good news; fortunately, you will often be in the position of providing it when you write. Following are some sample situations:

■ Letter replying to a question about products or services

■ Letter responding favorably to a complaint or an adjustment

■ Letter hiring an employee

■ Memo announcing high bonuses for the fiscal year

■ Memo informing employees about improved fringe benefits

■ E-mail commending an employee for performance on a project

The trick is to recognize the good-news potential of many situations. This section gives you an all-purpose format for positive correspondence, followed by a case study from M-Global.

ABC Format for Positive Correspondence All positive messages follow one overriding rule. You must always:

State good news immediately!

Correspondence Guidelines

■ Know your purpose

■ Know your readers

■ Follow correct format

■ Follow the ABC format for all correspondence

■ Use the 3Cs strategy

■ Stress the “you” attitude

■ Use attachments for details

■ Be diplomatic

■ Edit carefully

■ Respond quickly

163 Types of Messages in Correspondence

Any delay gives readers the chance to wonder whether the news will be good or bad, thus causing momentary confusion. On the left is a complete outline for positive correspondence that corresponds to the ABC format.

M-Global Case Study for a Positive Letter As a project manager at M-Global’s Houston office, Nancy Slade has agreed to complete a foundation investigation for a large church about 300 miles away. There are cracks in the basement floor slab and doors that do not close, so her crew needs a day to analyze the problem (observing the site, measuring walls, digging soil borings, taking samples, etc.). She took this small job on the condition that she could schedule it around several larger (and more profitable) projects in the same area during mid-August.

Yesterday, Nancy received a letter from the minister (speak- ing for the church committee), who requested that M-Global change the date. He had just been asked by the regional head- quarters to host a three-day conference at the church during the same time that M-Global was originally scheduled to complete the project.

After checking her project schedule, Nancy determines that she can reschedule the church job. Model 6–4 on page 186 shows her response to the minister.

Negative Messages It would be nice if all your correspondence could be as positive as the one just de- scribed. Unfortunately, the real world does not work that way. You will have many opportunities to display both tact and clarity in relating negative information. Follow- ing are a few cases:

■ Letter explaining delays in projects or delivery of services

■ Letter refusing to make adjustments based on complaints

■ Letter giving bad news about employment or performance

■ Memo reporting decreased quarterly revenues for the year

■ Memo requesting closer attention to filling out time sheets

■ E-mail asking for volunteers to work on a holiday

This section gives you a format to follow in writing sensitive correspondence with negative information. Then it provides one application at M-Global.

ABC Format for Negative Correspondence One main rule applies to all negative correspondence:

Buffer the bad news, but still be clear.

ABC Format: Positive Correspondence

■ ABSTRACT: Puts correspondence in the context of an ongoing professional relationship by referring to previous communication related to the subject

■ Clear statement of good news you have to report

■ BODY: Supporting data for main point mentioned in abstract

■ Clarification of any questions reader may have

■ Qualification, if any, of the good news

■ CONCLUSION: Statement of eagerness to continue relationship, complete project, etc.

■ Clear statement, if appropriate, of what step should come next

Chapter 6 Correspondence164

Despite the bad news, you want to keep the reader’s good- will. Spend time at the beginning building your relationship with the reader by introducing less controversial information—before you zero in on the main message. On the right is an overall pat- tern to apply in all negative correspondence.

M-Global Case Study for a Negative Letter Reread the letter situation described in the section on positive correspondence. Now, assume that instead of being able to comply with the minister’s request, Nancy is unable to com- plete the work on another date without changing the fee. This change is necessary because Nancy must send a new crew 300 miles to the site, rather than using a crew already working on a nearby project.

Nancy knows the church is on a tight budget, but she also knows that M-Global would not be in business very long by working for free. Most important, because the church is asking for a change in the original agreement, she believes it is fair to request a change in the fee. Model 6–5 on page 187 is the letter she sends. Note her effort to buffer the negative news.

Neutral Messages Some correspondence expresses neither positive nor negative news. It is simply the routine correspondence written every day to keep businesses and other organizations operating. Some situations follow:

■ Letter requesting information about a product or service

■ Letter inviting the reader to an event

■ Memo summarizing the results of a meeting with a client

■ Memo explaining a new laboratory procedure

■ E-mail announcing a meeting

Use the following outline in writing your neutral correspondence. Also, refer to the M-Global examples that follow the outline.

ABC Format for Neutral Correspondence Because the reader usually has no personal stake in the news, neutral correspondence requires less emphasis on tone and tact than other types, yet it still requires careful plan- ning. In particular, always abide by this main rule:

Make your message absolutely clear.

Neutral correspondence operates a bit like good-news correspondence. You must make your point early, without giving the reader time to wonder about your message.

ABC Format: Negative Correspondence

■ ABSTRACT: Puts correspondence in the context of an ongoing professional relationship by referring to previous communication related to the subject

■ General statement of purpose or appreciation—in an effort to find common bond or area of agreement

■ BODY: Strong emphasis on what can be done, when possible

■ Buffered yet clear statement of what cannot be done, with clear statement of reasons for negative news

■ Facts that support your views

■ CONCLUSION: Closing remarks that express interest in continued association

■ Statement, if appropriate, of what will happen next

165 Types of Messages in Correspondence

Neutral correspondence varies greatly in specific organization patterns. The umbrella plan suggested here emphasizes the main criterion of clarity.

M-Global Case Study for a Neutral Letter Letters with neutral messages get written by the hundreds each week at M-Global. The letter in Model 6–6 on page 188 is typical. Farah Linkletter, a supply assistant with M-Global’s San Francisco office, often writes letters to equipment suppli- ers. Instead of a salutation, her letter uses a subject line, much like a subject line used in memos or e-mail. It opens with a reference to an ongoing conversation and then clearly lists the requested items. It closes with a statement of the next steps in the process and a sentence that keeps the business relation- ship open.

M-Global Case Study for a Neutral Memo When the Copy Center at M-Global changed its services, Gini Preston, Director of Copy Services, decided to write a memo to all employees. This memo is presented in Model 6–7 on page 189 . She chose a memo in- stead of e-mail because the text is somewhat long for an e-mail, and because she wanted to use formatting that highlighted the major changes. The memo uses lists and bold type to help readers identify the important information. It includes the date on which the change will take place and closes with a phone number for those who have questions.

ABC Format: Neutral Correspondence

■ ABSTRACT Puts correspondence in the context of an ongoing professional relationship by referring to previous communication related to the subject

■ Precise purpose of correspondence (e.g., request, invitation, information about new procedure)

■ BODY: Details that support the purpose statement (e.g., a description of items requested, the requirements related to the invitation, a description of changes in procedure)

■ CONCLUSION: Statement of appreciation

■ Description of actions that should occur next

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Persuasive Messages When people think about persuasive writing in the workplace, they often think of proposals (like the ones discussed in Chapter 12 ). However, regular business correspondence often has a somewhat persuasive goal. Positive correspondence, like a letter of recommen- dation, or negative correspondence, like a letter explaining why a project is delayed, may have a persuasive tone. The following list will give you an idea of correspondence with a strong persuasive message:

■ Letter starting a business relationship

■ Letter registering complaints about products or services

■ Letter seeking repeat business

■ Memo requesting funding for a training seminar

■ Memo explaining policy changes that may be perceived negatively

■ E-mail encouraging employees to follow required procedures

Chapter 6 Correspondence166

ABC Format for Persuasive Correspondence The one main rule that governs all persuasive correspondence is as follows:

Help readers solve their problems.

You must engage the readers’ interest by showing that you understand their needs and can help fulfill them. The ABC format offers a plan for writing successful persuasive correspondence. Note reference to the 3Cs ( C apture/ C onvince/ C ontact) strategy men- tioned earlier in the chapter.

M-Global Case Study for a Persuasive Letter M-Global provides customers with professional services and equipment, so persuasive letters that sell the company services are important to the firm. Benjamin Feinstein is one employee who writes them almost every day. As a first-year employee with a degree in industrial hygiene, Benjamin works in the newly formed asbestos abatement group. The letter in Model 6–8 on page 190 is the first step in Benjamin’s process of gaining new clients for M-Global. This letter will be followed by more letters, phone calls, and meet- ings, which Benjamin hopes will lead to negotiating a contract with the Jessup County School System. In his letter, Benjamin use the “you attitude” to emphasize how the school system’s problem can be solved by M-Global.

M-Global Case Study for a Persuasive Memo As personnel director of M-Global’s Cleveland office, Timothy Fu knows that employees are always concerned when their health benefits change. They are afraid that the process will be more complicated and that their health coverage will decrease. Timo- thy opens this memo by emphasizing the benefits of the change. Using questions as his headings allows him to respond directly to employees’ concerns. To reduce anxiety and confusion among his readers, he lists only the three most important elements of the new program. Finally, he closes with contact information for employees who have questions.

>>> Letters Letters are to your clients and vendors what memos are to your colleagues. They relay information quickly and keep business flowing. Letters use a professional tone, even if the sender and recipient are on a first-name basis or know each other personally. Letters are usually action-oriented and are used to conduct busi- ness and continue business relationships. The first paragraph of business letters should refer to this business relationship. If the letter is in response to a phone call, meeting, or other business

ABC Format: Persuasive Correspondence

■ ABSTRACT: Puts correspondence in the context of an ongoing professional relationship by referring to previous communication related to the subject. Identifies problem or issue to be addressed

■ Focuses on how the information in the correspondence will help the reader

■ BODY: Puts strongest points first or last, to emphasize them for the reader.

■ Clear explanation of steps to be taken

■ Emphasis on benefit to the reader

■ Reference to any attachments

■ CONCLUSION: Summary of actions requested, with emphasis on the benefit to the reader

■ Statement of what will happen next

■ Offer of further explanation or future contact

167 E-mail

communication, that information should be included, with details of the date, method, and subject of the communication.

Although letters are generally used for corresponding with external audiences, they may be used for internal correspondence in special cases, true when correspondence relates to employment. When an employee is given official notice of a change in job status—whether a promotion or termination—this information is usually recorded in a letter, even if it is also delivered in person.

Another special type of letter is the transmittal letter . Transmittal letters, or cover letters, accompany longer formal documents such as reports or proposals. They tell the readers why they are receiving the document, and they highlight the most important information in the document. If they accompany a proposal, they usually have a strong persuasive tone. (See Chapter 10 for more about transmittal letters.)

>>> Memos Even though e-mail has become common in the workplace, memos are still important. You write them to peers, subordinates, and superiors in your organization—from the first days of your career until you retire. Even if you work in an organization that uses e-mail extensively, you will still compose print messages that convey your point with brevity, clarity, and tact. Later, this chapter discusses the choice of whether to send a message as a memo or an e-mail.

Because many activities are competing for their time, readers expect information to be related as quickly and clearly as possible. Memos should be as self-contained as pos- sible. If they are part of an ongoing series of correspondence, include enough information in the first sentences so that your reader immediately recognizes the context. Use head- ings and lists to help your reader find the information that he or she needs. While memos should be concise, they should be complete enough to be clear, and they should address your reader’s concerns.

>>> E-mail Electronic communication ( e-mail ) has become the preferred means of communication in most organizations. Some of us receive 100 or more messages a day. Because e-mail can be sent internally, within an organization, or externally, from one organization to another, specific e-mail guidelines are added to the general guidelines for cor- respondence earlier in the chapter.

Guidelines for E-mail When writing e-mail, you should try to strike a balance between speed of delivery on one hand and quality of the communication to your reader on the other. In fact, the overriding rule for e-mail is as follows:

Don’t send it too quickly!

Ryan McVay/Thinkstock

Chapter 6 Correspondence168

By taking an extra minute to check the style and tone of your message, you have the best chance of sending an e-mail that will be well received.

>> E-mail Guideline 1: Use Style Appropriate to the Reader and Subject E-mail sent early in a relationship with a client or other professional contact should be somewhat formal. It should be written more like a letter, with a salutation, closing, and complete sentences. E-mail written once a professional relationship has been estab- lished can use a more casual style. It can resemble conversation with the recipient on the phone. Sentence fragments and slang are acceptable, as long as they contribute to your objectives and are in good taste. Most important, avoid displaying a negative or angry tone. Don’t push the Send button unless an e-mail will produce a constructive exchange.

>> E-mail Guideline 2: Be Sure Your Message Indicates the Context to Which It Applies

Tell your readers what the subject is and what prompted you to write your message. If you are replying to a message, be sure to include the previous message or summarize the message to which you are replying. Most e-mail software packages include a copy of the message to which you are replying, as in Model 6–3 . However, you should make sure that you include only the messages that provide the context for your reader. Long strings of forwarded e-mail make it difficult to find the necessary information.

>> E-mail Guideline 3: Choose the Most Appropriate Method for Replying to a Message

Short e-mail messages may require that you write only a brief response at the beginning or end of the e-mail to which you are responding. For complex, multitopic messages, however, you may wish to split your reply by commenting on each point individually ( Figure 6–5 ).

>> E-mail Guideline 4: Format Your Message Carefully Because e-mail messages frequently replace more formal print-based documents, they should be organized and formatted so that the readers can easily locate the information you want to communicate.

■ Use headings to identify important chunks of information.

■ Use lists to display a series of information.

■ Use sufficient white space to separate important chunks of information.

■ Use separators to divide one piece of information from another.

Figure 6–6 illustrates an e-mail message with headings, separators, and white space.

>> E-mail Guideline 5: Chunk Information for Easy Scanning Break the information into coherent chunks dealing with one specific topic, including all the details that a reader needs to get all of the essential information. Depending on

169 E-mail

********************************************************************************

X-Sender: [email protected] Date: Tue, 11 Nov 2012 09:25:30 -0800 To: [email protected] From: Mike McKinley <[email protected]> Subject: our recent visit Mime-Version: 1.0

Dear Paul,

YOU WROTE:

>I hope that you had a good flight back home. I certainly enjoyed meeting you and look forward to the possibility of working with you this coming spring on the project that your firm, M-Global, may do for us.

REPLY:

The trip back was fine, but tiring. I enjoyed meeting you also and visiting with your staff. I particularly enjoyed meeting Harold Black, for he will be very valuable in developing the plans for the possible water purification plant.

YOU WROTE:

>If Advantage, Inc., does decide to build the water purification plant, we would be very interested in having M-Global’s Mary Stevens as the project manager.

REPLY:

That certainly will be a possibility; Mary is one of our best managers.

YOU WROTE:

>After you left, I called the city administration here in Murrayville. M-Global does not need a business license for your work here, but, of course, you will need the necessary construction permits.

REPLY:

Thanks for taking care of this matter—I had not thought of that. We will supply the details to you for applying for the construction permits if you accept our proposal. ********************************************************************************

■ Figure 6–5 ■ An e-mail message that separates different topics for reply

Chapter 6 Correspondence170

********************************************************************************

Date: Tue, 7 Oct. 2012 09:25:30 -0800 To: Branch employees From: Paul Carmichael <[email protected]> Subject: October update Mime-Version: 1.0

This is the October Electronic Update for Advantage, Inc. If you do not wish to receive this electronic update, send a message to

[email protected]

With the message in the subject line: Unsubscribe.

************************

UPCOMING EVENTS ************************

Project managers’ meeting

October 21—project managers meeting (notice the change of location): Hereford building, room 209.

****************************

November department meetings All departments will have their planning and reporting meetings on November 18 at noon, with a joint lunch in the main dining room and breakout sessions at 12:30. Meetings should conclude at 2 p.m.

‘ **************************** December department meetings

NOTE CHANGE OF DATE: The December department meetings will be held on December 10 (second Wednesday), NOT December 17 (third Wednesday). ********************************************************************************

■ Model 6–6 ■ E-mail message with use of appropriate headings, separators, and white space

the nature of the information, include specific topic, time, date, location, and necessary prerequisites and details.

>> E-mail Guideline 6: Use Copy Options Carefully E-mail makes it easy to send copies of the same message to a large number of people at once. Using this technique can be helpful, but it can also clog readers’ inboxes with unwanted mail. Before you copy someone, make sure that person really needs to see

171 E-mail

the message that you are sending. Also think carefully about how you list the recipi- ents. The “To:” line indicates a primary audience of decision makers, participants, or operators. (See Chapter 2 for more on types of readers.) The “Cc:” line indicates a secondary audience that needs to be informed about the subject but is not expected to act. Finally, use the “Bc:” line very carefully. Copying someone without informing the person to whom the e-mail is addressed can be considered unethical. One good use of the “Bc:” line is to send a copy of your e-mail message to yourself, for your own records.

>> E-mail Guideline 7: When Writing to Groups, Give Readers a Method to Abstain from Receiving Future Notices

E-mail can easily become invasive and troublesome for recipients. You will gain favor— or at least not lose favor—if you are considerate and allow recipients to decide what e-mail they wish to receive. Figure 6–6 includes information about how to unsubscribe from the branch’s employee e-mail list.

>> E-mail Guideline 8: When Writing to Groups, Suppress the E-mail Addresses of Recipients—Unless the Group Has Agreed to Let Addresses Be Known

It is inappropriate to reveal the e-mail addresses of group members to other group mem- bers. Use the “Bc:” line to suppress group members’ addresses.

>> E-mail Guideline 9: When Composing an Important Message, Consider Composing It With Your Word Processor

Important e-mail messages should be not only clear in format but also correct in mechanics. Because e-mail software may not have a spelling checker, compose important messages with your word processor and use your spelling checker to check accuracy. Then either cut and paste it into an e-mail message or attach it as a file.

ABC Format for E-mail Simply understanding that e-mail should have a format puts you ahead of many writers, who consider e-mail a license to ramble on without structure. Yes, e-mail is casual and quick, but that does not make it formless. The three-part ABC format resembles that used for letters.

Remember—your reader is confronted with many e-mails during the day. Furthermore, the configurations of some com- puters make reading a screen harder on the eyes than reading

E-mail Guidelines

■ Use style appropriate to the reader and subject

■ Be sure your message indicates the context to which it applies

■ Choose the most appropriate method for replying to a message

■ Format your message carefully

■ Chunk information for easy scanning

■ Use Copy options carefully

■ When writing to groups, give readers a method to abstain from receiving future notices

■ When writing to groups, suppress the e-mail addresses of recipients

■ When composing an important message, consider composing it with your word pro- cessor

Chapter 6 Correspondence172

print memos. So give each e-mail a structure that makes it sim- ple for your reader to find important information.

Appropriate Use and Style for E-mail E-mail is an appropriate reflection of the speed at which we conduct business today. Indeed, it mirrors the pace of popular culture as well. Following are some of the obvious advantages that using e-mail provides:

■ It gets to the intended receiver quickly.

■ Its arrival can be confirmed easily.

■ Your reader can reply to your message quickly.

■ It’s cheap to use—once you have invested in the hardware and software.

■ It permits cheap transmission of multiple copies and attachments.

Adding to the ease of transmission is the fact that e-mail allows you to create mailing lists. One address label can be an umbrella for multiple re- cipients, saving you much time.

Of course, remember the flip side of this ease of use: E-mail is not private. Every time you send an e-mail, remember that it may be archived or forwarded, and may end up being read by “the world.” Either by mistake or design, many supposedly private e-mails are re- ceived by unintended readers.

E-mail communication is often considered less formal and therefore less demanding in its format and structure than print-based messages such as memos and letters. How- ever, because e-mail messages have become so pervasive a means of communication, you should consider constructing them as carefully as you would other correspondence. An- other reason to exercise great care is that e-mail, like conventional documents, can be used in legal proceedings and other formal contexts.

Chapter 3 , which mentions e-mail in the context of team writing, shows how elec- tronic mail helps you collaborate with others during the writing process—especially the planning stage. Interestingly, the e-mail medium has produced a casual writing style simi- lar to that of handwritten notes. It even has its own set of abbreviations and shortcut languages, which ranges so widely and changes so often that no list of abbreviations is included here. Following is an e-mail message from one M-Global employee to another. Josh Bergen and Natalie Long are working together on a report in which they must offer suggestions for designing an operator’s control panel at a large dam. Josh has just learned about another control panel that M-Global designed and installed for a Russian nuclear power plant (see Model 12–6 on pages 472–478 ). Josh wrote this e-mail message to draw Natalie’s attention to the related M-Global project:

ABC Format: E-mail

■ ABSTRACT: Casual, friendly greeting if justified by relationship

■ Short, clear statement of purpose for writing

■ List of main topics to be covered

■ BODY: Supporting information for points mentioned in abstract

■ Use of short paragraphs that start with main ideas

■ Use of headings and lists

■ Use of abbreviations and jargon only when understood by all readers

■ CONCLUSION: Summary of main point ■ Clarity about action that comes next

173 Chapter Summary

This message displays some of the most common stylistic features of electronic mail. Model 6–10 on page 191 is another example of e-mail. Like the memo in Model 6–7 ,

this e-mail explains a change in procedure. Note that even though the tone is less formal, as is appropriate to an in-house e-mail message like this one, the message meets the other guidelines for neutral correspondence that are discussed in on pages 164–165 .

>>> Memos Versus E-mail Although e-mail has become the most common form of internal correspondence in the workplace, there are times when a memo is a better option. Send a memo instead of an e-mail in the following situations.

■ The document is longer than can be viewed easily on a computer screen.

■ The document must include symbols, special characters, or other formatting that may not be available on all e-mail systems.

■ The document includes graphics.

■ The document must be posted in print form.

■ The document contains sensitive information, including information about clients, projects, or personnel.

>>> Chapter Summary ■ All correspondence should use the 3Cs strategy: C apture, C onvince, and C ontact.

■ All correspondence should use the “You attitude.” The writer should identify the read- er’s interests and use those interests as a guide when writing letters, memos, or e-mail.

DATE: September 15, 2012

TO: Natalie Long

FROM: Josh Bergen

SUBJECT: Zanger Dam Project

Natalie—

I’ve got an idea that might save us A LOT of time on the Zanger Dam project. Check out the

company project sheet on the Russian nuclear plant job done last year.

Operators of hi-tech dams and nuke plants seem to face the same hassles:

• confusing displays

• need to respond quickly

• distractions

When either a dam or nuke operator makes a mistake, there’s often big trouble. I think we’d

save time—and our client’s money—if we could go right to some of the technical experts used in

the nuke job. At least as a starting place. Maybe we’d even make our deadline on this project. That

would be a change, considering the schedule delays this month on other jobs.

What do you think about this idea? Let me know today, if possible.

Chapter 6 Correspondence174

■ The ABC format for correspondence provides a general framework for organizing messages.

■ Specific ABC formats for positive, negative, neutral, and persuasive correspondence provide structure that tailors the message to its purpose.

■ Letters are generally written to readers outside an organization. In personnel matters, letters may be written for correspondence within an organization. Letters are gener- ally formal in tone.

■ Memos are written from one member of an organization to another member of the same organization, Memos should be brief, but clear. Memos may use navigation tools such as headings to help readers find the information that they need.

■ Because e-mail may be written to readers within or outside an organization, it deserves extra care.

■ E-mail messages should be formatted so that the information in them is clear. Techniques include chunking information, separating information with headers, and using lists.

■ The ABC format for e-mail provides a general structure for e-mail messages.

■ E-mail style should be adapted to the audience and the business context. E-mail written to someone outside the organization may be written more like a letter. E-mail that is part of an ongoing conversation within an organization may be very informal.

■ Memos should be sent instead of e-mail when documents are long, require special formatting or graphics, or will be posted in print form. Memos are also preferred for sensitive information.

Learning Portfolio

Many organizations maintain internal e-mail discussion

lists. Some of these lists are confined to specific topics, such

as personnel information. Other lists may be more general,

open to all kinds of announcements from members of the

organization. In fact, many of the earliest e-mail discussion

lists were essentially internal company bulletin boards. As

e-mail has become common, the number of e-mails that

we all receive has increased dramatically. Managing all of

this e-mail can be a challenge and often seems like a waste

of time. This case study asks you to respond to this situa-

tion at the corporate headquarters of M-Global. It ends with

questions and comments for discussion and an assignment

for a written response to the Challenge.

Jeannie McDuff, Vice President for Domestic Operations

for M-Global, makes it a practice to check her e-mail only

three times a day—an hour or two after she gets to work, an

hour or two after lunch, and an hour before she leaves work

in the evening. She finds that this schedule allows her to

manage her time, to take advantage of her most productive

times in the morning and early afternoon, and to deal with

any issues that need her attention before the end of the day.

One January day, she opens her e-mail around 2:00.

Among the 43 messages in her in-box, she sees the follow-

ing subjects from the [NEWS] list, an e-mail list that is sent

to all employees at the corporate headquarters:

[NEWS] W-2 availability

[NEWS] M-Global basketball team Congrats!

[NEWS] Scholarships for M-Global dependents

[NEWS] Fitness class starts Tuesday

[NEWS] Fund-raiser—candy available in EDL

[NEWS] File cabinet available

[NEWS] MS Word problem—Help!

[NEWS] Reminder: Please submit travel paperwork on time

[NEWS] Cafeteria weekly specials

[NEWS] Fund-raiser winner—Research and Training

[NEWS] New sign-on procedures for secure network

[NEWS] Cute puppies available

[NEWS] A request

[NEWS] Friday Potluck: It’s chili time!

[NEWS] Advice needed

[NEWS] Visiting regulators

[NEWS] Tickets available

Jeannie takes a sip of her coffee, settles in to sort

through her mail, and sighs. Even though she knows that

she can delete most of these messages without opening

them, it still takes time. She has thought about setting her

e-mail filters so that all of the [NEWS] e-mail goes to her

junk folder, but then she might miss important messages

like the one about the new sign-on procedures. In addition,

she likes to see employees praised for good work, and read-

ing the messages on the [NEWS] list gives her some insight

into the informal activities that promote the feeling that

M-Global is still a family company (even if the family has

gotten very large). What’s more, the [NEWS] list has been

around for years, and employees like that it is open to any-

one at the corporate headquarters. However, it seems as if

more messages are being posted each week, and the mes-

sages are having less and less to do with company activities.

After some thought, Jeannie decides that it might be

a good idea to set some rules for the [NEWS] list. She calls

Janet Remington, Director of the Publications Development

Office. “Janet, your people are the communication special-

ists. I’d like some rules for communication on the [NEWS]

list. We’re getting way too many messages on there, and

some of them are getting pretty close to being spam. See

what you can come up with—maybe guidelines for what to

post, or even a new system for checking and approving all

messages before they actually go to the list.”

Janet appreciates Jeannie’s problem. She knows the

jokes about how it seems as if the same filing cabinet

moves from one office to another, or how many people are

advertising their children’s latest fund-raiser. Right now,

however, it seems that everyone in her office is in the mid-

dle of a big project. She looks around and sees Bart French,

a technical communication student who just started his

internship last week. Janet decides that asking Bart to

look through the postings on the [NEWS] list will give him

a good introduction to the culture at M-Global, so she as-

signs the task to him. She tells him exactly what Jeannie

told her and asks him to have a recommendation by next

week. She encourages him to draw on what he has learned

from his classes and to do some research on netiquette—

the etiquette of e-mail.

Questions and Comments for Discussion

1. Is Jeannie’s reaction to the number of [NEWS] items

in her in box justified? Does this seem like an unrea-

sonable number of employee news messages, sent

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge: Containing the E-mail Flood

175

Chapter 6 Correspondence

over a four-hour period, for a list with almost 200

members?

2. Read through the list of subject lines. Do any of them

seem inappropriate for the M-Global [NEWS] list, given

its users and its history?

3. Are there any subject lines that could be improved?

Explain.

4. What do you think about Jeannie’s suggestion that all

messages sent to the [NEWS] list be approved before

being posted? What problems do you see with this

approach? What advantages?

5. What do you think of Janet’s decision to assign

the task of creating rules for the [NEWS] list to a

college intern? What benefits does it offer Bart?

What potential problems does he face in completing

this task?

Write About It

Assume the role of Bart. Do some research on netiquette

and decide what guidelines might apply to a list like the

employee [NEWS] list. Look over the subject lines and de-

cide what subjects, if any, should be kept off the list. Think

about what advice you might offer about subject lines for

the list. Do you like Jeannie’s idea about messages to the

list requiring approval? What alternatives are there? If

your campus has a similar list (or lists) that go out to ev-

eryone, look at the subjects of that list. Your instructor

may be willing to share the subjects of a day’s worth of

postings to any similar campus lists that she or he is on.

Write a persuasive memo to Janet that responds to Jean-

nie’s request and explains your reasons for your decisions.

Include citations from any sources that you have researched.

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes

you (1) have been divided into teams of about three to six

students, (2) use team time inside or outside of class to com-

plete the case, and (3) produce an oral or written response.

For guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment A century ago, business professionals had few opportuni-

ties for communication beyond the formal letter or meet-

ing; today, the range of options is incredibly broad. On one

hand, we marvel at the choices for getting our message

heard or read; on the other hand, the many ways to com-

municate present an embarrassment of riches that can be

confusing.

In other words, when you have multiple communica-

tion options, you’re challenged to match the right method

with the right context— right in terms of what the reader

wants and right in terms of the level of effort you should

exert to suit the purpose. You may think this challenge

applies only to your working life. However, it also can influ-

ence your life in college, as this exercise shows.

Team Assignment Brainstorm with your team to list every means you have

used to communicate with your college and university,

from the time you applied to the present. Then for each

communication option that follows, provide two or three

situations for which the option is the appropriate choice:

1. Letter that includes praise

2. Letter that describes a complaint

3. Letter that provides information

4. Letter that attempts to persuade

5. Telephone call

6. E-mail

7. Memo

8. Personal meeting

Collaboration at Work Choosing the Right Mode

Assignments

Assignments can be completed either as individual exercises

or as team projects, depending on the directions of your in-

structor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a response

that can be delivered as an oral presentation for discussion in

class. Analyze the context of each Assignment by considering

what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context of technical

writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what do they want from your

document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

176

Learning Portfolio

1. Negative Letter Analysis: Complaint The following letter was received by the Customer Service

Department of the Justrite Small Appliance Company. Be pre-

pared to discuss the strengths and weaknesses in the letter.

If a friend had written the letter and had asked your advice,

what recommendations would you make for revising it?

2. Positive Letter Analysis: Favorable Response to Complaint

The following letter was written in response to the com-

plaint letter in Assignment 1. Be prepared to discuss the

strengths and weaknesses in the letter.

3. Persuasive Memo Analysis, M-Global Context: Change in Benefits

The memo in Model 6–9 was written to explain changes in

health benefits for M-Global employees. As noted in the

discussion in this chapter, changes in benefits can cause

anxiety among employees. Be prepared to discuss the ef-

fectiveness of this memo. How well does it follow the guide-

lines for negative correspondence? Is it appropriate for the

audience—all employees of M-Global? If you were an em-

ployee of M-Global and received this memo, would you see

this change as positive or negative? Be prepared to explain.

Follow these general guidelines for the Practice

assignments:

■ Print or design a letterhead when necessary.

■ Use whatever letter, memo, or e-mail format your

instructor requires.

■ Invent addresses when necessary.

■ Invent any extra information you may need for the

correspondence, but do not change the information

presented here.

4. Positive Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Job Offer

Assume that you are the personnel director for M-Global’s

San Francisco office. Yesterday, you and your hiring com-

mittee decided to offer a job to Ashley Tasker, one of 10 re-

cent graduates you interviewed for an entry-level position

as a lab technician. Write Ashley an offer letter and indi-

cate a starting date (in two weeks), a specific salary, and the

need for her to sign and return an acceptance letter imme-

diately. In the interview, you outlined the company’s ben-

efit plan, but you are enclosing with your letter a detailed

description of fringe benefits (e.g., health insurance, long-

term disability insurance, retirement plan, vacation pol-

icy). Although Ashley is your first choice for this position,

you are prepared to offer the job to another top candidate

if Ashley is unable to start in two weeks at the salary you

stated in the letter.

5. Positive Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Recommendation

Kevin Kehoe, an employee at the San Francisco office, is

being considered for promotion to manager of technical ser-

vices. He has asked you to write a letter to the San Francisco

branch manager on his behalf. Although you now work as

a marketing associate at the corporate office, two years ago

you worked directly for Kevin on the Ocean Exploration Pro-

gram in Cameroon (see Model 12–6 on pages 472–478 ). Kevin

has asked that your letter deal exclusively with his work

on that program. Kevin was manager of the project; you

This is to let you know that the Justrite microwave oven that

I bought awhile back has stopped working. The turntable

won’t turn. I don’t know what is wrong with it—I just was

reheating a casserole and the thing stopped turning.

I took it back to my local appliance store, The Good

Life, but they said that since the 6 month warranty expired

two weeks before the turntable broke, there was nothing

they could do. They gave me your address and suggested

that I write to you, so I am.

Is there a way to get my Justrite microwave fixed?

The microwave works fine. The turntable just doesn’t turn.

Thank you.

This letter is in response to your August 3 complaint about

the Justrite microwave oven you purchased about six

months ago from your local store, The Good Life. We un-

derstand that the turntable in the microwave broke shortly

after the warranty expired.

Did you know that last year our microwave oven was

rated “best in its class” and “most reliable” by Consumers

Count magazine? Indeed, we have received so few com-

plaints about the product that a recent survey of selected

purchasers revealed that 98.5 percent of first-time purchas-

ers of our microwave ovens are pleased that they chose our

product and would buy another.

Please double-check your microwave to make sure

that the turntable is broken—it may just be temporarily

stuck. We rarely have had customers make this specific

complaint about our product. However, if the turntable is

in need of repair, return the entire appliance to us, and we

will have it repaired free of charge or have a new replace-

ment sent to you. We stand behind our product because

the warranty period only recently expired.

It is our sincere hope that you will continue to be a

satisfied customer of Justrite appliances.

177

Chapter 6 Correspondence

believe that it was largely through his technical expertise,

boundless energy, and organizational skills that the project

was so successful. He developed the technical plan of work

that led to the clear-cut set of findings. Write a letter that

conveys this information to the branch manager consider-

ing Kevin for the promotion. Because the branch manager is

new, he is not familiar with the project on which you and

Kevin worked. Therefore your letter may need to mention

some details from the project sheet.

6. Positive E-mail Practice, M-Global Context: Bonuses

As an accountant for M-Global’s Atlanta office, you have

determined that last year’s profits were even higher than

previously expected. Apparently, several large construction

jobs had not been counted in the first reporting of profits.

The manager of the Atlanta office, Nathan Quosh, has al-

ready announced individual raises. Write an e-mail to Na-

than that explains that every branch employee will receive

a $500 across-the-board bonus, in addition to whatever in-

dividual raises have been announced for next year. Include

the subject line for the e-mail.

7. Negative Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Explanation of Project Delay

You work for M-Global’s Boston office. As project manager

for the construction of a small strip shopping center, you

have had delays about halfway through the project because

of bad weather. Even worse, the forecast is for another week

of heavy rain. Yesterday, just when you thought nothing

else could go wrong, you discovered that your concrete sup-

plier, Atlas Concrete, has a truck drivers’ strike in progress.

Because you still need half the concrete for the project, you

have started searching for another supplier.

Your client, an investor/developer named Tanya Lee,

located in a city about 200 miles away, probably will be

upset by any delays in construction, whether or not they

are within your control. Write her a letter in which you ex-

plain weather and concrete problems. Try to ease her con-

cern, especially because you want additional jobs from her

in the future.

8. Negative Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Request for Prompt Payment

Recently, your M-Global office completed the General Hos-

pital construction project in Floor County, Florida. (See

Model 12–6 on pages 472–478 .) As indicated on the sheet,

Floor County was quite satisfied with your work. As the

accounts receivable clerk in the business office, you billed

the county within a week after completion and requested

payment within 30 days of receipt of the bill, as you do

for most clients. When 45 days elapsed without payment

being received, you sent a second bill. Now it has been three

months since completion of the project, and you still have

not been paid. You suspect that your bills got lost in the pa-

perwork at the county offices, for a new county commission

took office shortly after you finished the project. Yet two

phone calls to the county’s business office have brought no

satisfaction: Two different assistants told you they could

not find the bills and that you should rebill the county. You

are steamed but would like to keep the client’s goodwill, if

possible. Write another letter requesting payment.

9. Negative Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Change in Project Scope and Schedule

As a marketing account executive at the Cleveland office,

you are responsible for many of M-Global’s clients in the

area. One important account is a company that owns and

operates a dozen radio and television stations throughout

the Midwest. On one recent project, M-Global engineers and

technicians did the foundation investigation for, and super-

vised construction of, a new transmitting tower for a televi-

sion station in Toledo. First, your staff members completed

a foundation investigation, at which time they examined

the soils and rock below grade at the site. On the basis of

what they learned, M-Global ordered the tower and the guy

wires that connect it to the ground. Once the construction

crew actually began excavating for the foundation, how-

ever, they found mud that could not support the foundation

for the tower. Although unfortunate, it sometimes happens

that actual soil conditions cannot be predicted by the pre-

liminary study. Because of this discovery of mud, the tower

must be shifted to another location on the site. As a result,

the precut guy wires are the wrong length for the new site,

so M-Global must order wire extenders. The extenders will

arrive in two weeks, and the placement of the tower will be

delayed by that much time. All other parts of the project are

on schedule, so far.

Your client, Ms. Sharon West of Midwest Media Sys-

tems in Cleveland, doesn’t understand much about soils

and foundation work, but she does understand what con-

struction delays mean to the profit margin of her firm’s

new television station as it attempts to compete with larger

stations in Toledo. You must console this important client

while informing her of this recent finding.

10. Negative E-mail Practice, M-Global Context: Declining a Request

Assume that you work at the M-Global office that completed

the Sentry Dam (see Model 12–6 on pages 472–478 ). Word of

your good work has spread to the state director of dams. He

has asked you, as manager of the Sentry project, to deliver

178

Learning Portfolio

a 20-minute speech on dam safety to the annual meeting of

county engineers. Unfortunately, you have already agreed

to be at a project site in another state on that day, and you

cannot reschedule the site visit. Write an e-mail, including

the subject line, to the director of dams—who is both a for-

mer and, you hope, a future client—and decline the request.

Although you know he expressly wanted you to speak, offer

to send a substitute from your office.

11. Neutral Letter Practice, M-Global Context: Response to Request for Information

As reservations clerk for the Archview Inn in St. Louis, you

just received a letter from Jerald Pelletier, an administrative

secretary making arrangements for a meeting of M-Global

managers from around the country. The group is consider-

ing holding its quarterly meeting in St. Louis in six months.

Pelletier has asked you to send some brief information on

hotel rates, conference facilities (meeting rooms), and avail-

ability. Send him some room rates for double and single

rooms, and let him know that you have four conference

rooms to rent out at $75 each per day. Also, tell him that at

this time, the hotel rooms and conference rooms are avail-

able for the three days he mentioned.

12. Neutral Memo Practice, M-Global Context: Scheduling Change

As an employee at M-Global’s London office, you were part

of a committee that developed a pilot program that allows

employees flexible scheduling. James Ladira, the branch

manager, has accepted your proposal and has asked you

to write a memo explaining the new program. The pro-

gram will give up to half the office employees the choice

to work four 10-hour days each week, as opposed to five

8-hour days. Your committee wanted to offer this flexibility

to workers who, for whatever reason, desired longer week-

ends. James has made it clear that he will evaluate the pro-

gram at the end of the one-year pilot.

Your committee has agreed that departments will have

to set up a schedule to make sure that they are not under-

staffed because too many employees have opted for the same

day off (Friday, for example). Department managers will have

to work with employees to set schedules for anyone who is

taking advantage of this opportunity, and these schedules

will be permanent. The schedules will be published on the

branch intranet. The change will take place in one month.

13. Neutral E-mail Practice, M-Global Context: Change in Procedure

As mailroom supervisor at M-Global’s Baltimore head-

quarters, you have a number of changes to announce to

employees of the corporate office. Write an e-mail, includ-

ing the subject line, that clearly relates the following in-

formation: Deliveries and pickups of mail, which currently

are at 8:30 a.m. and 3:00 p.m., will change to 9:00 a.m. and

3:30 p.m., starting in two weeks. Also, there will be an ad-

ditional pickup at noon on Monday, Wednesday, and Fri-

day. The mailroom will start picking up mail to go out by

Federal Express or any other one-day carrier, rather than

the sender’s having to wait for the carrier’s representative

to come to the sender’s office. The sender must call the

mailroom to request the pickup, and the carrier must be

told by the sender to go to the mailroom to pick up the

package. The memo should also remind employees that

the mail does not go out on federal holidays, even though

the mailroom continues to pick up mail from the offices

on those days.

14. Persuasive Memo Practice, M-Global Context: Policy Change

You are project manager of the construction management

group at M-Global’s St. Paul office. The current policy in

your office states that employees must pass a preemploy-

ment drug screening before being hired. After that, there

are no tests unless you or one of your job supervisors has

reason to suspect that an employee is under the influence

of drugs on the job.

Lately, a number of clients have strongly suggested

that you should have a random drug-screening policy for

all employees in the construction management group.

They argue that the on-the-job risk to life and property

is great enough to justify this periodic testing, without

warning. You have consulted your branch manager, who

likes the idea. You have also talked with the company’s

attorney, who assures you that such random testing

should be legal, given the character of the group’s work.

After considerable thought, you decide to implement the

policy in three weeks. Write a memo to all employees of

your group, explaining the change and emphasizing how

this change will be helpful to the branch and ensure em-

ployees’ safety.

15. Persuasive Memo Practice: Purchase Recommendation

For this assignment, choose either (1) a good reference book

or textbook in your field of study or (2) an excellent periodi-

cal in your field. The book or periodical should be one that

could be useful to someone working in a profession, prefer-

ably one that you may want to enter.

Now assume that you are an employee of an organi-

zation that would benefit by having this book or periodical

in its staff library or customer waiting room, or perhaps as

a reference book purchased for employees in your group.

179

Chapter 6 Correspondence

Write a one-page memo to your supervisor recommending

the purchase. You might want to consider criteria such as

■ Relevance of information in the source to the job

■ Level of material with respect to potential readers

■ Cost of book or periodical as compared with its value

■ Amount of probable use

■ Important features of the book or periodical (such as

bibliographies or special sections)

16. Persuasive Memo Practice, M-Global Context: Request

Assume you work at an M-Global office and have no un-

dergraduate degree. You are not yet sure what degree pro-

gram you want to enter, but you have decided to take one

night course each term. Your M-Global office has agreed to

pay 100 percent of your college expenses on two conditions.

First, before taking each course, you must write a memo

of request to your supervisor, justifying the value of the

class to your specific job or to your future work with the

company. Clearly, your boss wants to know that the course

has specific application or that it will form the foundation

for later courses. Second, you must receive a C or better in

every class for which you want reimbursement.

Write the persuasive memo just described. For the pur-

poses of this assignment, choose one course that you actu-

ally have taken or are now taking. Yet in your simulated role

for the assignment, write as if you have not taken the course.

17. Ethics Assignment In the Communication Challenge section of this chapter,

you were asked to examine the problem faced by many

organizations as they try to manage e-mail. This assign-

ment moves that problem into the realm of e-mail com-

munication ethics. The project is best completed as a team

assignment.

Pooling the experience that members of your team

have had with e-mail, focus specifically on inappropriate

or unethical behavior. Possible topics include the content of

messages, the tone of language, and the use of distribution

lists. Now draft a simple code of ethics that could be distrib-

uted to members of any organization—such as M-Global,

Inc.—whose members use e-mail on a daily basis. Search

the Internet for examples of codes of ethics in general, and

of e-mail ethics in particular.

18. International Communication Assignment

E-mail messages can be sent around the world as easily as

they can be sent to the next office. If you end up working for

a company with international offices or clients, you prob-

ably will use e-mail to conduct business.

Investigate the e-mail conventions of one or more

countries outside your own. Search for any ways that the

format, content, or style of international e-mail may differ

from e-mail in your country. Gather information by collect-

ing hard copies of e-mail messages sent from other coun-

tries, interviewing people who use international e-mail, or

consulting the library for information on international busi-

ness communication. Write a memo to your instructor in

which you (1) note differences you found and (2) explain

why these differences exist. If possible, focus on any differ-

ences in culture that may affect e-mail transactions.

ACTNOW 19. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Whether you commute or live on campus, your everyday

life at a college or university may be influenced by student

government associations, usually made up of students

elected to their positions. For example, such associations

often receive fees (paid by students each term) to sponsor

various cultural, intellectual, athletic, or entertainment

events. Learn about what types of activities your student

government association sponsors on campus. Then write

a letter to your campus newspaper or to the student gov-

ernment association president in which you compliment or

critique the use of funds—related either to a specific event

or to the general use of the budget. If your campus has no

student government, direct your letter to the campus ad-

ministrator or office that does coordinate such events.

180

Learning Portfolio 181

12 Peachtree Street Atlanta GA 30056

404.555.7524 August 2, 2012

Professor Willard R Burton PhD Department of Civil Engineering Southern University of Technology Paris GA 30007

Dear Professor Burton:

Thanks very much for your hospitality during my visit to your class yesterday. I appreci- ated the interest your students showed in my presentation on stress fractures in highway bridges. Their questions were very perceptive.

You may recall that several students requested further information on M-Global, so I have enclosed a dozen brochures for any students who may be interested. As you know, job openings for civil engineering graduates have increased markedly in the last five years. Some of the best opportunities lie in these three areas of the discipline:

• Evaluation of environmental problems • Renovation of the nation’s infrastructure • Management of construction projects

These areas are three of M-Global’s main interests. As a result, we are always search- ing for top-notch graduates from solid departments like yours.

Again, I enjoyed my visit back to Southern last Friday, Professor Burton. Please call when you want additional guest lectures by me or other members of M-Global’s staff.

Sincerely,

George F. Lux, P.E.

Enclosures

■ Model 6–1 ■ M-Global sample letter

Expresses appreciation and provides lead-into body.

▲

Adds unobtrusive ref- erence to M-Global’s needs.

▲

Responds to ques- tion that arose at class presentation.

▲

Closes with offer to visit class again. ▲

Uses bulleted list to emphasize information of value to professor’s students.

▲

Includes reference to enclosures.

▲

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Chapter 6 Correspondence182

MEMO

DATE: December 4, 2012 TO: Technical Staff FROM: Ralph Simmons, Technical Manager RS SUBJECT: New employee to help with technical editing

Last week we hired an editor to help you produce top-quality reports, proposals, and other documents. This memo gives you some background on this change, high- lights the credentials of our new editor, and explains what the change will mean to you.

PROBLEM: TIME SPENT EDITING AND PROOFREADING

At September’s staff meeting, many technical staff members noted the exces- sive time spent editing and proofreading. For example, some of you said that this final stage of writing takes from 15 to 30 percent of the billable time on an average report. Most important, editing often ends up being done by project managers—the employ- ees with the highest billable time.

Despite these editing efforts, many errors still show up in documents that go out the door. Last month I asked a professional association, the Engineers Professional Society (EPS), to evaluate M-Global-Boston documents for editorial correctness. (EPS performs this service for members on a confidential basis.) The resulting report showed that our final reports and proposals need considerable editing work. Given your comments at September’s meeting and the results of the EPS peer review, I began searching for a solution.

SOLUTION: IN-HOUSE EDITOR

To come to grips with this editing problem, the office just hired Ron Perez, an experienced technical editor. He’ll start work January 3. For the last six years, Ron has worked as an editor at Jones Technical Services, a Toronto firm that does work similar to ours. Before that he completed a master’s degree in technical writing at Sage University in Buffalo.

At next week’s staff meeting, we’ll discuss the best way to use Ron’s skills to help us out. For now, he will be getting to know our work by reviewing recent reports and proposals. Also, the attached list of possible activities can serve as a springboard for our discussion.

CONCLUSION

By working together with Ron, we’ll be able to improve the editorial quality of our documents, free up more of our time for technical tasks, and save the client and ourselves some money.

I look forward to meeting with you next week to discuss the best use of Ron’s services.

Enclosure Copy: Ron Perez

■ Model 6–2 ■ M-Global sample memo

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Gives important infor- mation about Ron in first sentence.

▲ Establishes his credibility.

▲

Refers to attachment.

▲

Focuses on benefit of change to reader.

▲

Restates next action to occur.

▲

Uses informative subject line.

Gives purpose of memo and highlights contents.

▲ ▲

Uses side headings for easy reading.

▲

Shows that the change arose from their concerns.

▲ Adds evidence from outside observer.

▲

Learning Portfolio 183

POSSIBLE ACTIVITIES FOR IN-HOUSE EDITOR

1. Reviewing reports at all levels of production

2. Helping coordinate the writing of proposals

3. Preparing a format manual for the word-processing operations and secretaries

4. Preparing a report/proposal guide for the technical staff

5. Teaching luncheon sessions on editing

6. Teaching writing seminars for the technical staff

7. Working with the graphics department to improve the page design of our documents

8. Helping write and edit public-relations copy for the company

9. Visiting other offices to help produce consistency in the editing of documents throughout the company

■ Model 6–2 ■ continued

Chapter 6 Correspondence184

From: “James Thuvenot” [email protected] To: “Evelyn Dame” [email protected] Date: 3/14/2012 8:14 AM Subject: RE: Riverview Shopping Center Project

Evelyn,

Thanks for the information. I just heard about the construction on the radio this morn- ing and wondered if it would cause us problems.

So far, everything looks like it’s going well.

Thanks for your good work.

Jim

James Thuvenot Redbird Architects 335 River Ave. Columbia, Illinois 62236

>Jim,

>We’ve just been informed that construction on the JB Bridge will start next >month. We are adjusting our work schedule so that most of the material and >equipment will be delivered to the Columbia worksite before the bridge >construction begins.

>Although we may run into a few problems, we don’t expect >the bridge construction to delay the completion of the project by more than 2 or >3 weeks. > >Please let me know if you have any questions or concerns.

>Evelyn Dame >Project Manager >M-Global St. Louis

■ Model 6–3 ■ M-Global sample e-mail

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Learning Portfolio 185

■ Model 6–4 ■ Positive letter in block style

12 Post Street Houston Texas 77000

713.555.9781 July 23, 2012

The Reverend Mr John C Davidson Maxwell Street Church Canyon Valley Texas 79195

Dear Reverend Davidson: Thanks for your letter asking to reschedule the church project from mid-August to another, more convenient time. Yes, we’ll be able to do the project on one of two possible dates in September, as explained below.

As you know, M-Global originally planned to fit your foundation investigation between two other projects planned for the Canyon Valley area. In making every effort to lessen church costs, we would be saving money by having a crew already on-site in your area—rather than having to charge you mobilization costs to and from Canyon Valley.

As it happens, we have just agreed to perform another large project in the Canyon Valley area beginning on September 18. We would be glad to schedule your project either before or after that job. Specifically, we could be at the church site for our one-day field investigation on either September 17 or September 25, whichever date you prefer.

Please call me by September 2 to let me know your scheduling preference for the project. In the meantime, have a productive and enjoyable conference at the church next month.

Sincerely,

Nancy Slade, P.E. Project Manager

NS/mh File #34678

Mentions letter that prompted this response. Gives good news immediately .

▲

Reminds reader of rationale for original schedule—cost savings .

▲

Shows M-Global’s flexibility.

▲

Offers two options—both save the church money. ▲

Makes clear what should happen next.

▲

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Chapter 6 Correspondence186

■ Model 6–5 ■ Negative letter in modified block style (with indented paragraphs)

12 Post Street Houston Texas 77000

713.555.1381 July 23, 2012

The Reverend Mr John C Davidson Maxwell Street Church Canyon Valley Texas 79195

Dear Reverend Davidson:

Thanks for your letter asking to reschedule the foundation project at your church from mid-August to late August because of the regional conference. I am sure you are proud that Maxwell was chosen as the conference site.

One reason for our original schedule, as you may recall, was to save the travel costs for a project crew going back and forth between Houston and Canyon Valley. Because M-Global has several other jobs in the area, we had planned not to charge you for travel.

We can reschedule the project, as you request, to a more convenient date in late August, but the change will increase project costs from $1,500 to $1,800 to cover travel. At this point, we just don’t have any other projects scheduled in your area in late August that would help defray the additional expenses. Given our low profit margin on such jobs, that additional $300 would make the differ- ence between our firm making or losing money on the foundation investigation at your church.

I’ll call you next week, Reverend Davidson, to select a new date that would be most suitable. M-Global welcomes its association with the Maxwell Street Church and looks forward to a successful project in late August.

Sincerely,

Nancy Slade, P.E. Project Manager

NS/mh File #34678

Provides “bridge” and compliments Davidson on conference.

▲ Reminds him about original agreement— in tactful manner.

▲

Phrases negative message as positively as possible, giving rationale for necessary change.

▲ Makes it clear what will happen next. Ends on positive note.

▲

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Learning Portfolio

■ Model 6–6 ■ Neutral letter (placing order) in simplified style

187

Emphasizes important details about the order.

345 Underwood Street Belforth California 90706

713.555.9781 April 2, 2012

Faraday Supply Company 34 State Street San Francisco CA 94987

ORDER FOR FIELD TRANSITS

Yesterday I called Ms. Gayle Nichols to ask what transits you had in current inventory. Having considered what you have in stock, I wish to order those listed below.

Please send us these items:

1. One Jordan #456 Transit, with special field case 2. One Smith-Beasley #101FR, with special field case 3. One Riggins #6NMG, without special field case

Note that we do want the special field cases with the Jordan and Smith-Beasley units but do not want the case with the Riggins unit.

Please send the units and the bill to my attention. As always, we appreciate doing business with Faraday.

Farah Linkletter Supply Assistant

gh

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

States exactly what should happen next. ▲

Gives exact information needed by reader.

▲

▲

Provides bridge to previous contact. States purpose clearly.

▲ ▲

Chapter 6 Correspondence188

■ Model 6–7 ■ Neutral memo about changes in services

MEMO

DATE: August 1, 2012 TO: All Employees FROM: Gini Preston, Director of Copy Services SUBJECT: Copy Center Changes

With the purchase of two new copiers and a folder, the Copy Center is able to ex- pand its services. At the same time, we have had to reduce the paper stock that we keep on hand because of space limitations. This memo highlights the services and products now available at the Copy Center.

1. Color copies: With our new equipment, color copies do not require additional time to process. However, because color copies are expensive, please limit your use of them. If you have a document that includes both color and black-and-white pages, submit them as separate jobs so that the color copier is used only for color copies.

2. Special stock: The Copy Center now stocks only two colors of paper in addition to white paper: blue and goldenrod. Cover stock is available only in white and blue. We continue to stock transparencies. Although we are no longer stocking other kinds of paper, we are still able to meet requests for most special stock:

• Stocks available with 24-hour notice: We can purchase 11-by-17-inch paper, cover stock and regular stock in a variety of colors, and specialized paper such as certificates and NCR (carbonless copy) paper. Departments will be charged for all special stock.

• Coated stock: Our copiers do not produce quality copies on coated stock (paper or cover stock with a slick coating, like magazine paper). We will con- tinue to outsource jobs that use coated stock to KDH Printing. Please allow at least one week for jobs that use coated stock.

3. Bindery services: With our new equipment, collating and stapling of large jobs no longer require additional time. The following bindery services are also available in- house but may require additional time:

• Perfect and spiral binding • Folding • Cutting and hole punching. (The paper cutter and paper drill can be used on

up to 500 sheets at a time.)

The new equipment will be available August 15. Your efforts to make the most efficient use of Copy Center resources help improve the quality of your documents and the productivity of the company.

Feel free to call me at ext. 567 if you have any questions.

Gives brief purpose statement and overview of contents.

▲

Emphasizes need for special handling of requests for special paper.

▲

Makes it clear when changes will take place.

▲

Invites contact.

▲

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

Learning Portfolio 189

■ Model 6–8 ■ Persuasive letter in simplified style

211 River Front Circle St Louis Missouri 63103

314.555.8175 August 21, 2012

Mr James Swartz Safety Director Jessup County School System 1111 Clay Street Smiley MO 64607

NEW ASBESTOS ABATEMENT SERVICE NOW AVAILABLE

We enjoyed working with you last year, James, to update your entire fire alarm sys- tem. Given the current concern in the country about another safety issue, asbestos, we wanted you to know that our staff now does abatement work.

As you know, many of the state’s school systems were constructed during years when asbestos was used as a primary insulator. No one knew then, of course, that the material can cause illness and even premature death for those who work in buildings where asbestos was used in construction. Now we know that just a small portion of asbestos produces a major health hazard.

Fortunately, there’s a way to tell whether you have a problem: the asbestos survey. This procedure, done by our certified asbestos abatement professionals, results in a report that tells whether your buildings are affected. And if we find asbestos, we can remove it for you.

Jessup showed real foresight in modernizing its alarm system last year, James. Your desire for a thorough job on that project was matched, as you know, by the approach we take to our business. Now we’d like to help give you the peace of mind that will come from knowing that either (1) there is no asbestos problem in your 35 structures or (2) you have removed the material.

The enclosed brochure outlines our asbestos services. I’ll call you in a few days to see whether M-Global can help you out.

Barbara H. Feinstein Certified Industrial Hygienist

BHF/sg

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

▲

Simplified style eliminates salutation and closing.

Uses subject line to gain attention. ▲

Refers to previous successful work. ▲

Leads in naturally to letter’s subject (asbestos abatement).

▲

Comforts reader by showing how problem can be discovered and solved.

▲ Reinforces relationship between writer’s and reader’s organizations.

▲

Refers briefly to enclosures; stays in control by mentioning follow-up phone call.

▲

Chapter 6 Correspondence190

MEMO DATE: May 2, 2012 TO: All Employees of Cleveland Office FROM: Timothy Fu, Personnel Director TF SUBJECT: New Cost Containment Measure for Health Care

The next fiscal year will bring several changes in the company’s fringe benefit plan. Later this month, you’ll receive a complete report on all adjustments to go into effect July 1. For now, this memo will outline one major change in health care. Specifically, M-Global will adopt a cost containment program called PAC—intended to help you and the company get more health care for the dollar.

WHAT IS PAC AND HOW DOES IT WORK? Health costs have risen dramatically in the last 10 years. The immediate effect on

M-Global has been major increases in insurance premiums. Both you and the com- pany have shared this burden. This year M-Global will fight this inflationary trend by introducing a new cost containment program called PAC—Pre-Admission Check.

Started by Healthco, our company medical supplier, PAC changes the procedure by which you and your dependents will be recommended for hospitalization. Except in emergencies, you or your physician will need to call the PAC hotline before admission to the hospital. The PAC medical staff will do the following:

1. Review the length of stay recommended by your physician, to make sure it conforms to general practice

2. Request a second opinion if the PAC staff believes that such an opinion is warranted

3. Approve final plans for hospitalization If your physician recommends that you stay in the hospital beyond the time originally planned, he or she will call PAC for authorization.

WILL PAC AFFECT THE LEVEL OR QUALITY OF HEALTH CARE? No . PAC will in no way restrict your health care or increase your personal costs.

Quite the contrary, it may reduce total costs considerably, leading to a stabilization of the employee contributions to premiums next year. The goal is to make sure phy- sicians give careful scrutiny to the length of hospital stays, staying within the norms associated with a particular illness unless there is good reason to do otherwise.

Programs like PAC have worked well for many other firms around the country; there is a track record of lowering costs and working efficiently with physicians and hospitals. Also, you will be glad to know that Healthco has the firm support of its member physicians on this program.

M-Global Inc | 127 Rainbow Lane | Baltimore MD 21202 | 410.555.8175

MEMO TO: all employees MAY 2, 2012

Page 2 WHAT WILL HAPPEN NEXT? As mentioned earlier, this change goes into effect with the beginning of the new fiscal year on July 1. Soon you will receive a report about this and other changes in benefits. If you have any questions before that time, please call the Corporate Benefits Depart- ment at ext. 678.

■ Model 6–9 ■ Persuasive memo about changes in benefits

Puts this memo in context of all benefits changes.

▲

Gives overview of program.

▲

▲ Uses list to highlight three main elements of PAC.

Emphasizes point of agreement —concerns about costs. Describes problem that led to need for change.

▲ ▲ Uses heading to focus

on main concern of reader— quality of care .

Indicates that similar programs have worked well elsewhere.

▲

Leaves reader with clear sense of next step.

▲

■ Model 6–10 ■ Neutral e-mail about changes in procedure

TO: Lab, Marketing, and Administrative Staff in U.S. Offices FROM: Janice Simmons, Benefits Manager SUBJECT: Training Funds for Fiscal Year 2012 DATE: January 2, 2012

Happy New Year to all of you! I hope you had a good break. I’m writing to an- nounce some guidelines for approved training for the next 12 months—including an increased reimbursement. Please read on to see how these changes affect all lab, marketing, and administrative staff.

1. Lab Staff Maximum Reimbursement: $3,000 (up from $2,000) Approval Process: Discuss

with your manager 21 days before trip Trip Purpose: To improve lab procedures 2. Marketing Staff Maximum Reimbursement: $4,000 (up from $3,500) Approval Process: Discuss

with your manager 21 days before trip Trip Purpose: To learn new sales techniques 3. Administrative Staff Maximum Reimbursement: $4,500 (up from $4,000) Approval Process: Discuss

with your manager 21 days before trip Trip Purpose: To improve productivity of office procedures

In the past most employees have failed to make use of their maximum training allotment. I encourage all of you to seek training opportunities that fit the guidelines listed above.

Please note the required 21-day lead time in the approval process!

Just send me an e-mail if you have any questions about the procedure.

Janice

Begins with casual, friendly tone. ▲

Uses list and parallel structure for easy reading.

▲

Includes clear pur- pose statement and three topics to be covered.

▲

Uses short para- graphs. ▲

Supplies details about topics mentioned in first paragraph.

▲

Concludes with reminder about an important part of the procedure. ▲

Encourages them to contact her if there are questions.

▲

191 Learning Portfolio

192

In this chapter, students will:

■ Learn why definitions and descriptions are important in technical documents

■ Learn the similarities and differences between definitions and descriptions

■ Learn guidelines for informal and formal definitions

■ Learn guidelines for expanded definitions

■ Learn the ABC Format for expanded definitions

■ Learn guidelines for descriptions

■ Learn the ABC format for descriptions

■ Read and analyze model definitions and descriptions

>>> Chapter Objectives

Chapter 7

Photo © iStockphoto

Definitions and Descriptions

193 Definitions Versus Descriptions

Recently, M-Global has decided to change its insurance provider, and Karrie Camp, Vice President for Human Resources, has decided to take this opportunity to revise the packet of informa-

tion about benefits that is given to all employees in the

United States. Although employees will continue to re-

ceive the detailed information about benefits from the

insurance provider, Karrie knows that employees have

asked for a quick, easy-to-read overview of the benefits

available to them. She decides to create a set of infor-

mation sheets that both define and describe each of the

benefits in the new benefits package. (See Model 7–2

on page 212 for one of the sheets Karrie created for the

packet.)

Definitions, descriptions, process explanations,

and instructions are the types of writing that people

often think of when they think of technical communi-

cation. This chapter and Chapter 8 explain these four

elements of technical communication. Definitions and

descriptions are closely related. Process explanations

and instructions are also closely related, with the dif-

ference being how the reader will use the documents.

>>> Definitions Versus Descriptions Definitions and descriptions can appear in any part of a document, from the introduction to the appendix. They may also be created as stand-alone documents like the Models 7–1 , 7–2 , 7–3 , and 7–4 on pages 208–214 at the end of this chapter. During your career, you will use technical terms known only to those in your profession. As a civil engineer, for example, you would know that a triaxial compression test helps determine the strength of soil samples. As a documentation specialist, you would know that single-sourcing allows the creation of multiple documents from the same original text. When writing to readers who are unfamiliar with these fields, however, you must define these technical terms. You may also have to describe these technical objects, and the distinction between defini- tion and description can sometimes be a bit confusing. In fact, you can consider a description a special type of definition that focuses on parts, functions, or other features. It empha- sizes physical details.

Descriptions often open with a sentence definition.

Technical Definitions at M-Global Good definitions support findings, conclusions, and recommendations throughout your document. They also keep readers interested. Conversely, the most organized and well- written report will be ignored if it includes terms that readers do not grasp. “Define your terms!” is the frustrated exclamation of many a reader. For your readers’ sake, then, you must be asking questions like these about definitions:

■ How often should they be used?

■ Where should they be placed?

■ What format should they take?

■ How much information is enough, and how much is too much?

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions194

To answer these questions, the following sections give guidelines for definitions and sup- ply an annotated example. First, here are some typical contexts for definitions within M-Global, Inc.:

■ Construction: As an M-Global technician helping to build a wind farm, you often use the term turbine in speech and writing. Obviously, your co-workers and clients understand the term. Now, however, you are using it in a brochure to be sent to residents in areas where wind farms are being built. For this general audi- ence, you must define wind turbine, and you decide to accompany the definition with an illustration so that the nontechnical audience can visualize how wind tur- bines work.

■ Human resources: As a health and benefits specialist in M-Global’s corporate office, you have been asked to introduce employees to a new organizationwide cam- paign to encourage employees to adopt healthy habits. Your first project is a memo- randum to all employees encouraging them to take advantage of free cholesterol screening being offered at all M-Global branches. Your memo must provide clear definitions of terms like good cholesterol and bad cholesterol .

■ Forestry: As a forestry and agriculture expert with M-Global’s Denver office, you have coordinated a major study for the state of Idaho. Your job has been to recom- mend ways that a major forested region can still be used for timber with little or no damage to the region’s ecological balance. Although the report will go first to tech- nical experts in Idaho’s Department of Natural Resources, you have been told that it will also be made available to the public. Therefore you have decided to include a glossary that defines terms such as silvaculture, biodiversity, watershed management, and fuel reduction.

In each case, you are including definitions to help readers with the least familiarity with the technical field to understand the topic about which you are writing. When in doubt, insert definitions! Readers can always skip over ones they do not need.

Descriptions at M-Global Descriptions are similar to definitions. In fact, they often open with a short definition, but they also emphasize the physical details of the object being described. Like definitions, descriptions often appear as supporting information in the document body or in appen- dixes. Following are some typical contexts for descriptions within M-Global, Inc.:

■ Site recommendation: M-Global’s San Francisco office has been hired to recom- mend possible locations for a new swimming and surfing park in northern California. Written to a county commission (five laypersons who will make the decision), your recommendation report gives three possible locations and the criteria for selecting them. The report includes appendixes that give brief physical descriptions of the sites. Specifically, the appendixes to the report describe (1) surface features, (2) current structures, (3) types of soils gathered from the surface, (4) water quality, and (5) aesthetic features, such as quality of the ocean views.

195 Guidelines for Writing Definitions

■ Sonar equipment: A potential M-Global client, Rebecca Stern, calls you in your capacity as a geologist at M-Global’s Baltimore office. She wants information about the kind of sonar equipment M-Global uses to map geologic features on the seafloor. This client has a strong technical background, so you write a letter with a detailed technical description of the M-Global system. The body of the letter describes the locations and functions of (1) the seismic source (a device that sends the sound waves and is towed behind a boat) and (2) the receiver (a unit that receives the signals and is also towed behind the boat).

■ Site analysis: M-Global’s Cleveland office was hired to examine asbestos contamina- tion in a large high school built in 1949. As a member of the investigating team, you found asbestos throughout the basement in old pipe coverings. Your final report to the school board provides conclusions about the level of contamination and recommen- dations for removal. An appendix gives a detailed technical description of the entire basement, including a map with a layout of the plumbing system.

■ Office equipment: As the purchasing officer at M-Global’s St. Paul office, you have been asked to provide information about printers and plotters that are used in the office. You gather the user’s guides and manuals for the equipment and attach them to a cover memo that explains how often each piece of equipment is used and how well each piece of equipment has performed. Model 7–3 on pages 211–212 includes pages from the user’s guide for the large document printer, which is used for a wide variety of documents.

>>> Guidelines for Writing Definitions Definitions are essential for terms that users may be unfamiliar with, and they are also im- portant for terms that are taken for granted. If you are using key terms and concepts that differ from one context to another, or that may be open to interpretation, definitions es- tablish a common language for the writer and reader. The importance of definitions can be seen every day. How do you know if the produce you buy at the farmer’s market is really organic? If an application deadline is “two weeks before the end of the semester,” what is the end of the semester? You will also need to define abstract terms in your workplace writing: What is a “strategic goal”? How do you know if your project is “user-centered”? Readers may each have their own definitions of terms and concepts like these, so they should be clearly defined to establish a foundation that helps your reader understand your documents.

Once you know definitions are needed, you must decide on their format and loca- tion. Again, consider your readers. How much information do they need? Where is this information best placed within the document? To answer these and other questions, we offer five working guidelines for writing good definitions.

>> Definition Guideline 1: Keep It Simple Occasionally, the sole purpose of a report is to define a term; most often, however, a defi- nition just clarifies a term in a document with a larger purpose. Your definitions should be as simple and unobtrusive as possible. Always present the simplest possible definition, with only that level of detail needed by the reader.

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions196

For example, in writing about your land survey of a client’s farm, you might briefly define a transit as “the instrument used by land sur- veyors to measure horizontal and vertical angles.” The report’s main purpose is to present property lines and total acreage, not to give a lesson in surveying, so this sentence definition is adequate. Choose from the following three main formats (listed from least to most complex) in deciding the form and length of definitions:

■ Informal definition: A word or brief phrase, often in paren- theses, that gives only a synonym or other minimal information about the term.

■ Formal definition: A full sentence that distinguishes the term from other similar terms and includes these three parts: the term itself, a class to which the term belongs, and distinguishing fea- tures of the term.

■ Expanded definition: A lengthy explanation that begins with a formal definition and is developed into several paragraphs or more.

Guidelines 2 through 5 show you when to use these three op- tions and where to put them in your document.

>> Definition Guideline 2: Use Informal Definitions for Simple Terms Most Readers Understand

Informal definitions appear right after the terms being defined, usually as short phrases or one-word synonyms in parentheses. They give just enough information to keep the reader moving quickly. Therefore, they are best used with simple terms that can be defined adequately without much detail.

One situation in which an informal definition would apply is as follows: M-Global has been hired to examine a possible shopping-mall site. The buyers, a group of physicians, want a list of previous owners and an opinion about the suitability of the site. As legal assistant at M-Global, you must assemble a list of owners for your part of the team-written report. You want your report to agree with court records, so you decide to include real-estate jargon such as grantor and grantee. For your nontechnical readers, you include parenthetical definitions such as these:

All grantors (persons from whom the property was obtained) and grantees (persons who purchased the property) are listed on the following chart, by year of ownership.

This same M-Global report has a section describing creosote pollution found at the site. The chemist writing the contamination section also uses an informal definition for the readers’ benefit:

At the southwest corner of the mall site, we found 16 barrels of creosote (a coal tar derivative) buried under about three feet of sand.

The readers do not need a fancy chemical explanation of creosote. They need only enough information to keep them from getting lost in the terminology. Informal definitions per- form this task nicely.

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197 Guidelines for Writing Definitions

>> Definition Guideline 3: Use Formal Definitions for More Complex Terms

A formal definition appears in the form of a sentence that lists (1) the term to be defined, (2) the class to which it belongs, and (3) the features that distinguish it from other terms in the same class. Use the formal definition when your reader needs more background than an informal definition provides. Formal definitions include three parts:

■ First, they identify the term being defined.

■ Second, they place the term in a class (group) of similar items.

■ Third, they list features (characteristics) of the term that separate it from all others in that same class.

In the list of sample definitions that follows, note that some terms are tangible (like pumper ) and others are intangible (like arrest ). Yet you can define them all by first choosing a class and then selecting features that distinguish the term from others in the same class.

Term Class Features

An arrest is restraint of persons that deprives them of freedom of movement and binds them to the will and control of the arresting officer.

A financial statement is a historical report about a business

prepared by an accountant to pro- vide information useful in making economic decisions, particularly for owners and creditors.

A triaxial compression test is

a soils lab test that determines the amount of force needed to cause a shear fail- ure in a soil sample.

A pumper is a firefighting apparatus used to provide adequate pressure to propel streams of water toward a fire.

This list demonstrates three important points about formal definitions. First, the definition itself must not contain terms that are confusing to your readers. The defini- tion of triaxial compression test, for example, assumes readers understand the term shear failure that is used to describe features. If this assumption is incorrect, then the shear fail- ure must be defined. Second, formal definitions may be so long that they create a major distraction in the text. (See Guideline 5 for alternative locations.) Third, the class must be narrow enough so that you do not have to list too many distinguishing features.

>> Definition Guideline 4: Use the ABC Format for Expanded Definitions

Sometimes a parenthetical phrase or formal sentence definition is not enough. If readers need more information, use an expanded definition. An expanded definition can provide back- ground information and details that help readers understand important terms. Use the ABC format to organize long definitions.

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions198

Following are seven ways to expand a definition, along with brief examples:

1. Background or history of term — Expand the defini- tion of triaxial compression test by giving a dictionary defini- tion of triaxial and a brief history of the origin of the test.

2. Applications — Expand the definition of financial statement to include a description of the use of such a statement by a company about to purchase controlling interest in another.

3. List of parts — Expand the definition of pumper by listing the parts of the device, such as the compressor, the hose compartment, and the water tank.

4. Graphics — Expand the description of the triaxial compression test with an illustration showing the laboratory test apparatus.

5. Comparison/contrast — Expand the definition of a term like management by objectives (a technique for motivating and

ABC Format: Expanded Definitions ■ ABSTRACT: Overview at the beginning

and information about how you will focus the definition

• Usually includes a formal sentence definition

■ BODY: Supporting information using headings and lists as helpful format de- vices for the reader

■ CONCLUSION: Reminder to the reader of the definition’s relevance to the whole document, or an explanation of the impor- tance of the term

assessing the performance of employees) by pointing out similarities and differences between it and other management techniques.

6. Basic principle — Expand the definition of ohm (a unit of electrical resistance equal to that of a conductor in which a current of 1 ampere is produced by a po- tential of 1 volt across its terminals) by explaining the principle of Ohm’s law (that for any circuit, the electrical current is directly proportional to the voltage and in- versely proportional to the resistance).

7. Illustration — Expand the definition of CAD/CAM (Computer-Aided Design/ Computer-Aided Manufacturing—computerized techniques to automate the design and manufacture of products) by giving examples of how CAD/CAM is changing methods of manufacturing many items, from blue jeans to airplanes.

Obviously, long definitions might seem unwieldy within the text of a report, or even within a footnote. For this reason, they often appear in appendixes, as noted in the next guideline. Readers who want additional information can seek them out, whereas other readers are not distracted by digressions in the text.

>> Definition Guideline 5: Choose the Right Location for Your Definition

Short definitions are likely to be in the main text; long ones are often relegated to foot- notes or appendixes. However, length is not the main consideration. Think first about the importance of the definition to your reader. If you know that decision makers reading your report need the definition, then place it in the text—even if it is fairly lengthy. If the definition provides only supplementary information, then it can go elsewhere. You have these five choices for locating a definition:

1. In the same sentence as the term, as in an informal, parenthetical definition

2. In a separate sentence, as in a formal sentence definition occurring right after a term is mentioned

199

3. In a footnote, as in a formal or expanded definition listed at the bottom of the page on which the term is first mentioned

4. In a glossary at the beginning or end of the document

5. In an appendix at the end of the document, for example, used for an expanded definition that would otherwis.e clutter the text of the document

Example of an Expanded Definition Sometimes your readers may need a longer and more expanded definition. Expanded definitions are especially useful in reports from technical experts to nontechnical readers. M-Global’s report writers, for example, must often explain environmental, structural, or geologic problems to concerned citizens or nontechnical decision makers. Model 7–1 on pages 208–209 is an example of an expanded definition. The definition begins with a note that this is one possible definition of cloud computing, but that there are other models and definitions of the term. It identifies the characteristics that separate cloud com- puting from similar technologies, and it explains where cloud computing can be found. The definition closes with information about the importance of the term.

>>> Guidelines for Writing Descriptions Like definitions, descriptions are important for establishing a common foundation to help readers understand terms and concepts. Descriptions may be included in longer documents, but they often appear alone. A catalog is a collection of product descriptions. These descrip- tions may be short, as in a consumer seed or clothing catalog, or they may be fairly lengthy, as in a catalog for expensive construction equipment. Technical descriptions are common in the medical field, as well. You may have used the Internet to find a description of a medical condition, or to find out about the effects and side effects of a prescription drug. Every day, we read descriptions that help us understand advances in science and technology.

When your readers benefit from detailed information about parts, functions, or other elements of objects and places, you should write a description. These five guidelines help you write accurate, detailed descriptions. Follow them carefully as you prepare assign- ments in this class and on the job.

>> Description Guideline 1: Remember Your Readers’ Needs The level of detail in a technical description depends on the purpose a description serves. Give readers precisely what they need—but no more. In the study of locations for a new swimming and surfing park in Model 7–4 on page 213–214 , the commissioners do not want a detailed description of soil samples taken from borings. That level of detail is

Guidelines for Writing Descriptions

Definition Guidelines ■ Keep it simple

■ Use informal definitions for simple terms most readers understand

■ Use formal definitions for more complex terms

■ Use the ABC format for expanded definitions

■ Choose the right location for your definition

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Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions200

reserved for a few sites selected later for further study. Instead, they want only surface descriptions. Always know just how much detail will get the job done.

>> Description Guideline 2: Be Accurate and Objective More than anything else, readers expect accuracy in descriptions. Pay close attention to details. (As noted previously, the degree of detail in a description depends on the purpose of the document.) In the asbestos analysis example on page 195 , you should describe every possible location of asbestos in the school basement. Because the description becomes the basis for a cost proposal to remove the material, accuracy is crucial.

Along with accuracy should come objectivity . This term is more difficult to pin down, how- ever. Some writers assume that an objective description leaves out all opinion. This is not the case. Instead, an objective description may very well include opinions that have these features:

■ They are based on your professional background and experience.

■ They can be supported by published research.

■ They can be supported by details from the site or object being described.

For example, your description of the basement pipes men- tioned in the site analysis example might include a statement such as “Because there is asbestos wrapping on the exposed pipes above the boiler, my experience suggests that asbestos wrapping probably also exists around the pipes above the ceil- ing—in areas that we were not able to view.” This opinion does not reduce the objectivity of your description; it is simply a logical conclusion based on your experience.

>> Description Guideline 3: Use the ABC Format for Descriptions

Like other patterns discussed in this chapter, technical de- scriptions usually make up only parts of documents. Nev- ertheless, they must have an organization plan that permits them to be read as self-contained, stand-alone sections. In- deed, a description may be excerpted later for separate use. Use the ABC format as a basic organization plan.

Following are three common ways to describe physical objects and locations. In all three cases, a description should move from general to specific—that is, you begin with a view of the entire object, and in the rest of the description, you focus on specifics. Head- ings may be used, depending on the format of the larger document.

1. Description of the parts: For many physical objects, like sonar equipment, base- ment floor, and printers in Model 7–4 on page 213–214 , you simply organize the description by moving from part to part.

2. Description of the functions: Often the most appropriate overall plan relies on how things work, not on how they look. In the sonar example, the reader was more interested in the way that the sender and receiver worked together to provide a map

ABC Format: Descriptions

■ ABSTRACT: Overview at the beginning and information about how you will focus the description

• Often includes a formal sentence definition

■ BODY: Supporting information using headings and lists as helpful format de- vices for the reader

■ CONCLUSION: Placement of the descrip- tion in the context of the whole document, or explanation of the importance of under- standing the object or location

201 Guidelines for Writing Descriptions

of the seafloor. This function-oriented description should include only a brief de- scription of the parts. For more on explanations of processes, see Chapter 8 .

3. Description of the sequence: If your description involves events, as in an inves- tigator’s description of an equipment failure at a work site, you can organize ideas around the major occurrences, in their correct sequence. As in any list, it is best to break up a series of many items into just a few groups. It is much easier for readers to comprehend four groups of 5 events each than a single list of 20 events.

>> Description Guideline 4: Use “Helpers” Like Graphics and Analogies The words of a technical description must come alive. Because your readers may be unfa- miliar with the item, you must search for ways to connect with their experience and with their senses. Two effective tools are graphics and analogies.

Graphics respond to the desire of most readers to see pictures along with words. As readers move through your part-by-part or functional breakdown of a mechanism, they can refer to your graphic aid for assistance. The illustration helps you, too, of course, in that you need not be as detailed in describing the locations and dimensions of parts when you know the reader has easy access to a visual. Note how the diagrams in Models 7–3 and 7–4 on pages 211–214 give meaning to the technical details in the verbal descriptions.

Analogies, like illustrations, give readers a convenient handle for understanding your description. Put simply, an analogy allows you to describe something unknown or un- common in terms of something that is known or more common. A brief analogy can sometimes save you hundreds of words of technical description. This paragraph descrip- tion contains three analogies:

M-Global, Inc., is equipped to help clean up oil spills with its patented product, SeaClean. This highly absorbent chemical is spread over the entire spill by a heli- copter that makes passes over the spill, much as a lawnmower covers the complete surface area of a lawn. When the chemical contacts the oil, it acts like sawdust in contact with oil on a garage floor—that is, the oil is immediately absorbed into the chemical and physically transformed into a product that is easily collected. Then our nearby ship can collect the product, using a machine that operates much like a vacuum cleaner. This machine sucks the SeaClean (now full of oil) off the surface of the water and into a sealed container in the ship’s hold.

Notice that the description refers to common machines (a lawnmower and a vacuum cleaner) and to a common material (sawdust). These analogies work because of the simi- larities that can be emphasized—the movement of the lawnmower, the purpose of the vacuum cleaner, and the absorptive qualities of the sawdust.

>> Description Guideline 5: Give Your Description the “Visualizing Test”

After completing a description, test its effectiveness by reading it to someone unfamiliar with the material—someone with about the same level of knowledge as your intended reader. If this person can draw a rough sketch of the object or events while listening to your description, then you have done a good job. If not, ask your listener for sugges-

202 Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions

tions to improve the description. If you are too close to the subject yourself, sometimes an outside point of view will help refine your technical description.

Example of a Description Fahdi Ahmad, Director of Procurement at M-Global’s office in Saudi Arabia, is changing his buying procedures. He has decided to purchase some basic lab supplies from companies in nearby develop- ing nations rather than from firms in industrialized countries. For one thing, he thinks this move may save some money. For another, he believes it will help the company get more projects from these nations, for M-Global will become known as a firm that pumps back some of its profits into the local economies.

As a first step in this process, Fahdi is providing potential suppliers with descriptions of some lab equipment used at M- Global, such as pH meters, spectrometers, hydrometers, and drying ovens. Model 7–4 on pages 213–214 presents a moder- ately detailed description of one such piece of equipment—a soil grinder. Fahdi selected a soil grinder model that is being success- fully used at many M-Global labs in the United States. The Model 7–4 description can serve as a starting point for suppliers. How- ever, M-Global and the suppliers realize that soil grinders will have slightly different features, depending on the manufacturer.

>>> Chapter Summary ■ Definitions and descriptions help establish a common language, so that readers and

writers understand terms and concepts in the same way.

■ Definitions generally focus on terms and concepts.

■ Descriptions generally focus on objects and locations. They often include formal definitions and may even be considered a special type of definition.

■ Definitions can be classified as informal, formal, or expanded.

■ Definitions should be as simple as they can be and still provide all of the information necessary for readers.

■ The ABC format can help writers develop expanded definitions.

■ Short definitions are placed in the body of documents, but longer definitions may be placed in notes or in glossaries.

■ Descriptions should be only as complex as necessary to meet the needs of readers.

■ Descriptions should be accurate and objective.

■ The ABC format can help writers organize descriptions.

■ Graphics and analogies can help readers understand descriptions.

EmiliaU/Shutterstock

Description Guidelines ■ Remember your readers’ needs

■ Be accurate and objective

■ Use the ABC format for descriptions

■ Use “helpers” like graphics and analogies

■ Give your description the “visualizing test”

Learning Portfolio 203

Sylvia Barnard, manager of the Denver branch of M-Global,

has a special interest in the energy industry. As a geologist

working in oil and gas exploration, she joined M-Global to

contribute to its construction projects in the oil and gas in-

dustry, such as oil fields and refineries. Sylvia wants to see

M-Global respond to changes in the energy industry by di-

versifying into work on biofuels projects. This case study

explains her approach to the problem. It ends with ques-

tions and comments for discussion and an assignment for a

written response to the Challenge.

Research As a first step in developing a proposal for Jim McDuff, Syl-

via wants to learn more about the biofuels industry and bio-

fuels technology. Although she has read about biofuels in

newspapers and general news magazines, she knows that

to propose that M-Global enter the field, she must have

more specialized knowledge about what biofuels are. With

a better understanding of the technology, she will be able

to focus her proposal on the areas in which M-Global’s ex-

perience in the oil and gas industry can be transferred to

construction projects in the biofuels industry. After her re-

search, she decides to focus on the following types of fuels:

■ Biodiesel

■ Bioalcohols

■ Biogas

■ Cellulosic biofuels

The Report Before she writes her proposal, Sylvia decides to create a

report that compares refineries and refinery construction

needs for biofuels to the oil and gas refineries that M-Global

has worked on in the past. The report will be primarily de-

scriptive. It must define biofuels and describe the equip-

ment and site construction needs of biofuels refineries.

Sylvia knows that M-Global has a history of look-

ing to environmental issues for business opportunities. In

the 1970s, the company (then McDuff, Inc.) began work in

hazardous waste disposal. (See Model 1–1 on pages 25–34 .)

At the time, however, it was clear that there was a need

for such services, and that the technology was rapidly

developing. Sylvia is concerned that her enthusiasm for

biofuels may be premature. Although there are companies

building biofuel refineries, many of them seem more fo-

cused on the environmental issues than on long-term prof-

itability. Her research also suggests that the technology is

in its early stages. She worries that it might be too early for

M-Global to get into the biofuels industry, but she decides to

write the report anyway.

Questions and Comments for Discussion

1. How can Sylvia use her knowledge of M-Global’s

history, especially Rob McDuff’s interest in environ-

mental issues, to make her report appealing to Jim

McDuff? Should Sylvia let Jim know that she plans to

follow this report with a proposal? If so, why and what

should she tell him?

2. What must Jim McDuff understand about biofuels

before he can make a decision about exploring the op-

portunity further? What illustrations might help him

make his decision?

3. What terms must Sylvia define? What kinds of defini-

tions should she write, and where should they be in-

cluded in the report?

4. Should Sylvia include her concerns about the fact that

the biofuels industry is in its early stages? If so, what

should she say? Should she even send the report, or

should she save it until the biofuels industry is better

established?

Write About It

Sylvia has assigned you the task of writing a short descrip-

tion of biofuels that she can include in various documents

related to her biofuels proposal. Write a one-page descrip-

tion of biofuels that could be used or adapted to a variety

of documents related to the biofuels initiative at M-Global.

You should define biofuels and describe them. You may de-

cide to describe the different types of biofuels that Sylvia

has decided to focus on (classification), or you may decide

to compare them to oil and gas products (comparison/con-

trast). Use illustrations as appropriate. Include a list of ref-

erences on a separate page.

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge Biofuels Brainstorm: Describing New Technologies

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions

General Instructions Each Collaboration at Work exercise applies strategies for

working in teams to chapter topics. The exercise assumes you

(1) have been divided into teams of about three to six students,

(2) will use team time inside or outside of class to complete

the case, and (3) will produce an oral or written response. For

guidelines about writing in teams, refer to Chapter 3 .

Background for Assignment Whereas some terms are easily defined, others, including

abstract concepts, are quite challenging. This means that it

is essential that abstract terms be clearly defined, because

not all readers will understand the term the way that you

do. This assignment asks your team to define the abstract

concept of a college or university education.

Like other colleges and universities, your institution

may require students to complete a core curriculum of re-

quired subjects. Some cores are virtually identical for stu-

dents in all majors; others vary by major. Following is one

example of a core curriculum:

1. Essential skills (9 credits): Includes two freshman composition courses, communication studies, and

college algebra.

2. Humanities/Fine arts (9 credits): Includes courses such as literature surveys, art appreciation, music apprecia-

tion, and foreign language.

3. Science, mathematics, and technology (10–11 credits): Includes laboratory and nonlab classes in fields such as physics, chemistry, computer science, and calculus.

4. Social sciences (12 credits): Includes courses such as American history, world history, political science, and

religion.

5. Western civilization (6 credits): Includes Western civi- lization courses that combine history, philosophy, and

literature.

6. Non-Western civilization (6 credits): Includes courses in philosophy, history, religion, and literature of non-

Western cultures.

Core curricula or general studies requirements like

these suggest a definition of a college or university educa-

tion. In this example, the required courses suggest that the

university values developing intellectual curiosity and an

understanding of communication, critical thinking, cultural

awareness, and scientific reasoning.

Team Assignment Examine the core curriculum at your institution and decide

how it suggests what your school defines as a university ed-

ucation. Write an extended definition that could be used on

your school’s Web site in materials that your school sends

to potential students to help identify its philosophy and

goals for its students.

Collaboration at Work Analyzing the Core

Assignments can be completed either as individual exer-

cises or as team projects, depending on the directions of

your instructor. You instructor will ask you to prepare a re-

sponse that can be delivered as an oral presentation for dis-

cussion in class. Analyze the context of each Assignment by

considering what you learned in Chapter 1 about the context

of technical writing, and answer the following questions:

■ What is the purpose of the document to be written?

■ What result do you hope to achieve by writing it?

■ Who are your readers and what will they want from

your document?

■ What method of organization is most useful?

Part 1: Short Assignments 1. Analysis: Definition Using the guidelines in this chapter, discuss the relative ef-

fectiveness of the following short definitions. Speculate on

the likely audience the definitions are addressing.

Assignments

a. Afforestation —the process of establishing trees on land that has lacked forest cover for a very long period of time or has

never been forested

b. Carbon cycle —the term used to describe the flow of carbon (in various forms such as carbon dioxide [CO 2 ], organic matter,

and carbonates) through the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere, and lithosphere

c. Feebates —systems of progressive vehicle taxes on purchases of less efficient new vehicles and subsidies for more efficient

new vehicles

204

2. Analysis: Definition Look up brownfields at http://epa.gov/brownfields/over-

view/glossary.htm . Next, search the Internet for other defi-

nitions of brownfields. What definitions do you find? How

do they use the language of the “official” definition? Be pre-

pared to discuss the reasons Web site sponsors might have

for using the definitions that you found.

3. Analysis: Description Read the description below of agile development. Identify

the formal definition in the description. What other infor-

mation is included in the description? Are there terms that

you would like to see defined? Search for those terms and

for agile development in your library’s database of periodicals.

Compare the descriptions that you find to this one. This

description was written in a magazine for technical com-

municators. Be prepared to discuss whether or not this de-

scription is appropriate for the audience.

4. Analysis: Description Find three Web sites that describe organic food or organic

farming. Look for sites sponsored by:

1. The U.S. Department of Agriculture 2. Large commercial food companies 3. Small local farms or co-ops

Compare how these sites describe organic food or organic

farming. Why is a clear understanding of what makes food

“organic” important to the organizations that sponsor the

Web sites that you found? Compare your analysis to that of

other students in the class.

5. Practice: Definition Create formal sentence definitions of the following terms.

Remember to include the class and distinguishing features:

■ Automated teller machine (ATM)

■ Digital video disc (DVD)

■ Web site

■ Job interview

6. Practice, M-Global Context: Definition Write definitions of the following words for the glossary men-

tioned in the “Forestry” example in Model 7–4 on page 213–214 .

■ Silvaculture

■ Biodiversity

■ Watershed management

■ Fuel reduction

7. Practice, M-Global Context: Definition As part of its petroleum refinery construction work, M-

Global builds equipment for cracking. Write a one-paragraph

d. Greenhouse gases —gases including water vapor, CO 2 , CH 4 , nitrous oxide, and halocarbons that trap infrared heat, warm-

ing the air near the surface and in the lower levels of the atmosphere

e. Mitigation —a human intervention to reduce the sources of or to enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases

f. Permafrost —soils or rocks that remain below 0°C for at least two consecutive years

g. Temperate zones —regions of the Earth’s surface located above 30° latitude and below 66.5° latitude

h. Wet climates —climates where the ratio of mean annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration is greater than 1.0

Adapted from U.S. Climate Change Science Program. (2007). The first state of the carbon cycle report (SOCCR): The North American carbon budget and implication for the global carbon cycle (pp. 195–197 ). Asheville, NC: National Climate Data Center. Retrieved from http://www.clima- tescience.gov/Library/sap/sap22/final-report .

The Agile Development Process

Agile software development is a conceptual framework for undertaking software engineering projects. A number of agile meth-

ods exist, including extreme programming and feature-driven development, but most agile methods seek to minimize risk to

developing software iterations, each typically lasting one to four weeks. Each iteration is a miniature software project, includ-

ing all the tasks necessary to release new functionality in small increments.

The principles of agile development are spelled out in the Agile Manifesto, which can be found at www.agilealliance.org .

According to the manifesto, practitioners of agile methods value:

• individuals and interactions over processes and tools

• working software over comprehensive documentation

• customer collaboration over contract negotiation

• quick response to change over the following of a static plan

V. O’Connor. (2007, February). Agile development: Challenges and opportunities. Intercom, 54 (2), 17.

Learning Portfolio 205

definition of cracking, in the context of oil refining, that

could be used in all M-Global documents about the subject.

Include a one-sentence formal definition.

8. Practice: Description Write a description of a piece of equipment or furniture lo-

cated in your classroom or brought to class by your instruc-

tor—for example, a classroom chair, an overhead projector,

a three-hole punch, a mechanical pencil, or a computer

mouse. Write the description for a reader who is unfamiliar

with the item.

9. Practice, M-Global Context: Description As part of its nuclear power plant construction work, M-Global

builds cooling pools for nuclear waste. Write a one-paragraph

description of a nuclear waste cooling pool. Your description

should include a formal sentence definition and information

about the construction of cooling pools. Emphasize the role of

the cooling pool in keeping nuclear waste safe.

Part 2: Longer Assignments These assignments test your ability to write the two pat-

terns covered in this chapter: definitions and descriptions.

Specifically, follow these guidelines:

■ Write each exercise in the form of a letter report or

memo report, as specified.

■ Follow the organization and design guidelines given in

Chapter 4 , especially concerning the ABC format

( A bstract/ B ody/ C onclusion) and the use of headings.

Chapters 10 and 11 give guidelines for short reports,

but such detail is not necessary to complete the as-

signments here.

■ Fill out a Planning Form (at the end of the book) for

each assignment.

10. Practice: Technical Definitions in Your Field

Select a technical area in which you have taken course

work or in which you have technical experience. Now as-

sume that you are employed as an outside consulting ex-

pert, acting as a resource in your particular area for an

M-Global manager not familiar with your specialty. For ex-

ample, a nutritionist might provide information related to

the dietary needs of oil workers working on an offshore rig

for three months; a business or management expert might

report on a new management technique; an electronics

expert might explain the operation of some new piece of

equipment that M-Global is considering buying; a computer

programmer might explain some new piece of hardware

that could provide supporting services to M-Global; and a

legal expert might define sexism in the workplace for the ben-

efit of M-Global’s human resources professionals.

For the purpose of this report, develop a context in

which you have to define terms for an uninformed reader.

Incorporate one expanded definition and at least one sen-

tence definition into your report.

11. Practice: Description of Equipment in Your Field

Select a common piece of laboratory, office, or field equipment

with which you are familiar. Write a thorough physical de-

scription of the equipment that could be used in a training

manual for those who must understand how to use, and

perform minor repairs on, the equipment. For the body of

your description, choose either a part-by-part physical de-

scription or a thorough description of functions.

12. Practice, M-Global Context: Description of a Position in Your Field

Interview a friend or colleague about the specific job that

person holds. Make certain it is a job that you yourself have

not had. On the basis of data collected in the interview,

write a thorough description of the person’s position—in-

cluding major responsibilities, reporting relationships, edu-

cational preparation, and experience required.

Now place this description in the context of a letter re-

port to Karrie Camp, Vice President for Human Resources

at M-Global. Assume she has hired you, a technical consul-

tant to M-Global, to submit a letter report that contains the

description. She is preparing to advertise such an opening

at M-Global but needs your report to write the job descrip-

tion and the advertisement. Because she has little firsthand

knowledge of the position about which you are writing, you

should avoid technical jargon.

13. Practice, M-Global Context: Definition Model 7–2 is part of a packet explaining employee benefits.

Write an expanded definition of one of the following em-

ployee benefits that could be included in the same package:

■ ESOP (Employee Stock Ownership Plan)

■ 401K retirement plan

■ HSA (Health Savings Account)

14. Practice, M-Global Context: Description As a Web site developer on the M-Global Publications Devel-

opment team, you are concerned with the accessibility of

computers to those with visual disabilities. Write a descrip-

tion of one kind of adaptive technology that can help those

with visual disabilities use computers or access Web sites

more easily.

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions206

207 Learning Portfolio

Now place this description in the context of a memo

to Karrie Camp, Vice President for Human Resources at

M-Global. Explain how the technology will make it pos-

sible for M-Global to hire qualified applicants with visual

impairments.

15. Ethics Assignment Although definitions and descriptions may appear neutral,

they may be used to promote a point of view or to advance

an argument on a controversial issue. Examine the follow-

ing definitions of global warming from various sources on

the Internet, and find and read each organization’s home

page. Can you see implied biases in the definition, or does

the definition appear neutral? Does this bias or neutrality

support the general goals of the organization that published

the definition?

In a short essay, compare the definitions and identify

the source of each one as well as any apparent bias in the

original source. Discuss whether the definitions have been

written to support their sources’ points of view.

16. International Communication Assignment

In the global marketplace, companies are using illustrations

and images to avoid expensive translation. Find examples

of descriptions that use illustrations extensively. If possi-

ble, find descriptions in multiple languages, such as those

in owner’s manuals. (Focus on the descriptions of objects,

not on instructions.) Analyze the illustrations for their ef-

fectiveness as descriptions. How important is text to the

illustrations? Could the illustrations serve as descriptions

without the text? If you have a document that is in multiple

languages, do the illustrations differ from one version to

the next? Write an essay that discusses the relationship of

text and illustrations in descriptions. Include a discussion

of whether you think companies should try to make their

descriptions text-free.

ACTNOW 17. A.C.T. N.O.W. Assignment ( A pplying C ommunication T o N urture O ur W orld)

Colleges and universities work hard to foster good relation-

ships with their surrounding communities. Sometimes re-

ferred to as town/gown relations, this connection between

the institution and the community is important for the ob-

vious reason that both entities inhabit the same environ-

ment and depend on each other. For this assignment, select

a project that you believe would improve or nurture town/

gown relations in your community. Depending on the in-

structions you are given, prepare an oral or written report

that describes the project. Your instructor may also ask you

to use the description in the context of an argument for

why the project would be useful.

U.S. Geological Service, National Wetlands Research Center

Global Warming —An increase of the earth’s temperature by a few degrees resulting in an increase in the volume of water

which contributes to sea-level rise.

“The Fragile Fringe: Glossary,” http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/fringe/glossary.html .

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the troposphere,

which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns. Global warming can occur from a variety of causes, both natural

and human induced. In common usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of increased

emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities.

“Basic Information, Climate Change,” http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basicinfo.html .

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency

Global Warming —An increase in the Earth’s temperature caused by human activities, such as burning coal, oil and natural gas.

This releases carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases form a blanket

around the Earth, trapping heat and raising temperatures on the ground. This is steadily changing our climate.

“MPCA Glossary” < http://www.pca.state.mn.us/gloss/glossary.cfm?alpha=G&header=1&glossaryCat=0 >.

Pew Center on Global Climate Change

The progressive gradual rise of the Earth’s average surface temperature thought to be caused in part by increased concentra-

tions of GHGs [greenhouse gasses] in the atmosphere.

“Glossary of Key Terms,” http://www.pewclimate.org/global-warming-basics/full_glossary .

208

The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing Authors: Peter Mell and Tim Grance Version 15, 10-7-09

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Information Technology Laboratory.

Note 1: Cloud computing is still an evolving paradigm. Its definitions, use cases, underlying technologies, issues, risks, and benefits will be refined in a spirited de- bate by the public and private sectors. These definitions, attributes, and character- istics will evolve and change over time.

Note 2: The cloud computing industry represents a large ecosystem of many mod- els, vendors, and market niches. This definition attempts to encompass all of the various cloud approaches.

Definition of Cloud Computing:

Cloud computing is a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, stor- age, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model pro- motes availability and is composed of five essential characteristics, three service models , and four deployment models .

Essential Characteristics:

On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabili- ties, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service’s provider.

Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, and PDAs).

Resource pooling. The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. There is a sense of location independence in that the customer generally has no control or knowledge over the exact location of the provided resources but may be able to specify location at a higher level of abstraction (e.g., country, state, or datacenter). Examples of resources include storage, processing, memory, network bandwidth, and virtual machines.

Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be rapidly and elastically provisioned, in some cases automatically, to quickly scale out and rapidly released to quickly scale in. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear to be unlim- ited and can be purchased in any quantity at any time.

Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions

Overview, including for- mal sentence definition of term

▲

List of components

▲

■ Model 7–1 ■ Expanded Definition Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology Computer Security Division, Computer Security Resource Center. http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/cloud-computing/cloud-def-v15.doc .

209

type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported providing transparency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service.

Service Models:

Cloud Software as a Service (SaaS). The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider’s applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through a thin client interface such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email). The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.

Cloud Platform as a Service (PaaS) . The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly application hosting environment configurations.

Cloud Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). The capability provided to the consumer is to provision processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not man- age or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, deployed applications, and possibly limited control of select net- working components (e.g., host firewalls).

Deployment Models:

Private cloud. The cloud infrastructure is operated solely for an organization. It may be managed by the organization or a third party and may exist on premise or off premise.

Community cloud. The cloud infrastructure is shared by several organizations and supports a specific community that has shared concerns (e.g., mission, security requirements, policy, and compliance considerations). It may be managed by the organizations or a third party and may exist on premise or off premise.

Public cloud. The cloud infrastructure is made available to the general public or a large industry group and is owned by an organization selling cloud services.

Hybrid cloud . The cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more clouds (pri- vate, community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together by standardized or proprietary technology that enables data and application portability (e.g., cloud bursting for load-balancing between clouds).

Note: Cloud software takes full advantage of the cloud paradigm by being service oriented with a focus

on statelessness, low coupling, modularity, and semantic interoperability.

■ Model 7–1 ■ continued

Learning Portfolio

Information about context

▲

▲

Summary of value of model ▲

210 Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions

■ Model 7–2 ■ Brief description (with formal definition included)

Your M-Global Benefits

Flexible Spending Accounts (FSAs)

What is a Flexible Spending Account? A Flexible Spending Account (FSA) is a pretax savings account that can be used for an employee’s qualifying out-of-pocket expenses.

An FSA allows employees to set up an account that can be used for dependent care and health costs. FSAs are pretax benefits, meaning that they allow employ- ees to designate an amount that will be withheld from their paychecks before taxes are figured. Taxes are then withheld based on the amount after the deduction for the FSA. As a result, participants can save as much as 35 percent on their federal income taxes.

At M-Global, Flexible Spending Accounts can be used for child care and for health costs that are not covered by insurance, including deductibles, coinsurance, and co- pays. Reimbursement is also available for out-of-pocket medical expenses such as prescriptions, orthodontia, and laboratory services. Details of employee benefits are available in the Employee Benefit Information packet distributed each November, in Employee Orientation materials, and on M-Global’s Human Resources Web site.

Employees who have a reimbursable expense should submit the appropriate form to their branch Human Resources Office. Reimbursement forms are available on M-Global’s Human Resources Web site. Reimbursement checks will generally be available one week after the form is submitted.

Are there any drawbacks to a Flexible Spending Account? Contributions to an FSA will result in a decrease in take home pay, and child care costs are not eligible for child care credit on federal income tax if they are reim- bursed through a Flexible Spending Account. In addition, FSAs are a “use it or lose it” plan. That is, any money that remains in the employee’s account at the end of the plan year may be forfeited. Reimbursement requests must be submitted within 90 days of the end of the plan year.

How can I get the most benefit from a Flexible Spending Account? It is important to estimate your deductions carefully. Figure your out-of-pocket ex- penses from the previous year. Then estimate any changes carefully. Keep track of your spending throughout the year to make sure that you use your Flexible Spend- ing Account effectively.

Starts with a sen- tence definition

▲

Points reader to documents and Web site for further information

▲ ▲

Emphasizes benefits to employees

▲

Meets legal require- ment that limitations be explained

▲

Briefly explains how to use the account.

▲

Closes with ad- vice for using plan effectively

▲

211

The front panel

Your printer’s front panel is located on the front of the printer, on the right hand side. Use it for the following functions:

• Use it to perform certain operations, such as loading and unloading paper.

• View up-to-date information about the status of the printer, the ink cartridges, the printheads, the maintenance cartridge, the paper, the print jobs, and other parts and processes.

• Get guidance in using the printer.

• See warning and error messages, when appropriate.

• Use it to change the values of printer settings and the operation of the printer. However, settings in the Embedded Web Server or in the driver override changes made on the front panel.

Learning Portfolio

■ Model 7–3 ■ Description from a user’s manual (Content courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company)

The front panel has the following components: 1. The display area shows information, icons, and menus. 2. The Power button turns the printer on and off. If the printer is in sleep mode,

this button will wake it up. (This is different from the hard power switch on the back of the printer. See Turn the printer on and off on page 21 .)

3. The Power light is off when the printer is off. This light is amber when the printer is in sleep mode, green when the printer is on, green and flashing when the printer is in transition between off and on.

4. The Form Feed and Cut button normally advances and cuts the roll. Here is a list of its other functions:

• If the printer is waiting for more pages to be nested, this button cancels the waiting time and prints the available pages immediately.

• If the printer is drying the ink after printing, this button cancels the waiting time and releases the page immediately.

• If the take-up reel is enabled, this button advances the paper 10 cm (3.9 inches), but does not cut the paper.

Starts with overview of important functions. ▲

Illustration focuses on parts being described ▲

Numbers correspond to parts in illustration. ▲

Integrates description of parts with operating instructions.

▲

212

■ Model 7–3 ■ continued

5. The Reset button restarts the printer (as if it were switched off and switched on again). You will need a non-conductive implement with a narrow tip to operate the Reset button.

6. The Cancel button cancels the current operation. It is often used to stop the current print job.

7. The Status light is off when the printer is not ready to print: the printer is either off, or in sleep mode. The Status light is green when the printer is ready and idle, green and flashing when the printer is busy, amber when a seri- ous internal error has occurred, and amber and flashing when the printer is awaiting human attention.

8. The UP button moves to the previous item in a list, or increases a numerical value.

9. The OK button is used to select the item that is currently highlighted. 10. The Back button is used to return to the previous menu. If you press it repeat-

edly, or hold it down, you return to the main menu. 11. The Down button moves to the next item in a list, or decreases a numerical value.

To highlight an item on the front panel, press the Up or Down button until the item is highlighted.

To select an item on the front panel, first highlight it and then press the OK button.

The four front-panel icons are all found on the main menu. If you need to select or highlight an icon, and you do not see the icons in the front panel, press the Back button until you can see them.

Sometimes this guide shows a series of front panel items like this: Item1 > Item2 > ltem3 . A construction like this indicates that you should select ltem1, select ltem2 , and then select ltem3.

You will find information about specific uses of the front panel throughout this guide.

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions

Refers user to more de- tailed information.

▲

213

■ Model 7–4 ■ Technical description (with definition included): Soil grinder

Learning Portfolio

M-Global uses soil grinders in all of its soil-testing labo- ratories. This technical description provides information regarding the background of the Barri Soil Grinder 500 and its main parts:

• Motor • Hopper • Chute • Sieve

Background A soil grinder is a mechanism that transforms clumpy and hardened soil into soft, particle-sized soil that can be used to test soil compositions. The first grinder was introduced in the late 1800s for agricultural uses. During the industrial revolution the grinder was used in factories, and over time it became a popular piece of equipment used in the soil-testing process. M- Global uses the Barri Soil Grinder 500 for all of its soil samples. Note: The soil grinder will not grind rocks, but rocks will not damage the grinding mechanism.

Motor The motor is mounted on three support legs and rests on a sturdy platform. The base of the motor is made of steel with zinc plating. The main features of the motor include:

• 110V/60Hz electric motor • 1-hp engine • Dustproof stainless steel cover

Hopper The stainless steel hopper, located on the top of the machine, is where the soil is placed for grinding. The model used in M-Global labs can accept several quarts of soil and grind it at 1 pint per second. The hopper in this model is 100 × 110 wide.

Gives formal sentence definition and general information about history and use.

▲

Notes sections that follow. ▲

Note identifies impor- tant information. ▲

Describes purpose of part. ▲

▲

Uses bullets for technical detail.

Chapter 7 Definitions and Descriptions214

■ Model 7–4 ■ continued

Chute The chute, located on the bottom of the machine, is where the soil is deposited after grinding. The chute is attached to the hopper and is made of stainless steel.

Sieve Inside the hopper and chute is the sieve, which is designed to grind and sift the soil into particle-sized pieces that are ready for testing. The sieve consists of stainless steel hammers and mesh screens. The hammers in the grinding chamber work like a mortar and pestle to pulverize the soil.

The level of coarseness or fineness of the soil particles can be adjusted by changing the sieve screens.

The motor is connected to the hopper and chute. A collection pan is placed under the chute. Once ground, soil is ready for testing and analysis.

The assembled grinder measures 270 long, 120 wide, and 170 high.

Uses analogy with mor- tar and pestle to explain operation.

▲

Summarizes purpose of the mechanism.

▲

Includes information about capacity to help reader identify normal use.

▲

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions

In this chapter, students will

■ Learn the similarities and differences between process explanations and instructions

■ Be introduced to guidelines for writing process explanations

■ Learn the ABC format for process explanations

■ Be introduced to guidelines for writing instructions

■ Be introduced to usability testing of instructions

■ Learn the ABC format for instructions

■ Be introduced to point-of-use documentation

■ Read and analyze model process explanations and model instructions

>>> Chapter Objectives

215

Photo © Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions216

M-Global’s Denver office, like other M-Global offices, recently installed an updated elec-tronic mail system. Shortly before the in- stallation date Jenny Vir, Office Services Manager, met

with a representative of the company that would install

the system. To help others who would be using this

new system, Jenny wrote a memo to her boss, Leonard

Schwartz, summarizing the installation process ( Model

8–1 on page 240 ). She also wrote a memo to all employ-

ees, giving them instructions about how to access e-mail

messages in the new system ( Model 8–2 on page 241 ).

This brief M-Global case study demonstrates two

types of technical communication you will often cre-

ate and use: process explanations and instructions.

Although technical communicators are creating a wid-

ening variety of documents, a survey of technical com-

munication managers found that procedural materials

such as manuals and online help remain the most

common and most important documents in the field. 1

Although process explanations and instructions

are similar in organization, they differ in purpose, au-

dience, and format. This Chapter (1) explores these

similarities and differences, with specific reference to

M-Global applications; (2) gives specific guidelines for

developing both types; and (3) provides models to use

in your own writing.

1 K. T. Rainey, R. K. Turner, & D. Dayton. (2005). Do curricula correspond to managerial expectations? Core competencies for technical communicators. Technical Communication , 52 (3), 321–352.

>>> Process Explanations Versus Instructions

In the M-Global example just given, Jenny’s first memo ( Model 8–1 ) explained the pro- cess by which the vendor installed electronic mail. Her second memo ( Model 8–2 ) gave users the directions needed to read e-mail. In other words, you write a process explana- tion to help readers understand what has been, is being, or will be done, whereas you write instructions to show readers how to perform the process themselves.

Process explanations and instructions have an important common bond. Both are types of procedural writing, so they must accurately describe a series of steps leading to- ward a specific result. The first task in all procedural writing is to identify the main steps or stages in the process. One technique to help you identify the steps or stages in a process is to begin at the end, with the final result. Then, ask yourself, what the step or stage immediately preceded the end result? Work your way back through previous steps, identifying each along the way. After you have identified all of the steps, work your way forward through them in order, to make sure that you haven’t left any steps out of the chronology.

Process explanations can describe actions performed by people, by machines, or in nature. They are appropriate when the reader must be informed about the action but does not need to perform it. When you write process explanations, it is important to think about whether the reader is simply seeking to understand the action or if the reader needs to evaluate it. If you suspect a reader may in fact be a user (i.e., someone who uses your document to perform the process), always write instructions. Whereas process explanations are often written as paragraphs, instructions are always written

217 Process Explanations Versus Instructions

as numbered steps. When writing instructions, remember that you are helping your readers accomplish a task that they want to successfully complete. Figure 8–1 pro- vides a list of contrasting features of process explanations and instructions; the two subsections that follow give these features some realism by briefly describing some M-Global contexts.

Process Explanations at M-Global Process explanations provide information for interested readers who do not need instruc- tional details. At times, explaining a process may be the sole purpose of your document, as in Model 8–1 . More often, however, you use process explanation as a section within a document with a larger purpose. The following M-Global examples (1) show the context in which process explanations might appear and (2) reinforce the difference between pro- cess explanations and instructions.

■ Accounting: As an accountant at M-Global’s corporate office, you have just finished auditing the firm’s books. Now you must write a report to the vice president for busi- ness and marketing on the firm’s compliance with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Along with your findings, the vice president wants an overview of the procedure you followed to arrive at your conclusions.

■ Human Resources: As a nurse in M-Global’s Munich branch, you are preparing materials about an upcoming Wellness Fair. The Munich Human Resources office will distribute this information to all employees in the branch. This year, the fair will include an ultrasound test for osteoporosis that will be conducted on-site. To encourage

PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS Purpose: Explain a sequence of steps in such a way that the reader

understands a process Format: Use paragraph descriptions, listed steps, or some combination

of the two Style: Use an objective point of view (“2. The operator starts the engine …”),

as opposed to a command point of view (“2. Start the engine …”)

INSTRUCTIONS Purpose: Describe a sequence of steps in such a way that the reader can

perform the sequence of steps Format: Employ numbered or bulleted lists, organized into subgroups of easily

understandable units of information Style: Use a command point of view (“3. Plug the phone jack into the recorder

unit”), as opposed to an objective point of view (“3. The phone jack is plugged into the recorder unit”)

■ Figure 8–1 ■ Process explanations versus instructions

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions218

employees to take advantage of the test, you write an explanation of the process that emphasizes how quick and easy the test will be.

■ Laboratory work: As lab supervisor at the St. Louis office, you spent all day Saturday in the lab assembling a new gas chromatograph needed to analyze gases. To justify the overtime hours, you write a memo to your manager explaining the assembly process.

■ Welding inspection: As a nondestructive testing (NDT) expert at M-Global’s San Francisco office, you were hired by a California state agency to x-ray all welds at a bridge damaged by an earthquake. The text of your report gives test results; the appendixes explain the procedures you followed.

■ Marketing: As M-Global’s marketing manager, you devised a new procedure for tracking contacts with prospective clients (from first sales call to signing the contract). You must write a memo to M-Global’s two vice presidents for operations, briefly explaining the process. Their approval is needed before the new marketing technique can be introduced at the 16 branch offices.

In each case, you are writing for a reader who wants to know what has happened or will happen, but who does not need to perform the process.

Instructions at M-Global Think of instructions this way: They provide users with a road map to do the procedure, not just understand it—that is, someone must complete a task on the basis of words and pictures you provide. Clearly, instructions present you, the writer, with a much greater challenge and risk than process explanations. The reader must be able to replicate the procedure without error and, most important, with full knowledge of any dangers. The M-Global situations that follow reflect this challenge. Note that they parallel the case studies presented for process explanations.

■ Accounting: As M-Global’s lead accountant for the past 20 years, you have always been responsible for auditing the firm’s books. Because you developed the procedure yourself over many years, there is no comprehensive set of instructions for completing it. Now you want to record the steps so that other company accountants besides you can perform them.

■ Human Resources: As a nurse in M-Global’s Munich branch, you are preparing materials about an upcoming Wellness Fair. The Munich Human Resources office will distribute this information to all employees in the branch. The tests available to employees include cholesterol screening, which requires fasting before the test. You write instructions so that employees who will be having their cholesterol screened will prepare appropriately.

■ Laboratory work: As lab supervisor for M-Global’s St. Louis office, you have assembled one of the two new gas chromatographs just purchased by the company. You are supposed to send the other unit to the Tokyo branch, where it will be put together by Japanese technicians. Unfortunately, the manufacturer’s instructions are

© Junial (Nikolay Mamluke)/Dreamstime.com

219 Guidelines for Process Explanations

poorly written, so you plan to rewrite them for the English-speaking technicians at the Tokyo office.

■ Welding inspection: As M-Global’s NDT expert at the San Francisco office, you have seen a large increase in NDT projects. Given California’s aging bridges and con- stant earthquake activity, you have persuaded your branch manager to hire several NDT technicians. Now you must write a training manual that instructs these new employees on methods for inspecting bridge welds.

■ Marketing: As M-Global’s marketing manager, you have suggested a new approach for tracking sales leads. Having had your proposal approved by the corporate staff, you must now explain the marketing procedure to technical professionals at all 16 offices. Your written set of instructions must be understood by technical experts in many fields and with little if any marketing experience.

In each case, your instructions must explain steps so thoroughly that the reader will be able to replicate the process without having to speak in person with the writer of the instructions. The next two sections give rules for preparing both process explanations and sets of instructions.

>>> Guidelines for Process Explanations You have already learned that process explanations are aimed at persons who must under- stand the process, not perform it. Process explanations often have the following purposes:

■ Describing an experiment

■ Explaining how a machine works

■ Recording steps in developing a new product

■ Describing procedures to ensure compliance with regulations

■ Describing what will happen during a medical procedure

In each case, use the following guidelines to create first-rate process explanations:

>> Process Guideline 1: Know Your Purpose and Your Audience Your intended purpose and expected audience influence every detail of your explanation. Following are some preliminary questions to answer before writing:

■ Are you supposed to give just an overview, or are details needed?

■ Do readers understand the technical subject, or are they laypersons?

■ Do readers have mixed technical backgrounds?

■ Does the process explanation supply supporting information (perhaps in an appendix), or is it the main part of the document?

Process explanations are most challenging when directed to a mixed audience. In this case, write for the lowest common denominator—that is, for your least technical

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions220

readers. It is better to write beneath the level of your most technical readers than to write above the level of your nontechnical readers.

For example, the process explanation in Model 8–3 on page 242 is directed to a mixed audience of city officials—some technical staff and some nontech- nical political officials. It is contained in an appendix to a long M-Global report that recommends immediate cleanup of a toxic waste dump. Note that the writer either uses nontechnical language or defines any tech- nical terms used.

>> Process Guideline 2: Follow the ABC Format

In Chapter 4 , you learned about the ABC format ( A bstract/ B ody/ C onclusion), which applies to all doc- uments. The abstract gives a summary, the body sup- plies details, and the conclusion provides a wrap-up or leads to the next step in the communication process. Whether a process explanation forms all or part of a document, it usually subscribes to the version of the three-part ABC format shown on the left.

Model 8–3 includes all three parts of the ABC format. The abstract opens with a purpose statement that places the explanation in the context of the entire document. The abstract ends with a separate list of equipment or materials.

The body of the process explanation moves logically through the steps of the process. By definition, all process explanations follow a chronological, or step-by-step, pattern of organization. These steps can be conveyed in two ways:

1. Paragraphs: This approach weaves steps of the process into the fabric of typical paragraphs, with appropriate transitions between sentences. Use paragraphs when your readers would prefer a smooth explanation of the entire process, rather than emphasis on individual steps.

2. List of steps: This approach includes a list of steps, usually with numbers or bul- lets. Much as in instructions, a listing emphasizes the individual parts of the process. Readers prefer it when they must refer to specific steps later on.

Both paragraph and list formats have their place in process explanations. In fact, most explanations can be written in either format.

Figure 8–2 compares M-Global examples of both a paragraph and a list explanation for the same process of laying a concrete patio. As a public service gesture, M-Global, Inc., produced a pamphlet that briefly explains simple home improvements and is in- tended to help home owners decide whether to complete renovations themselves or hire a contractor. If home owners are interested in one of the projects, they can find detailed

ABC Format: Process Explanations

■ ABSTRACT: Overview and background

• Purpose statement

• Underlying theory

• Main stages of process

• Definition of terms

• List of materials, equipment, or training needed

• Context in which process is found

■ BODY: Stages of the process

• Parallel structure emphasizes related steps

• Definitions, descriptions of materials, length of time are included in each step

• Progress is clearly identified throughout the ex- planation

■ CONCLUSION: Result of the process • Significance of the process

• Successful outcome

221 Guidelines for Process Explanations

instructions at the URL listed in the pamphlet. Building a concrete patio is one project covered; the process explanation contains a subsection about constructing the wooden form into which concrete is poured.

The conclusion of a process explanation keeps the process from ending abruptly with the last step. Here you should help the reader put the steps together into a coherent whole. When the process explanation is part of a larger document, you can show how the process fits into a larger context, as in Model 8–3 .

>> Process Guideline 3: Use an Objective Point of View Process explanations describe a process rather than direct how it is to be done. Therefore they are written from an objective point of view—not from the personal you or command point of view common to instructions. Process explanations use third-person terms like the user or the operator, or they use the passive voice. (For more on appropriate use of the passive voice, see Chapter 17 .) Note the difference in these examples:

Process: The concrete is poured into the two-by-four frame.

or

The technician pours the concrete into the two-by-four frame.

Instructions: Pour the concrete into the two-by-four frame.

The process excerpts explain the steps, whereas the instructions excerpt gives a command for completing the activity.

A. PARAGRAPH OPTION The home owner should select rough-grade 2 × 4s for building the wooden form for the patio. The form is just a box, with an open top and with the ground for the bottom, into which concrete will be poured. First, the four sides are nailed together, and then the form is leveled with a standard carpenter’s level. Finally, 2 × 4 stakes are driven into the ground about every 2 or 3 feet on the outside of the form to keep it in place during the pouring of the concrete.

B. LIST OPTION Building a wooden form for a home concrete patio can be accomplished with some rough-grade 2 × 4s. This form is just a box with an open top and the ground for the bottom. Building involves three basic steps:

1. Nailing 2 × 4s into the intended shape of the patio 2. Leveling the box-shaped form with a standard carpenter’s level 3. Driving stakes (made from 2 × 4 lumber) into the ground every 2 or 3 feet at the

outside edge of the form to keep it in place during the pouring of the concrete

■ Figure 8–2 ■ Two options for process explanation

Steps of process are em- bedded in paragraph.

After brief lead-in, steps of process are placed in list format.

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions222

>> Process Guideline 4: Choose the Right Amount of Detail Only a thorough audience analysis will tell you how much detail to include. Model 8–3 (p. 242 ), for example, could contain much more technical detail about the substeps for testing air quality at the site; however, the writer decided that the city officials would not need more scientific and technical detail.

In supplying specifics, be sure to subdivide complex information for easy reading. In paragraph format, headings and subheadings can be used to make the process easier to grasp. In list format, an outline arrangement of points and subpoints may be appropriate. When such detail is necessary, remember this general rule of thumb: Place related steps in groups of from three to seven points. Readers find several groupings with subpoints easier to re- member than one long list. Following are two rough outlines for a process explanation that was created to encourage consistency in the hiring process at all M-Global branches. The second is preferred because it groups the many steps into three easily grasped categories.

Employment Interview Process 1. Interviewer reviews job description.

2. Interviewer analyzes candidate’s application.

3. Candidate and interviewer engage in “small talk.”

4. Interviewer asks open-ended questions related to candidate’s résumé and completed application form.

5. Interviewer expands topic to include matters of personal interest and the candidate’s long-term career plans.

6. Interviewer provides candidate with information about the position (salary, benefits, location, etc.).

7. Candidate is encouraged to ask questions about the position.

8. Interviewer asks candidate about her or his general interest, at this point, in the position.

9. Interviewer informs candidate about next step in hiring process.

Employment Interview Process ■ Preinterview Phase

1. Interviewer reviews job description.

2. Interviewer analyzes candidate’s application.

■ Interview

3. Candidate and interviewer engage in “small talk.”

4. Interviewer asks open-ended questions related to candidate’s résumé and completed application form.

5. Interviewer expands topic to include matters of personal interest and the can- didate’s long-term career plans.

6. Interviewer provides candidate with information about the position (salary, benefits, location, etc.).

7. Candidate is encouraged to ask questions about the position.

223 Guidelines for Instructions

■ Closure

8. Interviewer asks candidate about his or her general interest, at this point, in the position.

9. Interviewer informs candidate about next step in hiring process.

>> Process Guideline 5: Use Scripts and Flowcharts for Complex Processes

When processes include steps or stages that must be performed by different people or different machines, as in a manufacturing process, one way to clearly out- line the steps is to use a script format like the one in Figure 8–3 . This script follows a format recommended by the Food and Drug Adminis- tration for standard operating procedures (SOPs). Notice that each step, including sub- steps, is assigned to a different person or team. SOPs like these are used in industry to ensure compliance with best practices and with state and federal regulations.

Some process explanations contain steps that are occurring at the same time. In this case, you may want to supplement a paragraph or list explanation with a flowchart. Such charts use boxes, circles, and other geometric shapes to show progression and relationships among vari- ous steps. Model 8–4 on page 243 , for example, shows a flowchart and an accompanying process explanation at M-Global. Both denote services that M-Global’s Lon- don branch provides for oil companies in the North Sea. The chart helps to demonstrate that the geophysical study (mapping by sonar equipment) and the engineer- ing study (securing and testing of seafloor samples) take place at the same time. Such simultaneous steps are dif- ficult to show in a list of sequential steps.

>>> Guidelines for Instructions Rules change considerably from process explanations to instructions. Although both pat- terns are organized by time, the similarity stops there. Instructions walk readers through the process so that they can do it, not just understand it. It is one thing to explain the process by which a word-processing program works; it is quite another to write a set of instructions for using that word-processing program. This section explores the challenge of writing instructions by giving you some basic writing and design guidelines.

These guidelines for instructions also apply to complete operating manuals, a docu- ment type that many technical professionals will help to write during their careers. Those manuals include the instructions themselves, as well as related information such as (1) features, (2) physical parts, and (3) troubleshooting tips. In other words, manuals are complete documents, whereas instructions can be part of a larger piece.

Process Guidelines ■ Know your purpose and your audience

■ Follow the ABC format

■ Use an objective point of view

■ Choose the right amount of detail

■ Use scripts and flowcharts for complex processes

Branislav Senic/Shutterstock

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions224

Step Action

1 Study Statistician creates, reviews, revises, and approves the ISS/ISE shell

A. Produce the list of tables for the ISS/ISE and construct the ISS/ISE shell format to meet regulatory reporting/submission guidelines.

B. Review the ISS/ISE shell with members of the clinical study team. C. After consultation with the appropriate clinical study team members,

revise the ISS/ISE shell in line with review comments, as appropriate. D. Sign off and approve the ISS/ISE shell.

2 Programmer creates and develops analysis programs in required FDA format

A. Create, test, and release new programs for the ISS/ISE reporting format.

B. Run analysis programs to produce relevant results in shell format. C. Review the results and identify and address any potential issues

identified in the program. D. Finalize and update ISS/ISE shell if adjustments to the programming

are required.

3 Clinical Study Team collects the relevant information and the results of the analyses are complied in the applicable study report

A. Provide information on safety and efficacy findings, or changes to the shell, where required.

B. Provide feedback to programmer and statistician, if applicable.

4 Local QA reviews the ISS/ISE A. Perform quality controls to ensure compliance with the ICH eCTD,

relevant company documentation, and the SOP.

■ Figure 8–3 ■ Standard operating procedures (SOPs) in script format Source: https://cabig.nci.nih.gov/…SOPs/CR012_SOP_Study_Reports.pdf.

Procedure Description

SUBJECT: Data Operations for ISS & ISE SOP No.: CR-012 Study Reporting under the caBIG™ Version No.: 1.0 Program Effective Date: 12/11/2006 Page 1 of 1 Pages

225 Guidelines for Instructions

>> Instructions Guideline 1: Select the Correct Technical Level This guideline is just another way of saying you must know exactly who will read your instructions. Are your readers technicians, engineers, managers, general users, or some combination of these groups? Once you answer this question, select language that every reader can understand. If, for example, the instructions include technical terms or names of objects that may not be understood, use the techniques of definition and description discussed in Chapter 7 .

>> Instructions Guideline 2: Follow the ABC Format

Like process explanations, instructions follow the ABC format ( A bstract/ B ody/ C onclusion) described in Chapter 4 . The introduction (or abstract) should provide all of the information needed to successfully perform the instructions. It may include background information such as definitions, or tips. The body in- cludes clearly numbered steps, as well as helpful illus- trations and warnings. The conclusion should identify the successful result of following the instructions. It may emphasize the importance of following the in- structions exactly.

>> Instructions Guideline 3: Use Numbered Lists in the Body

A simple format is crucial to the body of the instruc- tions—that is, the steps themselves. Most users con- stantly go back and forth between these steps and the project to which they apply. Thus you should avoid paragraph format and instead use a simple numbering system. Model 8–5 on pages 244–245 shows a “before and after” example. The original version is written in paragraphs that are difficult to follow; the revised ver- sion includes nine separate numbered steps.

>> Instructions Guideline 4: Group Steps Under Task Headings Readers prefer that you group together related steps under headings, rather than present an uninterrupted “laundry list” of steps. Model 8–6 on pages 246–248 shows how this technique has been used in a fairly long set of instructions for operating a scanner. Given the number of steps in this case, the writer has used a separate numbering system within each grouping.

Groupings provide two main benefits. First, they divide fragmented information into manageable chunks that readers find easier to read. Second, they give readers a sense of accomplishment as they complete each task, on the way to finishing the whole activity.

ABC Format: Instructions ■ ABSTRACT: Background information necessary

for completing the task

• Purpose statement, including result of the opera- tion

• List of the main stages of the operation

• List of tools and materials

• List of special preparations needed, such as preparation of the work area

• Cautions and warnings that apply to the whole operation

■ BODY: Stages of the operation • Clearly numbered steps

• Steps grouped for clarity

• Illustrations referenced in text

• Cautions and warnings for individual steps

• Comments about outcomes of individual steps

• Tips for troubleshooting

■ CONCLUSION: Explanation of successful outcome of the operation • Results of successful completion of the operation

• Summary of main steps

• Importance of the operation

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions226

>> Instructions Guideline 5: Place Only One Action in Each Step A common error is to bury several actions in a single step. This approach can confuse and irritate readers. Instead, break up complex steps into discrete units, as shown next:

■ Original:

Step 3: Fill in your name and address on the coupon, send it to the manufacturer within two weeks, return to the retail merchant when your letter of ap- proval arrives from the manufacturer, and pick up your free toaster oven.

■ Revision:

Step 3: Fill in your name and address on the coupon.

Step 4: Send the coupon to the manufacturer within two weeks.

Step 5: Show your retail merchant the letter of approval after it arrives from the manufacturer.

Step 6: Pick up your free toaster oven.

>> Instructions Guideline 6: Lead Off Each Action Step With a Verb Instructions should include the command form of a verb at the start of each step. This style best conveys a sense of action to your readers. Models 8–5 and 8-6 on pages 244–248 use command verbs consistently for all steps throughout the procedures.

>> Instructions Guideline 7: Remove Extra Information From the Step Sometimes you may want to follow the command sentence with an explanatory sentence or two. In this case, distinguish such helpful information from actions by giving it a label, such as Note or Result (e.g., see Model 8–2 , page 241 ).

>> Instructions Guideline 8: Use Bullets or Letters for Emphasis Sometimes you may need to highlight information, especially within a particular step. Avoid using numbers for this purpose, because you are already using them to signify steps. Bullets work best if there are just a few items; letters are best if there are many, especially if they are in a sequence. The revised version in Model 8–5 shows the appropri- ate use of letters, and Model 8–6 shows the use of letters and bullets.

In particular, consider using bullets at any point at which users have an option as to how to respond. The following example uses bullets in this way; it also eliminates the problem of too many actions being embedded in one step.

Part of Procedure for Firing Clay in a Kiln

(Note: A pyrometric cone is a piece of test clay used in a kiln, an oven for baking pot- tery. The melting of the small cone helps the operator determine that the clay piece has completed the firing process.)

■ Original

Step 6: Check the cone frequently as the kiln reaches its maximum temperature of 1850°F. If the cone retains its shape, continue firing the clay and checking the cone frequently. When the cone begins to bend, turn off the kiln. Then let the kiln cool overnight before opening it and removing the pottery.

227 Guidelines for Instructions

■ Revision

Step 6: Check the cone frequently as the kiln reaches its maximum temperature of 1850°F.

Step 7: Has the cone started to bend?

■ If no , continue firing the piece of pottery and checking the cone fre- quently to see if it has bent.

■ If yes , turn off the kiln.

Step 8: Let the kiln cool overnight after turning it off.

Step 9: Open the kiln and remove the pottery.

>> Instructions Guideline 9: Emphasize Cautions, Warnings, and Danger

Instructions often require alerts that draw attention to risks in using products and equip- ment. Your most important obligation is to highlight such information. Unfortunately, professional associations and individual companies may differ in the way they use and de- fine terms associated with risk, so you should make sure that the alerts in your document follow the appropriate guidelines. You must be certain to use language or graphics your reader understands. If you have no specific guidelines, however, the following definitions can serve as “red flags” to the reader. The level of risk increases as you move from 1 to 3:

1. Caution: Possibility of damage to equipment or materials

2. Warning: Possibility of injury to people

3. Danger: Probability of injury or death to people

If you are not certain that these distinctions will be understood by your readers, define the terms caution, warning, and danger in a prominent place before you begin your instructions.

As for placement of the actual cautions, warnings, or danger messages, your options are as follows:

■ Option 1: In a separate section, right before the instructions begin . This approach is most appropriate when you have a list of general warnings that apply to much of the proce- dure or when one special warning should be heeded throughout the instructions—for example: “WARNING: Keep main breaker on off during entire installation proce- dure.” Figure 8–4 shows both kinds of warnings. The first warning appears at the beginning of a manual for a portable table saw. The manual also includes warnings placed before and after each set of instructions.

■ Option 2: In the text of the instructions . This approach works best if the caution, warn- ing, or danger message applies to the step that immediately follows it. Thus users are warned about a problem before they read the step to which it applies ( Figure 8–5 ).

■ Option 3: Repeatedly throughout the instructions . This strategy is preferable with instructions that repeatedly pose risk to the user. For example, Steps 4, 9, 12A, and 22—appearing on several different pages—may all include the hazard of fatal electrical shock. Your danger notice should appear in each step, as well as in the introduction to the document.

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions228

F

H

F

G

A

B

CD

Read all instructions. Failure to follow all instructions listed

below may result in electric shock, fire, or

serious injury.

INSTALLING THE SWITCH DISCONNECT MACHINE FROM POWER SOURCE.

1. Place switch (A) Fig. 11 , behind the lip

of extension wing (B). Insert M8x30 hex

head screw (C) through wing and then

switch support. Place an M8 flat washer

and an M8 lock washer on the screw.

Thread an M8 hex nut (D) onto screw and

tighten nut securely.

2. Insert switch cord with female end

through hole (F) Fig. 12 in upper left cor-

ner of the saw. Open motor cover and

route the switch cord (F) Fig. 13 behind

the cord guard (G) and then plug into

motor cord (H), as shown in Fig. 13 .

3. Make sure the slack is pulled down and

rests on the dust chute as shown

in Fig. 13 .

MAKE SURE CORD DOES

NOT COME IN CONTACT WITH BLADE,

BELT OR PULLEYS

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

■ Figure 8–4 ■ Example of safety “warning” Source: Courtesy of Delta International Machinery Co.

229

Give information about potential risks before the operator has the chance to make the mistake. Also, the caution, warning, or danger message can be made visually prominent by using one of the following techniques:

Underlining: Warning

Bold: Warning

Full Caps: WARNING

Italics: Warning

Oversized Print: Warning Boxing: Warning

Color: Warning

Combined Methods: Warning

WARNING

WARNING

Color graphics are another effective indicator of risk. You have probably seen ex- amples such as the ones in Figure 8–6 .

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) established international standards for safety alerts in ISO 3864, and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established domestic standards for safety alerts in ANSI Z535. If the organization you work for complies with ISO or ANSI, you should make sure that you are using the most recent version of the appropriate standards to reinforce the message in your text about cautions, warnings, and dangers.

Clearing User Data CAUTION: This deletes all user- entered information.

3. Touch Yes to clear all user data. All original settings are restored. Any items that you have saved are erased.

■ Figure 8–5 ■ Example of a “caution” in a step Source: Copyright 2011 Garmin Ltd or its subsidiaries. All Rights Reserved.

Guidelines for Instructions

■ Figure 8–6 ■ Warning icons

Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions230

>> Instructions Guideline 10: Keep a Simple Style Perhaps more than any other type of technical communication, instructions must be easy to read. Readers expect a no-nonsense approach to writing that gives them required in- formation without fanfare. Following are some useful techniques:

■ Keep sentences short, with an average length of fewer than 10 words.

■ Use informal definitions (parenthetical, like this one) to define any terms not under- stood by all readers.

■ Never use a long word when a short one will do.

■ Be specific and avoid words with inexact interpretations ( frequently, seldom, occasion- ally, etc.).

>> Instructions Guideline 11: Use Graphics Illustrations are essential for instructions that involve equipment. Place an illustration next to every major step when (1) the instructions or equipment is quite complicated or (2) the audience may be global, to avoid the cost of translating documents into multiple languages. Such word–picture associations create a page design that is easy to follow.

In other cases, just one or two diagrams may suffice for the entire set of instructions. The one reference illustration in Model 8–6 (pp. 246–248 ) helps the user of a scanner locate parts mentioned throughout the instructions.

Another useful graphic in instructions is the table. Sometimes within a step you must show correspondence between related data. For example, the instructions that follow would benefit from a table:

■ Original

Step 3: Use pyrometric cones to determine when a kiln has reached the proper temperature to fire pottery. Common cone ratings are as follows: a Cone 018 corresponds to 1200°F; a Cone 07 corresponds to 1814°F; a Cone 06 corresponds to 1859°F; and a Cone 04 corresponds to 1940°F.

■ Revision

Step 3: Use pyrometric cones to determine when a kiln has reached the proper tem- perature for firing pottery. Common cone ratings are as follows:

Cone 018 1200°F Cone 07 1814°F Cone 06 1859°F Cone 04 1940°F

Usability Testing of Instructions Testing instructions for usability ensures that your users are able to follow them easily. More information about usability and Web sites can be found in Chapter 14 , but

Instructions Guidelines

■ Select the correct technical level

■ Follow the ABC format

■ Use numbered lists in the body

■ Group steps under task headings

■ Place only one action in each step

■ Lead off each action step with a verb

■ Remove extra information from the step

■ Use bullets or letters for emphasis

■ Emphasize cautions, warnings, and danger

■ Keep a simple style

231 Guidelines for Instructions

understanding some of the basics of designing for usability will help you create effective in- structions. 2 When you design for usability, you should be focused primarily on the user, not the product itself. This is true whether you are designing a document, software, a computer interface, or a piece of machinery. Products that are usable have the following qualities:

■ Learning them is easy. ■ Operating them requires the minimum number of steps. ■ Remembering how to use them is easy. ■ Using them satisfies the user’s goals.

Usability does not happen automatically but should be a concern from the earliest stages of the design of products and documentation.

Professional writers often test their instructions on potential users before completing the final draft. The most sophisticated technique for such testing involves a usability labo- ratory, where test subjects are asked to use the instructions or manual to perform the pro- cess, often while speaking aloud their observations and frustrations (if any). The writers or lab personnel unobtrusively observe the process from behind a one-way mirror. Later, they may review audio- or videotaped observations of the test subjects, or they may in- terview these persons. This complex process helps writers anticipate and then eliminate many of the problems that users confront when they follow written instructions.

Of course, you may not have access to a usability laboratory to test your instructions. However, you can adapt the following user-based approach to testing assignments in this class and projects in your career. Specifically, follow these four steps:

1. Team up with another class member (or a colleague on the job). This person should be unfamiliar with the process and should approximate the technical level of your in- tended audience.

2. Give this person a draft of your instructions and provide any equipment or materials necessary to complete the process. For the purposes of a class assignment, this ap- proach works only for a simple process with little equipment or few materials.

3. Observe your colleague following the instructions you provide. You should record both your observations and any responses this person makes while moving through the steps.

4. Revise your instructions to solve problems your user encountered during the test.

Point-of-Use Instructions While it is common to think of instructions as a booklet or sheet of paper with steps, instructions are also created in formats that provide users the information that they need when and where they need it. These point-of-use instructions can come in the form of pop- ups on a computer screen, computer help files, quick-start guides, and posters or decals.

■ Pop-ups. Many software programs include pop-up boxes of text that explain elements on the computer screen. They may offer users alternatives for an operation, such as keystrokes for formatting text, or they may guess what you are trying to do and offer suggestions. The most notorious of these was Microsoft Word’s Clippy the Paperclip.

2 Adapted from C. M. Barnum. (2002). Usability testing and research. New York, NY: Longman.

232 Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions

■ Figure 8–7 ■ Quick-start guide Source: Courtesy of Tacony Corporation, Fenton, MO.

Newer versions of Microsoft Word no longer use Clippy; many users complained that it took too much time to load, and that it appeared whether users wanted the help or not. Today, most pop-up boxes consist of short text explanations, although some include links to Web sites or to further information stored in Help files.

■ Help files. Help files can be considered a sort of user’s guide, and some companies have started making user’s guides available only in this format. However, because users turn

233 Guidelines for Instructions

to help files to solve specific problems, they are written a bit dif- ferently than full-length user’s guides. Each topic is designed to be self-contained, although topics may include links to additional infor- mation in other topics in the Help file. (For more information about writing modular documents like Help files, see Chapters 3 and 4 .)

■ Quick-start guides. Many manufacturers include a quick-start guide, in addition to a longer owner’s manual. Quick-start guides are usually a single large card. Sometimes they are designed to be posted where the equipment or appliance is used. Figure 8–7 is a quick-start guide for a vacuum cleaner.

■ Posters and decals. Instructions may also be made available as posters or decals. For example, a microwave with programs for operations like making popcorn or reheating beverages may include a guide above the controls or inside the door. Most gaso- line pumps have a decal nearby with instructions and warnings for properly filling your car. Many restaurants have posters in the kitchen with information about food safety or performing the Heimlich maneu- ver. These instructions are designed to serve as references and reminders at the point where they will be needed.

>>> Chapter Summary ■ Process explanations and instructions are procedural writing, so they both use chronologi-

cal organization. ■ Readers use process explanations to understand or evaluate a procedure. ■ Process explanations use the objective point of view, characterized by third-person

subjects or passive voice. ■ Process explanations are usually written in paragraph form. ■ Scripts and flowcharts can help readers visualize complex processes. ■ The ABC format can help writers organize process explanations. ■ Readers use instructions to help them perform a task. ■ Instructions should be written with language and detail that are appropriate to the

reader’s level of expertise. ■ Instructions use the command point of view, characterized by the imperative mood of

the verb. ■ Instructions are written in numbered steps. Steps may be grouped to make complex

instructions easier to follow. ■ Cautions, warnings, and danger information should be clearly displayed. ■ Instructions should be tested for their usability. ■ The text of instructions should include clear references to illustrations. ■ The ABC format for instructions can help writers organize instructions. ■ Point-of-use documentation provides instructions when and where users need them.

Pho tod

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Chapter 8 Process Explanations and Instructions

Recently M-Global’s Atlanta office decided to change its

approach to charitable giving at the branch. Instead of

supporting various regional charities, employees could

participate in a local project of their own—converting an

abandoned building into a homeless shelter called Home of

Hope. The idea seemed to be a creative way to make a per-

sonal contribution to the community. This case study de-

scribes the stages of the project. It ends with questions and

comments for discussion followed by an assignment for a

written response to the Challenge.

Project Planning The process of making Home of Hope a reality began at M-

Global–Atlanta’s annual employee meeting last year. The

human resources manager suggested that the office try a

new approach to annual giving, and the office supervi-

sors agreed to investigate. Eventually, the office decided

to purchase an abandoned brick building on an acre lot in

downtown Atlanta, in an area where homeless people often

congregated.

M-Global conducted a preliminary study of the land

and building, calculating that the project would cost

about $150,000. Management developed a formula by

which the company would pay a 20 percent mortgage

down payment from its savings and carry the monthly

mortgage note. Then over a one-year period, the em-

ployees—through their annual financial contributions

and personal labor—would renovate the house and add

landscaping. The managers developed a suggested slid-

ing scale for what money employees should contribute,

based on their salaries. Managers and supervisors were

also asked to meet individually with each employee to en-

courage contributions.

Once M-Global bought the land, the firm began ben-

efiting from excellent publicity on local radio and in the

papers. The media championed this effort by an Atlanta

employer.

Site Problems It appeared that nothing could go wrong—but something

did. Ironically, considering that M-Global does environ-

mental work, the firm found an environmental problem

with the land that had not been detected before purchase.

Apparently, part of the site had been used as a dump-

ing ground for old car batteries and for chemicals from a

nearby dry cleaners. Both the batteries and a large portion

of soil would have to be removed, adding $15,000 to the

cost of the project.

Just as bad were the environmental surprises in the

building itself. The company found some asbestos and lead

paint that had not been detected before purchase. Removal

would cost about $5,000. The increase in the total project

cost irritated many employees, some of whom had been

skeptical about the project from the start.

Employee Involvement What did seem to go well were the weekend work groups

that the company set up for the coming year. A group of 5 to

10 employees worked a half day on each Saturday, meaning

that most employees would end up working three or four

Saturdays during the entire year-long project. Employees

were strongly encouraged to participate, and about 85 per-

cent of them signed up for the groups.

As noted previously, through meetings with managers

and other means, employees were encouraged to contribute

the amount suggested on the sliding scale. About 75 per-

cent agreed to the amount suggested, 10 percent pledged

more, 10 percent pledged less, and 5 percent pledged noth-

ing. Pledges were drawn from paychecks over the one-year

period.

Community Involvement Once the lot was purchased and the renovation designed,

M-Global worked with groups in the surrounding commu-

nity, making sure that local people were informed about the

project. One home owners’ group from this working-class

neighborhood raised questions about the project attracting

even more homeless people to the area. The group worried

that the possibility of increasing crime would lower the

value of their homes. M-Global decided that an open com-

munity meeting was in order.

At the meeting at a local school, M-Global produced

speakers who suggested that the home would actually help

decrease crime by giving shelter, meals, and activities to

people who otherwise would be vagrants. Although the an-

swers seemed to satisfy many, M-Global officials were on

the defensive and wished they had done more networking

with local residents.

>>> Learning Portfolio

Communication Challenge M-Global’s Home of Hope: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly?

234

Learning Portfolio 235

Final Preparations Once the home and yard were finished, M-Global hired two

permanent staff members and set up a group of volunteers

from the community. Retired people were especially active

as volunteers. The company also asked for, and received, an

ongoing commitment of $17,000 a year from the city to pay

half the salary of the Home of Hope director.

With these details handled, the home took in its first 25

residents several months ago. M-Global arranged for media

coverage of the opening celebration, inviting a diverse

group of community leaders. Of course, the company also

made sure the event was covered in the M-Global corporate

newsletter and by EnviroNews, a national news magazine in

engineering and science.

Questions and Comments for Discussion

1. The M-Global corporate managers have expressed

interest in the charity model developed by the Atlanta

office. Specifically, they want the Atlanta human re-

sources director to write a process explanation for the

Home of Hope project. The explanation will be re-

viewed by all M-Global branch managers. What major

points should be included in this process explanation?

How should it differ from the way information is pre-

sented in the case just described?

2. Assume M-Global’s corporate office has actually ad-

opted a community-based charity option such as that

reflected by the Home of Hope project. Now it wants

to provide project instructions for other urban offices

that may want to build shelters. What major points

should be emphasized in the instructions and in what

order? What particular problems did the Atlanta office

encounter, and how can the instructions be written

to help other offices avoid such problems? In other

words, how should the ideal set of instructions differ

from the actual process that was performed?

3. Answer these questions first with regard to M-Global

employees and second with regard to the community

surrounding Home of Hope. What tactical mistakes, if

any, were made by M-Global management in the pro-

cess of promoting, communicating, and running this

project? How could the problems have been avoided?

4. Are there any ethical problems revealed in the process

explained in this case? Specifically, how do you feel

about the manner by which employees are encouraged

to contribute to such causes?

5. Several large charity groups were disturbed that M-

Global dropped them and instead involved employees

in the Home of Hope. Give what you think would

be the charities’ point of view about the process ex-

plained in this case.

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